Introduction
1. Walter Sullivan, Assault on the Unknown (New York: McGraw Hill, 1961), 140–41; Walter Sullivan, “News of Atom Test Took 2 Years To Reach Island 60 Miles Away,” New York Times, October 31, 1960.
Chapter 1
1. Abigail Foerstner, James Van Allen: The First Eight Billion Miles (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2007), 144.
2. Sharon Weinberger, The Imagineers of War: The Untold Story of DARPA, the Pentagon Agency That Changed the World (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2017), 32–3.
3. Paul Dickson, Sputnik: The Shock of the Century (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001), 137.
4. Herbert York, Making Weapons, Talking Peace (New York: Basic Books, 1987), 101.
5. Dickson, Sputnik, 146.
6. Quoted in Evan Thomas, Ike’s Bluff: President Eisenhower’s Secret Battle to Save the World (New York: Little, Brown, 2012), 280.
7. York, Making Weapons, 131.
8. U.S. Department of Energy, Briefing to Admiral Arleigh Burke, Chief of Naval Operations, The Argus Experiment, July 29, 1958, DOE OpenNet (https://www.osti.gov/opennet), NV0059492.
9. Frank H. Shelton, Reflections of a Physicist: Project Argus (Colorado Springs, CO: Shelton Enterprises, 2000) 17, slide 58.
Chapter 2
1. Elisheva R. Coleman, Samuel A. Cohen, Michael S. Mahoney, “Greek Fire: Nicholas Christofilos and the Astron Project in America’s Early Fusion Program,” Journal of Fusion Energy 30, no. 3 (April 2011), 241, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10894-011-9392-5
2. This correspondence seems to be the origin of this particular sobriquet, which would subsequently come to be inextricably linked with Christofilos, at first only in private and professional circles and then finally by the public and press at large. There is no record that Christofilos ever seemed to mind.
3. Edward Teller, Biography of Nicholas C. Christofilos, April 8, 1959, Nicholas C. Christofilos Papers, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Archives.
4. Somehow, the usually impeccable Physical Review copyeditors overlooked the misspelling of “synchrotron” in the title of the paper, though the word is correctly spelled in the text.
5. Robert P. Crease, Making Physics: A Biography of Brookhaven National Laboratory, 1946–1972 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 219.
6. Quoted in Crease, 220.
7. Coleman et al., 241.
8. York, Making Weapons, 130.
Chapter 3
1. The capitalization styles for code names of nuclear test series and shots in the primary literature vary greatly among different agencies, departments, and time periods. For consistency’s sake in this book, except for those contained in direct quotations, only the names of test series (e.g., DOMINIC) are fully capitalized, while individual shots (e.g., Starfish) are not. The one exception is Argus, which is the only US test series that did not name individual shots.
2. Defense Threat Nuclear Agency, U.S. Department of Defense, Defense’s Nuclear Agency, 1947–1997 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2002), 137.3. York, Making Weapons, 131.
3. York, Making Weapons, 131.
4. Defense’s Nuclear Agency, 137.
5. James R. Killian, Jr., Sputnik, Scientists, and Eisenhower: A Memoir of the First Special Assistant to the President for Science and Technology (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1977), 187–88.
6. Foerstner, 193.
7. Ibid., 180.
8. George H. Ludwig, Opening Space Research: Dreams, Technology, and Scientific Discovery (Washington, D.C.: American Geophyiscal Union, 2011), 362.
9. James A. Van Allen, “Energetic Particles in the Earth’s Magnetic Field,” in Discovery of the Magnetosphere, ed. C. Stewart Gillmor and John R. Spreiter (Washington, D.C.: American Geophyiscal Union, 1997), 240.
10. Ludwig, Opening Space, 365.
11. Van Allen, “Energetic Particles,” 243.
12. Ibid., 243.
13. Ibid., 244.
14. Foerstner, 190.
15. Ibid. 191.
Chapter 4
1. Defense Nuclear Agency, U.S. Department of Defense, United States Atmospheric Nuclear Weapons Tests, Nuclear Test Personnel Review, Operation Argus 1958 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 30 April 1982), DNA 6039F, 18. (Henceforth DNA report)
2. Lisa M. Mundey, “The Civilianization of a Nuclear Weapon Effects Test: Operation ARGUS,” Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences, vol. 42, no. 4 (2012), 298.
