Disrespectful Democracy: The Psychology of Political Incivility

TO TEST THE claim that incivility interacts with conflict orientation to influence affective and behavioral reactions, I fielded a series of six surveys and survey experiments between March 2012 and August 2016, using five different online recruitment services: Qualtrics Panels, Survey Sampling International, GfK, Project Implicit (PI), and Amazon’s Mechanical Turk. Mechanical Turk (MTurk) and PI both provide nonrepresentative convenience samples of individuals who have registered to take studies or complete tasks, while Survey Sampling International and Qualtrics Panels use a quota system to achieve a more balanced but non-probability-based sample of individuals registered through their site. GfK uses probabilistic national sampling to recruit participants to its online surveys; if a selected individual does not have access to the Internet, the company works to make it available to them. Table A.1 displays a general summary of the sample size, procedure, and relevant empirical chapters for each of the six studies. This appendix includes relevant information from each study used in the book. In some cases, the study included additional experimental measures or survey questions that are not included here because they were not relevant to the analyses conducted as part of this project.

TABLE A.1 SUMMARY OF ALL STUDIES

#	SAMPLE SOURCE	N	DATE COLLECTED	DESCRIPTION	DV	RELEVANT CHAPTER
1	Qualtrics Panels (nationally representative)	500	July–August 2016	In this two-wave panel study, participants completed a fifteen-question version of the Conflict Communication Scale in July in conjunction with research not included in this book. Three weeks later, they were asked to fill out the CCS again, as well as a battery of psychological scales measuring conflict-resolution strategies and alternative measures of conflict orientation.	Conflict orientation	2
2	Survey Sampling International (nationally representative)	600	April 2014	As part of a larger omnibus survey, participants filled out one subsection of the CCS, viewed either a civil or an uncivil clip, and then answered questions about their emotional reactions to those clips and their recall of the issues discussed in the clips.	Emotional response	3
3	GfK (nationally representative)	3,000	July 2016	Participants completed the CCS, then were randomly assigned to watch either the Planned Parenthood hearings or a clip from the reality show Master Chef. After the video, they responded to questions about their emotional reactions and their willingness to share or respond to the video, and offered their own comments on what they watched.	Emotional response, political participation	3, 5
4	Project Implicit (online convenience)	1,800	March 2012	Respondents completed a Brief IAT (BIAT), then filled out the CCS and answered questions about the frequency of their media consumption and about political participation habits.	Media habits, political participation	4, 5
5	Mechanical Turk 1 (online convenience)	625	December 2012	Citizens filled out the CCS, reported their political participation and their media consumption. This study asked participants to rank their favorite programs in order of preference. As a distractor, they were given basic arithmetic problems to solve, then asked to read a New York Times story about a mentally ill criminal and a randomized treatment text. After the treatment, they responded to questions about it and filled out basic social and demographic information.	Media habits, political participation	4, 5
6	Mechanical Turk 2 (online convenience)	350	May 2016	Respondents filled out the CCS, were randomly assigned to see a civil or an uncivil political clip from CSPAN about hearings on Planned Parenthood, and were then asked if they wanted to learn more about any of five headlines that varied in topic (news vs. entertainment) and civility (civil vs. uncivil).	Media habits	4

The primary data for the empirical chapters in this book come from experiments in which the incivility of the media environment is manipulated. While details of each experiment are explained more fully in the relevant chapters, many of them had participants randomly assigned to view either a civil or an uncivil version of a news clip, series of online comments, or newspaper article. When possible, findings were replicated using different media clips and platforms. Additionally, throughout the book, I present the findings of these experiments graphically so as to best convey the relationships being discussed. The underlying statistical models and results can be found in Appendix B.

QUALTRICS PANELS, JULY–AUGUST 2016

The Qualtrics Panels survey was conducted in two waves in order to assess change in conflict orientation over a short period of time. Individuals who participated in the first wave were invited to participate in the second to facilitate within-subject assessment between wave 1, which was in the field in July 2016, and wave 2, which collected data three weeks later. Wave 1 also included an experimental manipulation that is not a part of the research.

WAVE 1: JULY 2016

Age. Please enter your current age.

Gender. Are you male or female?

Male

Female

Education. What is the highest level of school you have completed?

No high school diploma

High school graduate—high school diploma or equivalent (GED)

Some college, no degree

Race. Please check one or more categories to indicate what race(s) you consider yourself to be.

