ROSACEAE

The rose family consists of some 3500 species worldwide mainly distributed in temperate and warm regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Most species contain tannins, and only a few contain alkaloids. Because most of the world's temperate fruits belong to this family, it is of great economic importance.

General characteristics

Medicinal plants of the Rosaceae are:

Agrimonia eupatoria Fragaria vesca
Alchemilla vulgaris Potentilla erecta
Aphanes arvensis Prunus serotina
Crataegus spp. Rosa eglanteria
Filipendula ulmaria Rubus idaeus

Agrimonia eupatoria

Agrimony

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Family Rosaceae

Description

A leafy perennial to 60 cm, which dies back to a rosette in winter. Leaves pinnate with 2–4 pairs of larger, oval, saw-toothed leaflets 2–6 cm, alternating with smaller leaflets. Leaves and stem have dense, spreading non-glandular hairs. Stipules leaf-like. Flowers borne on long, slender, terminal and often branched, leafless spikes. They are numerous, yellow, stalkless and small, each 5–8 mm across. Fruit are about 6 mm across, obconical, deeply grooved, hairy, with spreading hooked bristles above. Flowers from mid-summer to autumn.

Habitat and cultivation

Native to Europe, growing along edges of woods and hedges and in meadows. Grown from seed and will self-sow. It prefers a sunny situation and moist, well drained soil. A. parviflora is used in North America. Drought and frost resistant.

Parts used

The herb harvested at or just prior to flowering.

Active constituents

1) Flavonoids including derivatives of luteolin, apigenin, quercetin and kaempferol.1,2 Also isoflavonoids daidzen and biochanin3

2) Oligomeric procyanidins based mainly on catechin and consisting of 2–4 units4

3) Tannins (up to 8%)5

4) Phenolic acids including p-coumaric and protocatechuic acids4

5) Terpenoids

Also contains volatile oil, silicic acid and coumarins.

Nutritional constituents

Vitamins: C,6 K and niacin

Minerals: Iron and large amounts of silicon

Actions

1) Astringent

2) Diuretic

3) Tonic

Scientific information

There has been very little scientific study of this herb and its use is largely dictated by history. However the recent isolation of oligomeric procyanidins, which are pharmacologically active (see Crataegus), may lead to renewed interest.

In vitro—Agrimonia has very good anti-oxidant activity, although the strength of this application may depend on the extracting medium,7 it is likely due to the phenolic fraction.4,8,9 This activity is probably linked to the traditional anti-inflammatory action attributed to the herb.4

The isoflavonoids have phyto-oestrogenic potential.3

Some antimicrobial activity has been established for Agrimonia. It is antiviral against hepatitis B virus (this activity was highest in plants harvested when in flower).10 The seed extract (also anti-oxidant) is antibacterial against Bacillus subtilis, B. cereus, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus.11 The herb inhibits Mycobacterium tuberculosis (based on old research).

Agrimonia has been used traditionally in the treatment of diabetes12 and whilst this action has been demonstrated in animals in vivo, no human studies have been recorded.

In vivo—There is an historical reference to the herb being used with success in the local treatment of cutaneous porphyria (Potter's).

Medicinal uses

Gastro-intestinal tract

Its main use is in the digestive tract where it can improve assimilation of nutrients and heal and soothe this tract.

Urinary tract

Externally

Pharmacy

Three times daily  
Infusion of dried herb –   2–4 g
Tincture 1:5 (45%) –   1–4 ml
Fluid Extract (25%) –   1–3 ml

Historical uses

Internally and externally for a range of conditions including haemorrhages; fevers, coughs; bad breath; relaxed bowels; colic; jaundice; “bad or naughty” livers; skin eruptions; scrofulous sores (with roots); gout; to strengthen joints; “foul, troubled or bloody water”; snake bites; warts; gun shot wounds; sprains; bruises; old sores (ointment), for drawing splinters, ulcers; cancers; ears for “foul and imposthumed” condition of ears (juice as eardrops); all states of heat or cold.

Alchemilla vulgaris

Lady's mantle

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Family Rosaceae

Description

A variable perennial with a woody rootstock and most leaves growing on long stalks in a basal rosette. Basal leaves green and often hairy, rounded and with 5–7 pleats which unfold like a fan, and have toothed margins. Stem leaves smaller and shorter stalked. Flowers tiny, greenish-yellow in terminal clusters, 3–4 mm across with no petals. Flowers from spring to late summer.