3. Ibid., 295.
4. DNA report, 18.
5. York, Making Weapons, 117.
6. Dr. James R. Killian, Jr., “Report of NSC Ad Hoc Working Group On the Technical Feasibility of a Cessation of Nuclear Testing,” March 27, 1958, 7, The National Security Archive, Washington, D.C.
7. York, Making Weapons, 149.
8. Transcript, The Reminiscences of Vice Admiral Lloyd M. Mustin, U.S. Navy (Retired), Volume II, interviewed by John T. Mason, Jr., August 28, 1974; September 4, 1974; October 23, 1974; October 30, 1974; December 18, 1974; January 15, 1975 (Annapolis, MD: U.S. Naval Institute, 2003), 1200.
9. Transcript, Lloyd M. Mustin interview, September 22, 1980, 15, DOE OpenNet (https://www.osti.gov/opennet), NV0068994.
10. DNA report, 25.
11. Ibid.
12. Mustin, Reminiscences, 1215–6.
13. Ibid., 1212.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid., 1207.
16. Ibid., 1205.
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid., 1206–7.
Chapter 5
1. Defense Nuclear Agency, U.S. Department of Defense, United States Atmospheric Nuclear Weapons Tests, Nuclear Test Personnel Review, Operation Hardtack I 1958 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1 December 1982), DNA 6038F, 259.
2. Defense’s Nuclear Agency, 140.
3. James Rodger Fleming, “Iowa Enters the Space Age: James Van Allen, Earth’s Radiation Belts, and Experiments to Disrupt Them,” The Annals of Iowa 70 (Fall 2011), 314.
4. Defense’s Nuclear Agency, 140.
5. Operation Hardtack I 1958, 257–73.
6. Defense’s Nuclear Agency, 142–3.
7. Ludwig, 370.
8. Mustin, Reminiscences, 1217.
9. Ludwig, 369–70.
10. Richard S. “Dick” Culp, telephone interview with author, August 2, 2016.
11. Frank Shelton, “Reflections of a Physicist, 67.
12. Keith Mayfield, email interview with author, September 14, 2016.
13. Mustin, Reminiscences, 1210.
14. Mayfield, ibid.
15. Shelton, 65.
16. Mustin, Reminiscences, 1213.
17. McMaster email interview, September 17, 2016.
18. Culp interview.
Chapter 6
1. Mustin 1980 interview, 9.
2. Mustin, Reminiscences, 1218.
3. Ibid.
4. U.S. Defense Atomic Support Agency, L.M. Mustin, RADM, USN, Operation ARGUS: Report of the Commander, Task Force 88, March 31, 1960, DOE OpenNet (https://www.osti.gov/opennet), 23. (NV0133192)
5. Mustin, Reminiscences, 1217.
6. Ibid., 1220.
7. Ibid., 1209–10.
8. Ibid. 1223.
9. Ibid., 1208.
10. Operation ARGUS: Report of the Commander, Task Force 88 (NV 0133192) 36.
11. Culp interview.
12. Mustin 1980 interview, 21.
13. Mustin, Reminiscences, 1221.
14. Culp interview.
Chapter 7
1. Operation ARGUS: Report of the Commander, Task Force 88 (NV0133192)
2. DNA report, 63.
3. Martin Walt, “From Nuclear Physics to Space Physics by Way of High Altitude Nuclear Tests,” in Discovery of the Magnetosphere, ed. C. Stewart Gillmor and John R. Spreiter (Washington, D.C.: American Geophyiscal Union, 1997), 255.
4. James A. Van Allen, Carl E. McIlwain, and George Ludwig, “Satellite Observations of Electrons Artificially Injected Into the Geomagnetic Field,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 45, 1959, 1157, 1159.
5. DNA report, 63.
6. Mustin, Reminiscences, 1223.
7. U.S. Department of Energy, Argus Event Message Traffic (Aug.–Sept. 1958), December 31, 1958, 19, NV0069040.
8. Mustin, Reminiscences, 1223.
9. Ibid., 1224.
10. Ibid.
11. Walt, 256.
12. Mustin, 1224.
13. Defense’s Nuclear Agency, 143.
14. Ludwig, 383.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid.
17. Quoted in U.S. Library of Congress, Aerospace Technology Division, Surveys of Foreign Scientific and Technical Literature, Modification of the Ionosphere, (Washington, D.C: Library of Congress, 30 Deember 1968), 45–6.