White

Black or African American

American Indian or Alaska Native

Asian

Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander

Other

Ethnicity. This question is about Hispanic ethnicity. Are you of Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino descent? Please select only one of the following:

No, I am not.

Yes, Mexican, Mexican-American or Chicano

Yes, Puerto Rican.

Yes, Cuban.

Yes, Central American.

Yes, South American.

Yes, Caribbean.

Yes, other Spanish/Hispanic/Latino.

Conflict Communication Scale. Please indicate your level of agreement with the following statements [strongly disagree, disagree, neither agree nor disagree, agree, strongly agree]

I enjoy challenging the opinions of others.

I find conflicts exciting.

I hate arguments.

I feel upset after an argument.

Arguments don’t bother me.

I feel more comfortable having an argument in person than over the phone.

I dislike when others make eye contact with me during an argument.

If I were upset with a friend, I would discuss it with someone else rather than the friend who upset me.

When I have a conflict with someone, I try to resolve it by being extra nice to him or her.

I always prefer to solve disputes through face-to-face discussion.

After a dispute with a neighbor, I would feel uncomfortable seeing him or her again, even if the conflict had been resolved.

I feel uncomfortable seeing others argue in public.

I don’t mind strangers arguing in my presence.

It doesn’t bother me to be in a situation where others are arguing.

Getting emotional only makes conflicts worse.

Everything should be out in the open in an argument, including emotions.

It makes me uncomfortable watching other people express their emotions in front of me.

I feel like running away when other people start showing their emotions in an argument.

It shows strength to express emotions openly.

Showing you feelings in a dispute is a sign of weakness.

Political interest. Some people seem to follow politics most of the time, while others aren’t that interested. Would you say you follow what’s going on in politics most of the time, some of the time, only now and then, or hardly at all? Please choose only one of the following.

Party identification. Generally speaking, do you usually think of yourself as a Republican, a Democrat, an Independent, or what?

Party strength. [If Republican or Democrat selected] Would you consider yourself a strong Democrat/Republican or not very strong Democrat/Republican?

Strong

Not very strong

Party lean. [If Independent or other selected] Do you think of yourself as closer to the Republican or Democratic Party?

Republican Party

Democratic Party

Neither party

Ideology. Here is a seven-point scale on which the political views that people might hold are arranged from extremely liberal to extremely conservative. Where would you put yourself on this scale?

Extremely liberal

Liberal

Slightly liberal

Moderate; middle of the road

Slightly conservative

Conservative

Extremely conservative

Income. Which of the income groups listed below includes the total 2015 income before taxes of all members of your family living in your home? Please include salaries, wages, pensions, dividends, interest, and all other income.

Conflict Communication Scale. Please indicate your level of agreement with the following statements [strongly disagree, disagree, neither agree nor disagree, agree, strongly agree]

I enjoy challenging the opinions of others.

I find conflicts exciting.

I hate arguments.

I feel upset after an argument.

Arguments don’t bother me.

I feel more comfortable having an argument in person than over the phone.

I dislike when others make eye contact with me during an argument.

If I were upset with a friend, I would discuss it with someone else rather than the friend who upset me.

When I have a conflict with someone, I try to resolve it by being extra nice to him or her.

I always prefer to solve disputes through face-to-face discussion.

After a dispute with a neighbor, I would feel uncomfortable seeing him or her again, even if the conflict had been resolved.

I feel uncomfortable seeing others argue in public.

I don’t mind strangers arguing in my presence.

It doesn’t bother me to be in a situation where others are arguing.

Getting emotional only makes conflicts worse.

Everything should be out in the open in an argument, including emotions.

It makes me uncomfortable watching other people express their emotions in front of me.

I feel like running away when other people start showing their emotions in an argument.

It shows strength to express emotions openly.

Showing you feelings in a dispute is a sign of weakness.

Ten Item Personality Inventory. Here are a number of personality traits that may or may not apply to you. Please select the extent to which you agree or disagree with each statement. You should rate the extent to which the pair of traits applies to you, even if one characteristic applies more strongly than others. [strongly disagree, disagree, somewhat disagree, neither agree nor disagree, somewhat agree, agree, strongly agree]

Extraverted, enthusiastic

Critical, quarrelsome

Dependable, self-disciplined

Anxious, easily upset

Open to new experiences, complex

Reserved, quiet

Sympathetic, warm

Disorganized, careless

Calm, emotionally stable

Conventional, uncreative

Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid. Below is a list of statements about leadership behavior. Read each one carefully, then, using the following scale, decide the extent to which it actually applies to you. For best results, answer as truthfully as possible. [Never, sometimes, about half the time, most of the time, always]

I encourage my team to participate when it comes to decision-making time, and I try to implement their ideas and suggestions.