Habitat and cultivation

Native to damp meadows, open woods and sometimes rocky places, in Britain and parts of Europe. Grown from seed or division of the rootstock. Alchemilla mollis is grown as a garden plant in other countries and has been used in the same way.

Parts used

The herb harvested during or just prior to flowering.

Active constituents

1) Tannins mainly glycosides of ellagic acid (quoted in Potters’ as 6–8%, it has been reported variously from 3%13 to 46%14) and proanthocyanidins15

2) Flavonoids mostly quercetin (0.7%),15 also luteolin16 (no flavonoids were found in the herb growing in Iceland)17

The total phenolic content has been reported as 6.25%.13 Also contains triterpenoids—ursolic and oleanolic acids17 and a small amount of salicylic acid.

Actions

1) Astringent

2) Antihaemorrhagic

3) Styptic

Scientific information

Although the herb has a long tradition of use in a number of cultures not a great deal of modern research into its chemistry or pharmacology exists. The name derives from the Arabic word “Alkemelych” meaning alchemy and is testament to the high regard in which it was held. Indeed Culpeper considered it one of the best “wound herbs”.

In vitro—The herb has very good anti-oxidant activity, protecting natural biochemicals from free radical damage.18 Anti-oxidant potential has been shown to be related to the total content of polyphenols (tannins and flavonoids) in a variety of herbs.19 Quercetin, the main flavonoid, is an established anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory agent.15

The herb also appears to be a good inhibitor of LOX13 and PAF20 suggesting a potential mechanism for its observed anti-inflammatory effect. It is a strong stimulant to epithelial cell growth, an action consistent with its traditional use as a wound healing agent.15 In preliminary tests it inhibited proteases which may give it an angio-protective effect (protecting connective tissues) and possibly also an anti-angiogenesis activity. This has not been tested in human models.21 However the polyphenol, ellagic acid, has demonstrated inhibition of proteolytic enzymes and protection of elastin fibres in human tissue.22

Alchemilla has antibacterial activity against some strains of the gastro-intestinal Shigella and Yersinia pathogens.14

In vivo—The wound healing properties were demonstrated in the treatment of minor types of aphthous ulcers for which the glycetract used was very effective (at 3% concentration).23

The herb is a diuretic in Italian folklore, antispasmodic in Swedish folklore and it was used in Arabic medicine for weight loss, abdominal pain and inflammation.24

The polyphenols are considered to be responsible for much of the pharmacological activity.15

Medicinal uses

Gastro-intestinal tract

The astringency, and probable antimicrobial actions, due to the high tannin content make it useful in treating:-

Reproductive tract

Traditionally used to treat female complaints:-

Externally

Pharmacy

Three times daily  
Infusion of dried herb –   2–4 g
Fluid extract (25%) –   2–4 ml

Historical uses

Internally for vomiting; bleeding; ruptures; fertility and threatened abortion, to reduce and firm large breasts (internally and externally). Externally for all wounds including those that are “green” or old or inflamed; bruises, ulcers, eczema, skin rashes.

Crataegus laevigata and Crataegus monogyna [C. laevigata formerly known as C. oxyocantha]

Hawthorn

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Family Rosaceae

Description

A deciduous shrub or small tree up to 10 m high, armed with axillary spines up to 12–20 mm long, the longest spines being on the short flowering shoots. Stems glabrous, smooth and reddish brown when young and grey when older. Leaves solitary on new growing shoots but grouped in clusters on short shoots. Petioles short, leaf blades deltoid to rhombic, deeply lobed, glabrous, dark to midgreen above, paler below. Flowers many, in flat corymbs, growing on short leafy shoots scattered along the branches. Corymbs subtended by short leafy bracts. Sepals greenish, lobes triangular to oblong, becoming flexed. Petals broadly ovate to orbicular, 4–8 mm in diameter, rounded, spreading, usually white, sometimes pink or red. Stamens greater than petals, filaments white sometimes pale pink, anthers pink. Style usually one. Fruit broadly oblong to sub-globose, 7–11 mm diameter, dark red, shining and crowned by deflexed sepals. Nutlets usually one (monogyna). Flowers in spring, fruits in autumn.