18. Ludwig, 384.
19. Modification of the Ionosphere, 46.
20. Ludwig, 384.
21. Modification of the Ionosphere, 46.
Chapter 8
1. U.S. Department of Energy, Argus Event Message Traffic (Aug.–Sept. 1958), December 31, 1958, NV0069040. 32.
2. Interview with author.
3. Interview with author.
4. Quoted in Philip Newman, “Optical, Electromagnetic, and Satellite Observations of High Altitude Nuclear Detonations,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 45, 1959, 1214.
5. Operation ARGUS: Report of the Commander, Task Force 88, 45–53.
6. Mustin, Reminiscences, 1225.
7. DNA report, 103.
8. Interview with author.
9. Interview with author.
10. Mustin, Reminiscences, 1229.
11. Interview with author.
12. Mustin, Reminiscences, 1230.
13. Operation ARGUS: Report of the Commander, Task Force 88, 23.
14. Even Norton Sound’s monthly logbooks were cloaked in official secrecy. Instead of listing the vessel’s origin and destination for her Argus mission travels per naval tradition, the logbooks say only that the ship was “at sea.”
15. Mustin, Reminiscences, 1231.
16. History of AVM Norton Sound.
17. Ludwig, 376–7.
18. Van Allen, “Energetic Particles,” 245.
19. J. R. Killian, Jr., Memorandum for the President, Preliminary Results of the ARGUS Experiment, November 3, 1958. Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library.
20. Ibid.
Chapter 9
1. Operation ARGUS: Report of the Commander, Task Force 88, 22.
2. Killian, “Sputnik, Scientists, and Ike,” 189.
3. George B. Kistiakowsky, A Scientist At the White House: The Private Diary of President Eisenhower’s Special Assistant for Science and Technology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976), 72.
4. Sullivan, Assault on the Unknown, 141.
5. Ibid.
6. James Van Allen to Texas Instruments Company, October 22, 1958, James A. Van Allen Papers, University of Iowa Archives, Iowa City, IA.
7. Texas Instruments to Van Allen, November 21, 1958, ibid.
8. Sullivan, Assault, 143.
9. Ibid., 146.
10. Herbert York to James Killian, January 2, 1959, Argus Experiment Collection, Department of Archives/Special Collections, M. Louis Salmon Library, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL.
11. York, Making Weapons, 149–50.
12. Sullivan, Assault, 147.
13. Bradley to Killian, January 14, 1959, Argus Experiment Collection, Department of Archives/Special Collections, M. Louis Salmon Library, University of Alabama in Huntsville.
14. Karl Harr to Killian, January 20, 1959, Ibid.
15. Sullivan, Assault, 147–8.
16. Sullivan to Killian, February 2, 1959, Argus Experiment Collection, University of Alabama in Huntsville.
17. Sullivan, Assault, 148.
18. “Radiation Belt May Monitor A-Tests,” The Observer, February 15, 1959.
19. Ludwig, 387.
20. John Jackson to Herbert York, March 4, 1959, Argus Experiment Collection, University of Alabama in Huntsville.
21. Van Allen to Killian, February 21, 1959, Van Allen papers.
22. FLORAL was an alternate code name for Argus used in some military and governmental circles.
23. PSAC minutes, March 16, 1959, Argus Experiment Collection, University of Alabama in Huntsville.
24. Sullivan, Assault, 149.
25. Briber memo, March 19, 1959, Argus Experiment Collection, University of Alabama in Huntsville.
26. Mundey, 309.
27. Sullivan, Assault, 149.
Chapter 10
1. Hanson W. Baldwin, “U.S. Atom Blasts 300 Miles Up,” New York Times, March 19, 1959.
2. Walter Sullivan, “Called ‘Greatest Experiment’,” New York Times, March 19, 1959.
3. Goodpaster memos, March 19, 1959, Argus Experiment Collection, University of Alabama in Huntsville.
4. Sullivan, Assault, 149.
5. New York Times, “Excerpts From the Defense Department’s News Conference,” “Quarles Says Atom Shots Aided Weapons Research in Attack and in Defense,” March 20, 1959.
6. Mundey, 311.
7. “US Seen on Right Track,” Los Angeles Times, March 20, 1959.
8. “Scientists Draft Report on Argus,” New York Times, March 20, 1959.
9. Sullivan, Assault, 149.
10. New York Times, ibid.
11. Marvin Miles, “Space Blast Can Stop Missiles, Expert Says,” Los Angeles Times, March 20, 1959.
12. “Christofilos Sues for Divorce,” New York Times, April 1, 1959.