I enjoy reading articles, books, and trade journals about my profession, and then implementing the new procedures I have learned.

Nothing is more important than accomplishing a goal or task.

I closely monitor the schedule to ensure a task or project will be completed in time.

I enjoy coaching people on new tasks and procedures.

The more challenging a task is, the more I enjoy it.

I encourage my employees to be creative about their job.

When seeing a complex task through to completion, I ensure that every detail is accounted for.

I find it easy to carry out several complicated tasks at the same time.

I enjoy reading articles, books, and journals about training, leadership and psychology, then putting what I have read into action.

When correcting mistakes, I do not worry about jeopardizing relationships.

I manage my time very efficiently.

I enjoy explaining the intricacies and details of a complex task or project to my employees.

Breaking large projects into small manageable tasks is second nature to me.

Nothing is more important than building a great team.

I enjoy analyzing problems.

I honor other people’s boundaries.

Counseling my employees to improve their performance or behavior is second nature to me.

Thomas Kilmann instrument (conflict resolution). Consider situations in which you find your wishes differing from those of another person. How do you usually respond in such situations? The following screens contain 30 pairs of statements describing possible behavioral responses. For each pair, please select the statement that best characterizes your behavior. In many cases, neither statement may be very typical of your behavior; but please select the response you would be more likely to use.

There are times when I let others take responsibility for solving the problem.

Rather than negotiate the things on which we disagree, I try to stress those things on which we both agree.

I try to find a compromise solution.

I attempt to deal with all of his/her and my concerns.

I am usually firm in pursuing my goals.

I might try to soothe the other’s feelings and preserve our relationship.

I try to find a compromise solution.

I sometimes sacrifice my own wishes for the wishes of the other person.

I consistently seek the other’s help in working out a solution.

I try to do what is necessary to avoid useless tensions.

I try to avoid creating unpleasantness for myself.

I try to win my position.

I try to postpone the issue until I have had some time to think it over.

I give up some points in exchange for others.

I am usually firm in pursuing my goals.

I attempt to get all concerns and issues immediately out in the open.

I feel that differences are not always worth worrying about.

I make some effort to get my way.

I am firm in pursuing my goals.

I try to find a compromise solution.

I attempt to get all concerns and issues immediately out in the open.

I might try to soothe the other’s feelings and preserve our relationship.

I sometimes avoid taking positions that would create controversy.

I will let the other person have some of his/her positions if he/she lets me have some of mine.

I propose a middle ground.

I press to get my points made.

I tell the other person my ideas and ask for his/hers.

I try to show the other person the logic and benefits of my position.

I might try to soothe the other’s feelings and preserve our relationship.

I try to do what is necessary to avoid tensions.

I try not to hurt the other’s feelings.

I try to convince the other person of the merits of my position.

I am usually firm in pursuing my goals.

I try to do what is necessary to avoid useless tensions.

If it makes other people happy, I might let them maintain their views.

I will let other people have some of their positions if they let me have some of mine.

I attempt to get all concerns and issues immediately out in the open.

I try to postpone the issue until I have had some time to think it over.

I attempt to immediately work through our differences.

I try to find a fair combination of gains and losses for both of us.

In approaching negotiations, I try to be considerate of the other person’s wishes.

I always lean toward a direct discussion of the problem.

I try to find a position that is intermediate between his/hers and mine.

I assert my wishes.

I am very often concerned with satisfying all our wishes.

There are times when I let others take responsibility for solving the problem.

If the other’s position seems very important to him/her, I would try to meet his/her wishes.

I try to get the other person to settle for a compromise.

I try to show the other person the logic and benefits of my position.

In approaching negotiations, I try to be considerate of the other person’s wishes.

I propose a middle ground.

I feel that differences are not always worth worrying about.

I sometimes avoid taking positions that would create controversy.

If it makes other people happy, I might let them maintain their views.

I am usually firm in pursuing my goals.

I usually seek the other’s help in working out a solution.

I propose a middle ground.

I feel that differences are not always worth worrying about.

I try not to hurt the other’s feelings.