Odour of flowers—faint, strange and often unpleasant; taste—slightly bitter-sweet and astringent. Berries taste of almonds.

Habitat and cultivation

Native to Europe and Britain. Introduced as stock-proof hedging and naturalised elsewhere along roads and grassy places. Grown from seed, but needs frost to germinate, and from rooted suckers separated from the clump and replanted. A variable species. C. laevigata, a cultivated double-flowered species has 2 styles in the flower and 2 seeds in the berry. Both species have the same medicinal uses.

Parts used

The leaves and flowers harvested in late spring. The leaves can be harvested without flowers, though the combination of the two is the preferred starting material.25 Whilst the leaves may be best when the flowers are open (the flavonoid content is highest then),26 the buds still contain good levels of flavonoids.27 Leaves may still be harvested through to the summer when the berries are present but still green. The berries harvested when ripe (red) in autumn.

Although the British tradition has tended to use the berries, the leaves and flowers are preferred in Germany and France, and they have a better characterised chemistry and pharmacological activity.

Active constituents

1) Flavonoids.25,28–30,32 Leaves and flowers—more than 33 have been identified (min. of 1.5%), berries (average around 0.98%). They occur mainly as flavonol-O-glycosides and flavone-C-glycosides and include vitexin-2-rhamnoside, acetylvitexin-2-rhamnoside, hyperoside, isoquercitrin, rutin, quercetin, apigenin, kaempferol and luteolin derivatives. There is little difference in flavonoid content between the two species of Crataegus25

2) Oligomeric procyanidins (OPCs)—(2–3%).26,31 These are flavan-3-ols and are related to the condensed tannins and flavonoids. They consist of mainly dimers (two units) up to hexamers (6 units) of (-)-epicatechin and also polymeric procyanidins of more than 6 units.32 They include (-)-epicatechin and procyanidins B2, B5 and C1. This is a very diverse group that is unstable making analysis difficult.33,34 Leaves (1.58%) and flowers (1.15%) have a much higher concentration than the berries (0.15%)35

3) Anthocyanins including leucocyanidin in the leaves. Anthocyanins give the berries their red colouring37

4) Triterpenoids (mainly acidic) up to 3.58%. Includes crataegus lactone, produced on metabolism from crataegus acid (high in fruits); cycloartenol,36 cinnamic, ursolic and oleanolic acids.37,38 Highest in leaves and flowers, unripe berries have a higher content than ripe ones37

5) Cardiotonic amines including trimethylamine—flowers39

6) Phenylpropanoids including chlorogenic, caffeic, ferulic, isoferulic and p-coumaric acids29,32,40,41

This chemical breakdown reflects more studies into leaf and flower not necessarily a lack of active constituents in berries. The chemical profile of berries differ in the quality of some of the flavonoid constituents and/or quantity from those found in leaf and flower.32 The type of OPCs are similar in all parts of the plant but levels differ.35

Stressing the plants by restricted water or temperature changes can increase the level of hyperoside and (-)-epicatechin.42

Nutritional constituents

Vitamins: C (40–60 mg/100 mg in berries), carotene (5 mg/100 mg), vitamin B1, B2, E and P

Minerals: Calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron, zinc, sodium, sulphur, copper, manganese and some chromium43

Actions

1) Cardiac tonic and trophorestorative

2) Coronary vasodilator

3) Hypotensive

Scientific information

Crataegus was an official medicine in a number of European pharmacopoeias noted for treating heart disease and for its hypotensive action.44 Today it is a commonly used herbal medicine in Europe, particularly in Germany. German Commission E has approved the use of leaves and flowers for mild forms of heart failure. The flavonoids and proanthocyanidins are considered the important pharmacologically active constituents and commercial products tend to be standardised on OPC or total flavonoid content. Standardisation has however been difficult because there are a number of different Crataegus species used medicinally, the same species can be highly variable, one species can hybridise readily with another with little change in morphology, the actual active constituents are still not fully known and likely to be complex and different parts of the plant are harvested viz. stalks may or may not be included, leaves may have flowers and/or buds or have neither.25 All these variations alter the chemical profile. This is in addition to the usual factors that alter chemical make-up such as geographical location and associated microclimate, time of harvest, method of extraction, storage conditions and year of harvest.25,26,34,45,46

