Abdi, K. 420
Ableeva, R. 67
Abrahamsson, N. 97, 104, 388, 443–4, 446, 449–52, 454, 507
acquisition rich classroom 276
adaptive imitation 82
adult L2 perception training 351–4
advanced language proficiency; advanced L2 proficiency 506–12; assessment regimes 510; and constraints on native-like L2 attainment 506–7; data and common elicitation measures 514–15; in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) contexts 511; in ESL/EFL contexts 510–11; fluency 509; fossilization and stabilization in relation to 507–8; future directions for research 516–17; genre, notion of 510–11; and grammaticized formal categories of language 508; historical perspective 506; instructional relevance 515–16; in Introduction-Method-Results-Discussion (IMRD) structure 510; practical approaches 510–11; semiotic dimension 512–14; as situated language use toward multicompetent literacy 511–12
age effects, on L2 learning; age of arrival 338, 350, 443, 447, 456, 499; age of onset 339; applications 455–6; core issues 443–6; data and common elicitation measures 447–55; future directions for research 456; historical perspectives 442–3; morphosyntactic measures 449–54
agency and L2 acquisition 414–15; core issues 417; data and common elicitation measures 417–20; future directions for research 421–2; institutional relevance 420
Ahearn, L. 417
American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI) 497, 499, 527, 580
aptitude complexes 258–9, 381, 388–9, 392
argument-change signaling morphology 135–6
attentional mechanisms, in SLA 9, 24–5, 33–4; and apperception 250; and capacity limits 254–5; cognitive science of 247–8; and consciousness raising techniques 249; distinction between input and intake 248–9; factors relating to 77; first-person reports of experience 255–6; future directions for research 260–2; implicit and explicit learning 251–3; individual differences and 258–9; input enhancement techniques 249; instructional relevance 258–60; in morpheme acquisition 251; objects of attention 253–4; psycholinguistic distinctions of learner's mechanisms for perception and learning 248–51; role of attention and awareness to output 254–5; role of feedback 260; selective 9, 197, 200, 248–9, 251, 258; subjective and objective behavioral tests of learning 256–7; of task characteristics 259–60; variationist perspectives 41–3
attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) 437
Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) 401
automatic processing 186
Baars, B. 255
Bachman, L. F. 574
Baldwin, J. M. 59
Banka, F. 117
Bardovi-Harlig, K. 147, 151, 158, 321, 323
Beebe, L. M. 41, 43, 45, 154, 412
Belikova, A. 119
Belletti, A. 117
Benson, P. 574
bilingualism/bilingual processing systems 180–1, 231, 507, 578; and age effects 452; attentional mechanisms 248; “bilinguals” vs “heritage speakers” 492–3, 500–1; and competition during sentence comprehension 223; English–French bilinguals 429; identity in relation to 415; L1 acquisition of a Japanese–Australian child, case study 238–9; and L1 and L2 reading abilities 310, 312; in school-age bilingual learners 306; in social context of Canada 397, 411; and syntax-discourse/pragmatics interface 142
Birdsong, D. 338, 445, 448–9, 451–2, 478
Blackledge, A. 415
Bley-Vroman, R. 118, 135, 212, 443, 476–80
Blum-Kulka, S. 154
Bowen, J. 93
Brazil, D. 342
British National Corpus 166
Brooks, L. 321
Brooks-Carson, A. 324
Brown, A. 136
built-in syllabus 41
butterfly effect phenomenon 75
Carlisle, R. S. 338
Carroll, J. B. 381–4, 388, 390–1, 509
Carroll, M. 508
Carroll, S. E. 116–17, 121, 182, 277
categorical perception 355
Cattell, J. M. 180
Chandler, J. 326
Chinese as a heritage language (CHL) 312
Chomsky, N. 78, 106–7, 109, 119–21, 194, 212, 507
“choreographic complexity” of oral language 513
chunking 211, 218–19, 222–4, 385
Clahsen, H. 140, 181, 211, 228–9, 275, 283
classroom language and behavior 2
classroom second language research; core issues 541–3; data and common elicitation measures 543–9; distinguish between classroom research and other similar research 542; future directions for research 549–50; historical perspectives 541; instructional relevance 549; in intact classrooms 542–3
Cleland, A. 325
closed skill environments 185
co-adaptation, process of 76–7, 82, 202
Cognitive Ability for Novelty in Acquisition of Language—Foreign (CANAL–F) 389–90