I always share the problem with the other person so that we can work it out.

Testa et al. conflict orientation. People choose to talk or not talk about politics for a variety of reasons. Please tell us which of the following statements apply to you (True/False):

I am sometimes reluctant to talk about politics:

(N1) Because I don’t like arguments;

(N2) Because it creates enemies;

(N3) Because I worry about what people would think of me.

When I talk about politics I do so:

(P1) Because it is enjoyable or entertaining;

(P2) Because I like to debate and argue about politics;

(P3) Because I want to share my views and convince others.

Ulbig and Funk conflict orientation. Some people try to avoid getting into political discussions because they think that people can get into arguments and it can get unpleasant. Other people enjoy discussing politics even though it sometimes leads to arguments. What is your feeling on this—do you usually try to avoid political discussions, do you enjoy them, or are you somewhere in between?

Try to avoid political discussions

Enjoy political discussions.

Somewhere in between.

SURVEY SAMPLING INTERNATIONAL

Gender. What best describes your gender?

Male

Female

Race & Ethnicity. What best describes your ethnicity?

Age. What is your age?

Education. What best describes your educational background?

Some high school

Completed high school

Completed some college

College degree

Master’s degree

Doctoral degree

Conflict Communication Scale. Please indicate your level of agreement with the following statements. [Strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree]

I enjoy challenging the opinions of others.

I find conflicts exciting.

I hate arguments.

Arguments don’t bother me.

I feel upset after an argument.

Please watch the news clip below and answer the questions on the following screens.

[see treatments at end of the questionnaire]

Manipulation check. To what extent was the clip you just watched…[not at all, slightly, moderately, very, extremely]

Expressive of multiple viewpoints?

Emotions. To what extent did the clip you just watched make you feel any of the following? [not at all, slightly, moderately, very, extremely]

Ideology. Here is a 7-point scale on which the political views that people might hold are arranged from extremely liberal to extremely conservative. Where would you put yourself on this scale?

Extremely liberal

Liberal

Slightly liberal

Moderate: middle of the road

Slightly conservative

Conservative

Extremely conservative

Party identification. Generally speaking, do you usually think of yourself as a Republican, a Democrat, an Independent, or what?

Party strength. [If Democrat/Republican] Would you consider yourself a strong Republican/Democrat or a not very strong Republican/Democrat?

Strong Republican/Democrat

Not very strong Republican/Democrat

Party lean. [If independent/other] Do you think of yourself as closer to the Republican or Democratic Party?

Republican Party

Democratic Party

Neither party

Income. Please provide an approximation of your annual income.

TRANSCRIPTS OF SSI TREATMENTS

Morning Joe (MSNBC): Uncivil

MIKA BRZEZINSKI: Here with us now, Republican Representative from Virginia and House Minority Whip, Congressman Eric Cantor.

LAWRENCE O’DONNELL: What I want to know Congressman Cantor…

JOE SCARBOROUGH: It’s unconstitutional!

O’DONNELL: If you’re opposed to these bonuses, have you finally found the tax increase that you like specifically targeted to these bonuses? If not, how would you get the money?

CANTOR: Listen, I am for whatever we can do right now to get that money back.

O’DONNELL: Congressman, you said that your idea…

CROSSTALK

…for getting that money back is to ask Tim Geithner how to do it.

CANTOR: He’s the Secretary of the Treasury, he’s the one that put the taxpayer dollars out there that allows the bonuses to go forward.

O’DONNELL: And you have confidence in his ability to get it back, that’s what you’ve just said.

CANTOR: Well, well, listen, if he is the president’s secretary, he ought to be responsible for his actions.

Morning Joe (MSNBC): Civil

MIKA BRZEZINSKI: Here with us now, Republican representative from Virginia and House Minority Whip, Congressman Eric Cantor.

MSNBC REPORTER: Congressman, the president yesterday said that he has full confidence in Secretary Geithner, do you?

CANTOR: Listen, I don’t think you’re going to find anybody on Capitol Hill that doesn’t have some real concerns about what’s going on at the treasury department. And I think Secretary Geithner owes his country an explanation as to first of all how he approved the second transfer of the TARP money without catching these bonuses.

The Dylan Ratigan Show (MSNBC): Uncivil

DYLAN RATIGAN: Can a leader address these issues, considering how dependent they are for funding for political campaigns from those who benefit from those tax loopholes that he would have…he or she would have to close?