Anti-oxidant

In vitro—Both berries47 and flowers48,49 have very good anti-oxidant activity, including inhibiting the oxidation of LDL and VLDL (a suspected promoter of atherosclerosis),50,51 this activity is related to the high level of polyphenolics present.52 The fresh young leaves are the strongest anti-oxidants followed by fresh flower buds and dried flowers.53 Leaf activity is related to the content of flavonoids whilst that in flowers and berries depends on levels of proanthocyanidins and catechins.54

Circulation

Using hawthorn to treat cardiovascular diseases in the west was first recorded in 1800's although Culpeper mentions use of the powdered seeds from the fruit as a treatment for dropsy. Currently only leaf and flower extracts are registered in Germany for the treatment of some types of coronary heart disease and congestive heart failure.55,56 The action of the herb has been tested in a variety of models which have shown they have a unique combination of actions amongst known cardioactive agents.57

In vitro—The extracts and/or constituents:-

All these actions in addition to the anti-oxidant capacity of the herb could contribute to its use in vivo for circulatory problems.

In vivo—Extracts of hawthorn containing mostly leaf and flower have been tested in clinical trials. Interest in using hawthorn for the earlier stages of heart failure was generated because at this point treatment may be most effective yet current pharmaceutical options have undesirable side-effects.68 Although preparations have been used in trials with patients with varying degrees of heart failure from New York Heart Association (NYHA) I to III [levels range from I (least severe) to IV], most have used patients in group NYHA II.†

1) In a small 6-week study Crataegus was no better than placebo when used in conjunction with conventional medicine for treating heart failure,69 but in many other trials it was of clear benefit, used alone or with pharmaceuticals, over the longer term—from 8 weeks and up68 (berries)70 (leaves and flowers).71–73 Symptom improvements included increased tolerance to exercise and reductions in ankle oedema, nocturia, dyspnoea, palpitations, fatigue and a modest reduction in blood pressure74,75

2) A long-term clinical trial of patients who were already on conventional therapy for heart failure showed Crataegus did not reduce levels of morbidity76 but did offer significant benefits in symptom reduction77,78

3) A flower/leaf extract resulted in a small but significant decrease in diastolic blood pressure in hypertensive patients, some of whom had diabetes79,80

4) Fresh hawthorn berries in combination with D-camphor effectively treated patients with orthostatic hypotension‡,81 the effect being significant over a range of age groups.82 Crataegus’ contribution is long term by improving the tone of arterioles and cardiac performance83,84

Hawthorn's action is positively inotropic and chronotropic, anti-arrhythmic and vasodilatory, and it improves perfusion of coronary vessels and heart muscle, oxygen utilisation and cardiac output.72,85–88

Some early work in the 1980s appraised its effect in patients with angina pectoris and though results were positive no further studies have been undertaken.67

Direct studies on the anti-arrhythmic and hypolipidaemic activity of Crataegus in humans are lacking, however Passiflora and Crataegus used as a treatment in heart failure reduced serum cholesterol and LDL lipids.89

Other

In vitro—Hawthorn inhibits platelet aggregation and consequent 5-hydroxytryptamine release and may therefore have potential application in the treatment of migraine headaches.90

A triterpene-rich fraction of the herb is strongly cytotoxic to laryngeal cancer cells.91

The berries protect lymphocytes from radiation damage.92

In vivo—Crataegus was effective when used in conjunction with Eschscholzia and magnesium in relieving mild-to-moderate anxiety disorders93 and in combination with a number of other herbs for adjustment mood disorder with anxiety.94

Medicinal uses

Cardiovascular system

Crataegus’ actions enable it to normalise heart function so it can be used for two seemingly opposite problems. Used for:

Pharmacy

Three times daily  
Dried herb in any form –   0.2–1 g
Tincture 1:5 (45%) –   1.0–2 ml
Fluid Extract (25%) –   0.5–1 ml

Modern trials used doses ranging from 160–1800 mg of herb a day and the standardised preparation of flowers and leaves used in Germany are based on either 18.75% OPCs (WS 1442/Crataegutt) or 2.25% flavonoids (LI 132). In the above clinical trials the herbal preparations were considered safe and without significant adverse effects.73–81,82,84

Trials indicate that it may take a minimum of 6 weeks of continuous use to achieve therapeutic benefits.38

Pharmacokinetics

In vitro studies on some of the main flavonoids—hyperoside, isoquercitrin and epicatechin—from the fruit indicate they have limited permeability.95In vivo studies on metabolism of hawthorn and/or its constituents have not been conducted but animal models suggest OPCs are absorbed to some extent.