cognitive fluency 509
cognitive linguistics 68, 136, 196–7, 204–5, 321
cognitive semantics 129–30, 134, 136, 508
Cohen, A. 156, 324, 536, 574, 582
collocations 76, 169, 204, 319, 512
complementizer phrase (CP) 111
complexity theory; characteristics 79–80; in developing multilingual norms 78; dynamism to language evolution and change 75–6; effect of feedback 75; empirical verification 81–2; future directions for research 83–4; historical perspectives 73–4; implication for instruction 82–3; and language processing 75; organized complexity 74; perspective in communicative interactions 76–7; role in language acquisition process 77–9
component skills approach, to reading 304, 306
Computer Adaptive Test of Size and Strength (CATSS) 166
computer-mediated communication (CMC) 29, 155, 556
computer technology and language learning; computer-generated feedback 557–8, 563; data and common elicitation measures 559–62; future directions for research 565; historical perspectives 555–7; individual learner differences and assessment 558; and individual needs 564; instructional relevance 562–5; interaction-based research 559–61; interactions using 557–8; learner autonomy and identity 558–9; learner autonomy and intercultural competence 564–5; and meaning-based communication 564; for students’ aural comprehension 563
concept-based instruction (CBI) 64–6
Conrad phenomenon 337
conscious processes 255
consequentiality 156
continuity psychology 75
convergent tasks 15
conversation analysis 157, 418, 544, 577
corpora, learner 79–80, 84, 136, 164, 168–9, 196, 204, 214, 222, 228, 312, 342, 511, 516, 529, 537, 560–1, 581
corpus-based research 80, 82, 136, 166–7, 173, 196–7, 200, 203–5, 236, 321, 342, 356, 422, 511, 514, 555, 560, 581
corpus linguistics 197, 204, 325, 581
corrective feedback see negative feedback, in second language (L2) learning
critical period hypothesis (CPH) 219, 337, 443–4, 506
Croft's Radical Construction Grammar 197
Cross-Cultural Speech Act Realization Project (CCSARP) 157
“crystalline complexity” of written language 513
cue; availability 214; cost factors 214; detectability factors 214; strength 213–14
Day, E. M. 418
de Bot, K. 74
DeCaro, M. S. 435
declarative memory 283–6, 288, 290, 292
Defense Language Aptitude Battery (DLAB) 382
DeGraaf, R. 387
Dekydtspotter, L. 137
design-based research 550
developmental education 64
DevLex simulations of early bilingual learning 216, 224
Dewaele, J. -M. 51
Dickerson, L. 41
Dienes, Z. 257
discourse completion tasks (DCTs) 155–6, 528
disorganized complexity 74
Donato, R. 60
Dörnyei, Z. 151, 396–400, 403–5, 421, 579; L2 Motivational Self System 405
Doughty, C. 249
dynamic assessment (DA), L2 66–7
early left anterior negativity (ELAN) responses 219
early-stage learners 483
Eckerson, L. D. 165
Eckman, F. 94–5, 98, 103, 220, 335–6
educational level/literacy effects, on L2 learning; data and common elicitation measures 465–9; future directions for research 470–2; historical perspectives 461–3; instructional relevance 469–70; oral language processing 463–4; and school-related tasks 464
elicitation measures, in interaction research 11–12
elicitations 26
Ellis, N. C. 74, 82, 198–201, 253–4
English verb-argument constructions (VACs) 82
entrenchment 215–16; effect on L2 learning 199, 211, 215–17, 220, 223–4, 286, 454–5; risk factor of 216
Ervin-Tripp, S. M. 180, 183, 269, 271–2
European Science Foundation (ESF) corpus 82
Evans, J. S. B. T. 435
event-related potentials research 288–9; and hemodynamic (fMRI and PET) evidence of lexical and grammatical aspects of L2 291–3
exchange tasks 15
executive attention 259, 427, 434–6
executive working memory (EWM) tests 385
explicit knowledge 12, 65, 115, 140, 152, 154, 156, 159, 173, 249, 251–3, 258, 276, 285–6, 320, 322, 325, 327, 365, 391–2, 435, 546, 549, 575–7; interface between implicit and 251–3; language production processes of 365; from language stimuli 258
failed functional features hypothesis 112
feature reassembly hypothesis 113
feature unification, in Lexical-Functional Grammar 233–4