13. “Scientist’s Wife Denies Divorce Plea,” Washington Post, April 2, 1959.
14. Time, “Times and the Secret,” March 30, 1959, 67.
15. Robert Davies, Baldwin of the Times: A Military Journalist’s Life, 1903–1991 (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2011), 241.
16. Ibid, 242–43.
17. Francis P. Jennings, “To the Editor,” New York Times, March 27, 1959.
18. Katharine B. Faulkner, “To the Editor,” New York Times, March 30, 1959.
19. “Argus and Man’s Quest,” Washington Star, March 22, 1959.
20. Herbert B. Loper to Clinton Anderson, March 20, 1959, Argus Experiment Collection, University of Alabama in Huntsville.
21. Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, Anderson press release, March 22, 1959, DOE OpenNet (https://www.osti.gov/opennet), NV0076931.
22. A. R. Luedecke to Margaret Chase Smith, April 1, 1959, DOE OpenNet (https://www.osti.gov/opennet), NV0104103.
Chapter 11
1. Murray Snyder to General Goodpaster, March 24, 1959, Argus Experiment Collection, University of Alabama in Huntsville.
2. “Text of White House Report on the Argus Experiments,” New York Times, March 26, 1959.
3. John W. Finney, “U.S. Gives Data on Argus Tests,” New York Times, March 26, 1959.
4. “Argus A-Tests Reveal Ray Gaps” Montreal Gazette, April 1, 1959; “Polar Hatches Into Space Proved By Argus Test,” Boston Globe, April 1, 1959.
5. Marvin Miles, “Project Argus called Failure,” Los Angeles Times, April 5, 1959.
6. W. Selove, “Nuclear Reports Queried: Issue Taken With Conclusions in Scientific Data,” Letters to Editor, New York Times, March 29, 1959.
7. Mundey, 312.
8. “Pentagon Studying News On Argus Test,” New York Times, April 27, 1959.
9. “Release of Argus scientific results,” March 24, 1959, Argus Experiment Collection, University of Alabama in Huntsville.
10. “Argus Atom Tests Scored in Brazil,” New York Times, April 4, 1959.
11. Porter and Odishaw to Killian, April 20, 1959, Argus Experiment Collection, University of Alabama in Huntsville.
12. Richard W. Porter, “Chairman’s Introductory Remarks,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 45, no. 8, 1959, 1141–1144.
13. N.C. Christofilos, “The Argus Experiment,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 45, no. 8, 1959, 1144–52.
14. James A. Van Allen, Carl E. McIlwain, and George Ludwig, “Satellite Observations of Electrons Artificially Injected Into the Geomagnetic Field,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 45, 1959, 1152–71,
15. Lew Allen et. al, “Project Jason Measurement of Trapped Electrons From a Nuclear Device By Sounding Rockets,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 45, 1959, 1171–90.
16. “New Horizons in Science” radio program, United States Information Agency, May 7, 1959, National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD.
17. Quoted in “Project Argus Probes Outer Space,” The Magnet, Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, May 1959, 11.
18. Edward Gamarekian, “Expert Says One Bomb Can End Satellite Life Around World,” Washington Post, April 30, 1959.
19. U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Science and Astronautics, “Nuclear Explosions in Space,” 86th Cong., 1st sess., April 10, 1959.
20. Ibid.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid.
Chapter 12
1. “High A-Blasts 300 Mi. Away Damage Eyes,” Chicago Tribune, June 16, 1959; John W. Finney, “Radio Was Snarled By H-Bombs in ’58,” New York Times, June 16, 1959.
2. “2 High-Altitude H-Explosions by U.S. Revealed, With Long Radio Blackout,” Washington Post, May 4, 1959.
3. Willard Edwards, “Big 2 Capitals Vulnerable to Far Off Blasts,” Chicago Tribune, June 21, 1959; “High Atom Blast Could Jam Radio,” New York Times, June 21, 1959.
4. “Project Argus,” FAS newsletter, April 9, 1959.
5. Foerstner, 197.
6. Ludwig, 391.
7. Quoted in Foerstner, 197.
8. Ibid., 198.
9. Jack Raymond, “Fallout of Strontium-90 Is Found Highest in US,” New York Times, March 22, 1959.
10. Clinton P. Anderson, “‘Top Secret’ - But Should It Be?,” New York Times, May 3, 1959.
11. New York Times, 150.
12. Richard G. Hewlett and Jack M. Holl, Atoms for Peace and War 1953–1961 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989), 557.