Precautions and/or safety

The herb has not demonstrated any mutagenic potential in standard tests.96

Crataegus has been associated with only minor adverse reactions that are equivalent to those reported for placebos.69,97 In fact one study found that the extract reduced the number of reported side-effects compared to placebo.74

The most frequently reported events have been gastro-intestinal complaints, dizziness/vertigo, palpitation, headache and migraine and less frequently nausea, erythematous rash and somnolence.77,85 More severe side effects listed but limited to 2 cases each include gastro-intestinal haemorrhage and circulatory failure.97 No contraindications have been reported.

Interactions

No interactions have yet been reported from clinical trials between Crataegus and prescribed hypotensives (ACE inhibitors, diuretics, β-blockers, calcium channel blockers)69,70,74,79 or various hypoglycaemic79 medications in vivo. There are cautions in the literature about the potential of Crataegus to potentiate the effects of cardiac medicines particularly digoxin but this seems to be based either on a “potential” action or on in vitro data.98 In healthy volunteers the pharmacokinetics of digoxin were not altered by hawthorn.99

Historical uses

As a gargle in sore throats; kidney stones, colic, digestive problems including vomiting and diarrhoea, externally to draw splinters. In Chinese Pharmacopoeia Crataegus spp. are listed and as well as improving heart-related problems, they have been used to treat diarrhoea, dyspepsia, dysentery and hepatitis.

Filipendula ulmaria

Meadowsweet

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Family Rosaceae

Description

An erect herb up to 50 cm high in flower. Basal and cauline leaves dark green and glabrous on the upper surface, whitish green and tomentose beneath; pinnate, with 3–5 pairs of large, irregularly 2-serrate leaflets up to 60 mm long, often interspersed with reduced leaflets. Inflorescence a many flowered cymose panicle with individual small pale cream flowers, having pinkish or purplish backs to the petals. Flowers in summer.

Odour of flowers—faint and salicylate-like; taste—astringent and quite bitter.

Habitat and cultivation

Native to Europe and Northern Asia, growing in damp meadows, swamps, and ditches. Grown in gardens elsewhere from seed or root division in winter or early spring. Needs a damp, sunny situation to flower. Frost resistant.

Parts used

The herb harvested during flowering.

Active constituents

1) Flavonoids including quercetin, rutin, avicularin, hyperoside, spireoside, kaempferol and their derviatives100–102

2) Phenolic glycosides—spiraein, gaultherin (monotropitin), isosalicin and various salicylate derived constituents100

3) Volatile oil (about 0.2%) containing salicylaldehyde and methyl salicylate

4) Polyphenols/tannins (10–15%) mainly the hydrolysable group. The major one is rugosin-D

5) Phenolic acids including mainly gallic, p-coumaric and vanillic acids.100

Also contains chalcones, mucilage, a small amount of coumarins and a constituent similar to heparin.103

Nutritional constituents

Vitamins: C104

Actions

1) Anti-inflammatory

2) Diuretic

3) Stomachic

4) Astringent

Scientific information

Meadowsweet was sacred to Druid priests and was well known as a medicine by the 16th century. It has been approved by German Commission E to aid the treatment of colds. In Russia the herb has been used for diabetes and cancer.100 Much of the scientific information relating to Filipendula is historical or has been written mainly in Russian and is therefore difficult to access.

“Salicine” was isolated from meadowsweet, formerly called Spiraea ulmaria, in 1833 having been reported earlier as the active constituent in willow bark. Apart from the well known content of salicylates, meadowsweet contains a high level of total phenolic constituents and it is probable they contribute largely to its actions.105

Anti-oxidant

In vitro—Meadowsweet is a strong anti-oxidant106,107 (of a similar order to vitamin E) and a strong free radical scavenger.108,109 It may have promise as a hepatoprotective agent based on this activity and on trials using animals.110

Anti-inflammatory

In vitro—This is one of the main actions associated with the herb. However not many studies have been done to suggest its mechanism of action. To-date meadowsweet:

It has been suggested that although salicylates are established inhibitors of COX, the anti-inflammatory action of Filipendula is not likely due to them as their content is minimal.111 Neither is the action simply due to protein inactivation by tannins. Further research is required to fully elucidate these mechanisms.