feedback in second language (L2) learning; cognitive process, impact on 33–4; contextual characteristics influencing 29–30; developmental stages and 31–2; development of linguistic accuracy for the recast group, role in 35; effectiveness of 26–7; explicit vs implicit 60; in form-focused instruction (FFI) 35; future directions for research 36; indicators of the effectiveness 33–5; influential characteristic of 27–9; input-providing 25; instructional relevance 35–6; instructional variable, role of 29; interlocutor variables, role of 29–30; introspective measures 32–3; learners’ production of uptake and 30–1; linguistic features targeted by 28; metalinguistic feedback, effect on posttest performance 34; naturally-occurring 25–6; negative 24–5; oral production and 30; phonological memory and analytical ability, role in 35; uptake/modified output, impact on 33
feminist poststructuralist theory 415
Ferreira, M. 65
Ferreira-Junior, F. 82, 199–202
Firth, A. 549
Flege, J. E. 93, 335–8, 341, 351, 443, 448–9, 451
Flower, L. S. 322
fluency 15, 24, 197, 224, 254, 365, 463, 482, 494, 528, 530, 581; and advanced levels of proficiency 509; and attention 97; disfluency 218–19; fluent bilingual 437; and lexical knowledge 165–7, 218–19; native-like 203, 338; and pragmatic transfer 154; and writing development 323–4
focus-on-form (FonF) instruction 14–15, 25, 29, 35, 50, 140–1, 167, 249, 258, 260, 358, 436, 546–7, 549
foreign language in the elementary school (FLES) 455
foreign language vocabulary, learning; applications 171–2; easy words and difficult words 164; future directions for research 172–3; historical perspectives 163; involvement load hypothesis 168; lexical competence and measurement 165–7, 169–70; lexical growth 167–8, 170–1; lexical selection 164, 168–9; measuring lexical richness in writing 166; multi-word units 169
fossilization research; applications 485–6; centrality of 476–7; conceptual and empirical challenges 479–81; data and common elicitation measures 481–5; future directions for research 486–7; sine qua non of 477–9
Foster, P. 365
French learners; of Dutch 136; of English 8–9, 434
Frenkiel-Fishman, S. 183
frequency-based accounts, of L2 acquisition; construction frequency 198; core issues 196–7; data and common elicitation measures 197; empirical verification 198–202; fundamental instructional aspects 203–5; future directions for research 205–6; instructional relevance 202–5; prototypicality 201; psycholinguistic perspectives 196; psychological perspective 195–6; recall latency 195; recency 200–1; redundancy 201–2; significance of linguistic form 193–4; type-token frequency 198–9; usage-based approaches 196–7; Zipfian distribution 199–200
Fries, C. C. 194
Fruit Bell, M. 141
full transfer/full access hypothesis (FT/FA) 111–12
fundamental difference hypothesis (FDH) 142, 212, 443, 477
Gardner, R. C. 396–7, 399, 401–3
Gass, S. M. 9, 11, 29, 115, 250–1, 253–4, 270, 321, 492–3, 542, 561, 574
General Service List of English Words 163
Gibbons, P. 67
Gleick, J. 76
Goldberg, A. E. 82, 197, 199, 202
graduated interval recall 216, 219, 224
grammaring 83
grammatical meanings 127–8, 201
grammatical metaphor 513
Guk, I. 67
Gupta, P. 430
Hansen, J. G. 46–7, 97, 339, 341
Harklau, L. 325
Harley, T. A. 180
Harris, Z. 194
Hawkins, J. 121
Hayes, J. R. 322
hemodynamic (fMRI and PET) evidence, of lexical and grammatical aspects of L2 291–3
heritage language and L2 learning; data and common elicitation measures 494–7; definition 492; future directions for research 500–1; heritage language curriculum 498–500; historical perspectives 491–3; instructional relevance 497–500; landmark events in development of 493; role in placement and proficiency assessment 499–500
heritage-language (HL) learners 416; distinctions between “bilinguals” and HL 493–4
Higa, M. 164
Hill, M. 559
Hopper, P. 202
Howard, E. R. 323
Hulstijn, J. 168, 184, 186, 485, 559
Hyltenstam, K. 104, 388, 443–4, 446, 449–52, 454, 507
hyponymy 128
ideal L2 self 400–1, 404–5, 534
identity and L2 acquisition; data and common elicitation measures 417–20; early studies 412; future directions for research 421–2; and HL literacy practices 416; institutional relevance 420; recent studies 412–14; in relation to bilingualism 415; in relation to one's core self 415; in SLA textbooks 416; social/cultural and professional 417; sociolinguistic approaches 412; sociological and social-psychological approaches 411
imitative suggestion 59
immersion, context for language learning; core issues 526; data and common elicitation measures 526–36; future directions for research 536–7; historical perspective 525–6; individual and social factors 531–6; instructional relevance 536; language gain 531