13. Quoted in Defense’s Nuclear Agency, 154.
14. Ibid., 154–55.
15. Ibid., 155.
16. William E. Ogle, Test Ban History notes (undated), DOE OpenNet (https://www.osti.gov/opennet), NV16023063.
17. Ibid.
18. John A. Osmundsen, “Atom Tests Made 2d Energy Shell,” New York Times, November 3, 1959.
Chapter 13
1. Terrence R. Fehner & F.G. Gosling, U.S. Department of Energy, Atmospheric Nuclear Weapons Testing 1951–1963 (Washington, D.C., September 2006), 195, 197.
2. “Nicholas Christofilos Marries Joan Jaffray,” New York Times, June 29, 1960.
3. Sullivan, Assault, 163.
4. Sullivan to Van Allen, May 18, 1960, James A. Van Allen Papers.
5. Sullivan, Assault, 140–41; “News of Atom Test,” New York Times, October 31, 1960.
6. Walter Sullivan, “Soviets Detected U.S. Blasts in ‘58,” New York Times, November 28, 1960.
Chapter 14
1. Quoted in William E. Ogle, An Account of the Return to Nuclear Weapons Testing By The United States After the Test Moratorium 1958–1961 (Nevada: U.S. Department of Energy, October 1985), 336–7.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.
4. Glenn T. Seaborg, Kennedy, Khrushchev and the Test Ban (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1981), 132.
5. Ibid, 138.
6. Quoted in ibid., 139.
7. Ibid., 152.
8. Mustin, Reminiscences, 1360–61.
9. Ibid., 1372.
10. Ibid, 1372–3.
11. Robert C. Toth, “Will New A-Test in Space Backfire? Yes! Say British - Bunk! Says U.S.,” Boston Globe, May 8, 1962.
12. Jeremy Murray-Brown to Van Allen, June 20, 1962, James A. Van Allen Papers.
13. Wayne Thomis, “High H-Blast Test Hailed By Van Allen,” Chicago Tribune, June 20, 1962; “Van Allen Backs H-Blast in Belt,” New York Times, May 3, 1962.
14. Walter Sullivan, “H-Test May Erase Radiation Belt,” New York Times, April 30, 1962.
15. “No Real Damage to Space Belt Seen From A-Tests,” Los Angeles Times, May 4, 1962.
16. “Explosive Venture in Space,” Wall Street Journal, May 11, 1962.
17. “Experiment in Space,” Guardian, June 20, 1962.
18. Quoted in Seaborg, 154.
19. AEC form letter, U.S. Department of Energy (undated).
Chapter 15
1. Mustin, Reminiscences, 1401–2.
2. Ogle, An Account of the Return to Nuclear Weapons Testing, 402–3.
3. U.S. Department of Air Force, Message from Commander, Joint Task Force Eight, June 4, 1962, DOE OpenNet (https://www.osti.gov/opennet)
4. Mustin, Reminiscences, 1448–9.
5. Ogle, An Account of the Return to Nuclear Weapons Testing, 420.
6. Seaborg, 155.
7. Ibid., 156.
8. Mustin, Reminiscences, 1450.
9. “Johnston Memories-Atomic Years,” http://johnstonmemories.com/wordpress/?page_id=1097
10. Ibid.
11. Mustin, Reminiscences, 1458.
12. New York Times, July 10, 1962.
13. Francis Narin and Walter A. Dumas, A ‘Quick Look’ at the Technical Results of Starfish Prime, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, August, 1962, 20–21.
14. New York Times, July 10, 1962; A Quick Look, 19.
15. John A. Osmundsen, “Blast Makes Visible Fields of Magnetism In Sky Over Samoa,” New York Times, July 10, 1962.
16. Walter Sullivan, “Experts Foresee No Peril in Test,” New York Times, July 10, 1962.
17. John A. Osmundsen, “Samoans Terrified By H-Blast; Some Fear Heavens May Fall,” New York Times, July 11, 1962.
18. “Britons Protest Outside Embassy,” New York Times, July 10, 1962.
Chapter 16
1. Preliminary Plan for Operation Fishbowl, Headquarters Air Force Special Weapons Center, Air Force Systems Command, Kirtland Air Force Base, New Mexico, November 1961, 1.
2. A Quick Look, 10.
3. Ibid.
4. “Blast Over Pacific Opens Tests of a Tenuous Anti-Missile Plan,” New York Times, July 10, 1962.