Other

In vitro—A limited range of other activities have been found for Filipendula. It displays a strong cytotoxic activity to lymphoma cells,113 has good antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli and some antifungal activity against Candida albicans (not due to salicylates),114 has a strong anticoagulant activity (flowers and seeds)115 and inhibits the enzyme elastase (due to high tannin content) which breaks down connective tissue.116

In vivo—A preparation of the flowers was used as a local treatment for cervical dysplasia with beneficial effects for most women, over half of them showing complete regression of the dysplasia.117

For the pharmacological effects of salicylates see Appendix III.

Medicinal uses

Gastro-intestinal tract

The herb is most useful in this system where it addresses a variety of problems:

Urinary tract

As a diuretic accompanied by antisepsis (due to salicylate excretion) and astringency:

Musculoskeletal

Used for the pain of joint problems:

Also used topically for the above conditions.

Pharmacy

Three times daily  
Infusion of dried herb –   2–6 g
Tincture 1:5 (45%) –   2–4 ml
Fluid Extract (25%) –   2–6 ml

Precautions and/or safety

Some individuals are sensitive to salicylates and may have difficulty tolerating normal doses of Filipendula.

Interactions

In spite of the salicylate content and a potential for interaction with anti-coagulant and/or NSAID drugs, there are no reported interactions to-date.118,119

Historical uses

For fevers. The distilled water from the flowers as eye drops for burning, itching and to clear the sight. For all bleeding; fluxes and vomiting; colic; with honey as a laxative. Considered a tonic for the digestive tract. Strangury and all pains of the bladder. For dropsy; as a hot infusion to induce perspiration. Externally for cancerous ulcers and for sores.

Prunus serotina

Wild cherry

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Family Rosaceae

Description

A deciduous, unspined tree to 30 m with smooth, glossy red-brown bark with white lenticels and aromatic inner bark. Leaves alternate, lanceolate-oblong to oblong-ovate, blunt toothed, from 4–15 cm long, smooth and glossy green above, pale beneath with whitish brown hairs on the prominent midrib. Flowers in open racemes 5–15 cm long, with 5 sepals and 5 white petals, fragrant. The calyx persistent in fruit. Fruit globose, red to purple-black, bitter or sweetish. Flowers from spring to summer.

Habitat and cultivation

Native to North America in dry woods from Nova Scotia to North Dakota, south to Florida and Texas. Also grown elsewhere in any soil but dies if there is air pollution. Propagated from seed, hardwood cuttings or budding. Frost and drought resistant.

Parts used

The stem bark collected in the autumn. The bark exposed to the sun or tinged green is highest in active constituents.

Active constituents

1) Cyanogenic glycosides including (+)-mandelonitrile glucoside (prunasin),120 a derivative of amgydalin, which is hydrolysed by enzymes to hydrocyanic acid (0.075–0.16%) and benzaldehyde44

2) Coumarins including scopoletin, scopolin121 and β-methylaesculetin

3) Phenolic acids including benzoic, trimethylgallic and p-coumaric acids

4) Tannins (non-hydrolysable) consisting of monomeric and polymeric units based on leucocyanidin122

Also contains volatile oil and resin.

Actions

1) Antitussive

2) Sedative

3) Astringent

Scientific information

Prunus has been an official medicine both in Britain and the USA44 having been introduced to settlers in the latter country by the Native American Indians. It has not been much investigated overall.

In vitro—The herb suppresses cell growth and causes apoptosis of colorectal cancer cells.123 It also has antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis and antifungal activity against Microsporum gypseum.124

Medicinal uses

Respiratory tract

The herb is used in situations where coughing is serving no useful purpose and is causing exhaustion i.e. coughs due to:

Gastro-intestinal tract

Pharmacy

Three times daily  
Infusion of powdered bark –   0.5–2 g
Tincture BPC (1949) –   2.0–4 ml
Fluid Extract (25%) –   1.0–2 ml

In the treatment of irritable coughs the most effective preparation is a syrup.