KAREN FINNEY: Wait a second! Wait a second! It is Congress that holds the power of the purse—and I’m going to get back to Dylan’s question—this president was willing to put on the table a big deal, and who couldn’t get the votes? John Boehner.

RATIGAN: Ok. Ok, ok, what are you talking about, four trillion dollars?

FINNEY: Four trillion dollars. I’m saying…

RATIGAN: We owe 70 trillion dollars…

FINNEY: I understand that but…

RATIGAN: He goes to walk out a 4 trillion dollar solution that is basically just a way for the Democrats to avoid dealing with this until 2017!

The Dylan Ratigan Show (MSNBC): Civil

RATIGAN: Makes me wonder if there’s any way out of this that doesn’t acknowledge the root problems that are at the root of trade, taxes and banking that are removing trillions from our nation. Can a leader address these issues, considering how dependent they are for funding for political campaigns from those who benefit from those tax loopholes that he would have, he or she would have to close?

SUSAN DEL PERCIO (MSBC CONTRIBUTOR): Well right now you can’t expect…it’s not going to come from Congress. It’s not going to come from an individual Congress…member of the House of Representatives or a U.S. Senator. Nor does anyone really expect it to. Who does it fall on? It falls on the executive, it falls on the president.

GFK

Conflict Orientation. Please indicate your level of agreement with the following statements. [Strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree]

I enjoy challenging the opinions of others.

I find conflicts exciting.

I hate arguments.

I feel upset after an argument.

Treatments. Each group watched one of four video clips. A free-text box was included underneath the video where participants could offer comments/questions/feedback per the instructions below. The text box was labeled “Add your comment:”

Instructions. Please watch the video below. After watching the clip, you are invited to ask questions or offer your own comments in the box below if you would like to do so.

[Prompt if no comment] We noticed you chose not to leave a comment on the video clip. Why did you decide not to leave a comment?

Share Story. The news organization also allows you to share the content you just watched with your social network on Facebook, Twitter, or other social networking sites. Would you be interested in sharing this story? [Yes/no]

[If yes] Please write below any commentary you would include in your shared post.

[If no] Why wouldn’t you share the story?

Emotions. To what extent did the clip you just watched make you feel any of the following? [not at all, slightly, moderately, very, extremely]

Manipulation Check. To what extent was the clip you just watched…[not at all, slightly, moderately, very, extremely]

Conflict Communication Scale:

(Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, or Strongly Disagree)

Approach/Avoidance Scale

1. I enjoy challenging the opinions of others.

2. I find conflicts exciting.

3. I hate arguments.

4. Arguments don’t bother me.

5. I feel upset after an argument.

Public/Private Behavior

1. I avoid arguing in public.

2. I feel uncomfortable seeing others argue in public.

3. It wouldn’t bother me to have an argument in a restaurant.

Media Consumption. During a typical week, how many days do you watch, read, or listen to…[0–7 days]

News on the Internet, not including sports?

News on the radio, not including sports?

News on network TV, not including sports?

News in a printed newspaper, not including sports?

News on cable TV, not including sports?

Political Participation. During the past year did you…(select all that apply)

Attend local political meetings (such as school board or city council)

Go to a political speech, march, rally, or demonstration

Try to persuade someone to vote

Put up a political sign (such as a lawn sign or bumper sticker)

Work for a candidate or campaign

Wear a campaign button or sticker

Phone, email, write to, or visit a government official to express your views on a public issue

Comment on political blogs or online forums (not surveys)

Donate money to a candidate, campaign, or political organization

Vote. Did you vote in the last political election?

Yes

Ten Item Personality Inventory1. Here are a number of personality traits that may or may not apply to you. For each statement, indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with that statement. You should rate the extent to which the pair of traits applies to you, even if one characteristic applies more strongly than the other. (Disagree strongly, disagree moderately, disagree a little, neither agree nor disagree, agree a little, agree moderately, agree strongly)

I see myself as:

1. Extraverted, enthusiastic

2. Critical, quarrelsome

3. Dependable, self-disciplined

4. Anxious, easily upset

5. Open to new experiences, complex

6. Reserved, quiet

7. Sympathetic, warm

8. Disorganized, careless

9. Calm, emotionally stable

10. Conventional, uncreative

Party identification. Generally speaking, do you usually think of yourself as a Republican, a Democrat, an Independent, or what? (Democrat/Republican/Independent/Other/No preference)