5. One experiment kept carefully quiet was the inclusion of a small amount of cadmium-109 radioactive tracer material in the Starfish Prime device to track upper atmospheric circulation patterns.
6. “How Not to Test in Space,” November 7, 2011, The Henry L. Stimson Center, https://www.stimson.org/content/how-not-test-space
7. A Quick Look; Charles N. Vittitoe, “Did High Altitude EMP Cause the Hawaiian Streetlight Incident?” Sandia National Laboratories, June 1989; Wilmot N. Hess, “The Effects of High Altitude Explosions,” NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, September 1964 (NASA TN D-2402); Herman Hoerlin, “United States High-Altitude Test Experiences: A Review Emphasizing the Impact on the Environment,” Los Alamos National Laboratory, October 1976.
8. Mustin, Reminiscences, 1459.
9. Harold M. Schmeck, Jr., “Van Allen Doubts Effect of Blast,” New York Times, July 18, 1962.
10. “Johnston Memories-Atomic Years” http://johnstonmemories.com/wordpress/?page_id=1097
11. Ogle, An Account of the Return to Nuclear Weapons Testing, 426.
12. Ibid., 428.
13. Seaborg, 156.
14. Ogle, 430.
15. Ibid..
16. Defense’s Nuclear Agency, 163.
17. Defense Nuclear Agency, U.S. Department of Defense, United States Atmospheric Nuclear Weapons Tests, Nuclear Test Personnel Review, Operation Hardtack I 1958 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1 December 1982), DNA 6040F,. 247.
18. Ogle, pp. 431.
19. Defense’s Nuclear Agency, 163.
Chapter 17
1. Howard Simons, “It Looks as Though Starfish May Not Sparkle Too Long,” Washington Post, November 25, 1962.
2. Van Allen talk to AAAS, December 31, 1962, James A. Van Allen Papers; Walter Sullivan, “Van Allen Sees Science ‘Clique’,” New York Times, December 31, 1962; Howard Simons, “President’s Advisers Intimidating Individual Scientist, Van Allen Says,” Washington Post, December 31, 1962
3. Robert C. Toth, “U.S. Radiation Belt Statement Made to Deter Soviet Testing,” New York Times, January 10, 1963; John W. Finney, “U.S. Revises View on Electron Belt,” February 5, 1963.
4. Howard Simons, “Van Allen Reverses Self on Belt,” Washington Post, March 16, 1963; James Rodger Fleming, “Iowa Enters the Space Age,” 320.
5. Quoted in Curtis Peebles, High Frontier: The U.S. Air Force and the Military Space Program (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, Air Force History and Museums Program, 1997), 61.
6. Clayton K.S. Chun, Shooting Down a “Star”: Program 437, the US Nuclear ASAT System and Present-Day Copycat Killers (Alabama: Air University Press, Maxwell Air Force Base), 4.
7. Its Army origins explain the discrepancy in numerical designation—505 was Army, while 437 was USAF.
8. National Security Action Memorandum 258 from McGeorge Bundy, August 6, 1963, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, https://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/Archives/JFKNSF-342-002.aspx.
9. Peebles, 61–2.
10. Chun. 22.
11. Ibid., 21.
12. Ibid, 29–30.
Chapter 18
1. Statement of Rep. Roscoe Bartlett (R-Maryland), Congressional Record, June 9, 2005.
2. “Report of the Commission to Assess the Threat to the United States from Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) Attack,” Vol. 1, Executive Report, 2004, 2.
3. The University’s name officially changed from “State University of Iowa” to “University of Iowa” in 1964.
4. Fleming, 322.
5. Ibid., 323.
6. Quoted in Mundey, 319–20.
7. Ibid.
8. Fleming, 323.
9. Weinberger, Imagineers of War, 95.
10. Ibid.
11. “Against Project Sanguine,” Chicago Tribune, November 9, 1969.
12. Coleman, et al., “Greek Fire,” 255.
13. John S. Foster, T. Kenneth Fowler, Frederick E. Mills, “Nicholas C. Christofilos,” Physics Today, January 1973, 109–15.
Postscript
1. Quoted in Michael D’Antonio, A Ball, a Dog, and a Monkey (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2007), 207.
2. “Space Assurance or Space Dominance? The Case Against Weaponizing Space,” Michael Krepon with Christopher Clary, The Henry L. Stimson Center, 2003, 29, 32.