Historical uses

Consumption; convalescence from febrile conditions; scrofula; urinary irritation; palpitations of febrile or dyspnoeic origin. Externally for ulcers and acute ophthalmia.

Rubus idaeus

Raspberry

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Family Rosaceae

Description

A suckering shrub with many stiff, erect, usually prickly, reddish stems growing up to 1–2 m high. Leaves pinnate with 3–7 oval, toothed, long-pointed leaflets 5–12 cm, green above and densely white-hairy beneath. Flowers white, in dense clusters forming a compound inflorescence on lateral shoots. Petals about 5 mm, widely spaced, about as long as the sepals. Carpels red and opaque, hairy, on a conical receptacle. Flowers and fruits from spring to late summer.

Habitat and cultivation

Native to Europe in woods in mountainous regions with cold climates. Grown in gardens for their fruit, from suckers set out in rows. When the fruiting stems die, they should be cut out in winter to allow the previous year's growth to have room to fruit.

Parts used

The leaves.

Active constituents

1) Tannins (around 5%) being a complex mixture of monomeric glycosides of ellagic acid and oligomeric units—dimers of sanguiin H-6125–127

2) Flavonoids mainly kaempferol and quercetin126,128,129

3) Phenolic acids including p-coumaric, caffeic and gallic acids.129 The phenolic content of the herb is generally good129 but can be quite variable with geographical location.130

Also contains volatile oil.131

Nutritional constituents132

Vitamins: A, B-complex, C and E

Minerals: Iron, manganese, potassium, zinc, copper, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus

Actions

1) Astringent

2) Partus praeparator

Scientific information

Rubus has been an official medicine in the British Pharmaceutical Codex where it was indicated for use in menorrhagia as well as for those conditions for which it is still used in herbal medicine today.44

Although it has been a folklore medicine for over two thousand years, being particularly valued in gynaecological applications, there is surprisingly little scientific investigation into its chemistry and pharmacology and much of what does exist was done in the first half of the 20th Century. The active constituents that may be responsible for the herb's actions on smooth muscle are not known131 but it has been observed that at least two constituents seem to be responsible.133

The fruit is well characterised and due to its high phenolic content is being viewed as a potential source of medicines for the future.131

Gynaecological

In vivo—Although few clinical trials have been undertaken, when used by pregnant women in preparation for childbirth the limited information available indicates that it may have reduced premature deliveries or overdue deliveries, shortened labour (effect may be small) and decreased the need for medical intervention.134,135

Other

In vitro—All or parts of the phenolic constituents are likely to be responsible for much of its activity. To-date these include:-

The tannins would largely be responsible for the astringent actions of the herb. (See Appendix III for general pharmacology of tannins.)

Medicinal uses

Gastro-intestinal tract

Reproductive tract

Rubus is specifically used as a uterine tonic.

Externally

The tannins extracted into water (as a tea) can be used for:

Pharmacy

Three times daily  
Infusion of dried herb –   4–8 g
Fluid Extract (25%) –   4–8 ml

As a partus praeparator Rubus can be used prior to and throughout pregnancy. The studies on pregnant women concluded it is safe and has no deleterious effects on either mothers or their babies.134,135

Precautions and/or safety

The herb is not mutagenic or cytotoxic in vitro using standard tests but co-administered with mutagens it had variable effects in enhancing or negating their effects.138

Interactions

In vitro—The herb and the tannin fraction alter the permeability of some co-administered drugs like verapamil and ketoprofen.138 Although there are no in vivo reports of interactions, tannin-rich herbs could theoretically alter the metabolism of other drugs taken at the same time.138

Historical uses

Cold infusion for laxity of the bowels; stomach complaints of children. In combination with Ulmus rubra to draw and clean wounds and burns and aid healing. The fruit was used medicinally in former times.

___________________

†“Cardiac disease resulting in slight limitation of physical activity. Symptoms of fatigue, palpitations, dyspnoea or angina pain with ordinary physical activity.

‡Defined as a difference in measured blood pressure, within 3 minutes of changing from a prone position to being upright, of 20 mm Hg systolic or 10 mm Hg diastolic pressure. The prevalence of this condition increases with age.