implicational scaling 228
implicit knowledge 171–2, 184, 249, 252
individual differences; and attentional mechanisms in SLA 258–9; in cognitive abilities 260; HLLs vs FLLs 499; and language assessment 558; on noticing 34; study abroad experiences, on foreign language learning 526, 531–6
inflectional phrase (IP) 111
information criterion 256
input processing; applications 273–6; criticisms related to processing instruction 275; definition of processing 269–70; and explicit instruction 276; first noun principle 271–2; future directions for research 276–7; historical perspectives 268–9; instructional relevance 273–6; lexical preference principle 271; lexical semantics and event probabilities 272; off-line measures of 272–3; on-line measures of 273; primacy of content words 270–1
instructional effects on L2 pragmatics; pragmatics 152–4
instructional relevance; advanced language proficiency 515–16; attentional mechanisms, in SLA 258–60; classroom second language research 549; computer technology and language learning 562–5; educational level/ literacy effects, on L2 learning 469–70; feedback in second language (L2) learning 35–6; frequency-based accounts, of L2 acquisition 202–5; heritage language and L2 learning 497–500; immersion, context for language learning 536; input processing 273–6; L2 processing research 187–8; language aptitude 390–1; learner knowledge, assessment of 584–5; morphology and syntax, of a second language (L2) 119–20; motivation 404–5; neurocognition of second language 293–4; oral and written tasks, impact on L2 performance 370–5; phonology, second-language (L2) 102–3; pragmatics 158–9; processability theory (PT) 241–2; processing research, second-language (L2) 187–8; reading research, L2 313–14; second language (L2) phonology 102–3; semantics 140–1; speech production, L2 342–3; unified competition model (UCM) 223–4; working memory 437; writing research, L2 327–8
instrumental orientation 397, 401
integrative orientation 396, 399, 402
intelligibility 337, 340–1, 343; judgments, of L2 speech 340
interaction differential 10, 81–2
interaction hypothesis 7–9, 471
interactionist perspectives, on SLA; applications 14–16; common elicitation measures in 11–12; core issues 9–11; early versions 8; empirical verification 13–14; explicit techniques and degree of interlanguage development 16; French learners of English 8–9; future directions for research 16–17; Hatch's views 7–8; historical perspectives 7–9; impact of affective states on the processing of interactional feedback 11; Krashen's input hypothesis 7; learner-internal cognitive mechanisms 10–11; longitudinal and replication studies, importance 16; Long's original version 8–9; and proficiency levels 15; role of attention 9; Schmidt's noticing hypothesis 9; social relationship between interlocutors and learners, importance 17; Swain's output hypothesis 8; in task-based learning 14–15; use of corrective feedback 11; Wagner-Gough's views 7; White's views 8–9
interlanguage (IL) 94; constraints on grammar 95–9; criteria for well-formedness 99; differences between two 102; morphosyntactic development 112–13; pattern of utterances and evidence 95; phonological rules 94–5; restructuring of 111; rule of devoicing 102–3; syntactic movement in 112; value of the construct of 95
internalization, process of 220–1
introspective methods 261, 543, 561
Ivanov, I. 141
Jones, G. 165
Judd, E. 148
Kasper, G. 147–8, 150, 154–5, 158
Keating, G. D. 273
Kellogg, D. 67
Keβler, J. -U. 239–42, 387, 463
Kim, T.-Y. 403
Klein, W. 149
Kormos, J. 254, 369–70, 383, 386, 434
Krashen, S. 7, 167, 211, 249–50, 275–6; input hypothesis 7
L1 attrition/incomplete acquisition 454
L2 learning and teaching 1
L2 processing research 447; argument-change signaling morphology 135–6; core issues 181–5; cross-linguistic differences 183; data and common elicitation measures 185–6; empirical verification 186–7; future directions for research 188–9; historical perspectives 180–1; instructional relevance 187–8; in natural communicative contexts 185; published literature 181–2; significance of learner's errors 181; social dimension 183–4; variational dimension 184–5; volitional dimensions 182–3
Lai, E. L. Y. 342
language aptitude; complexes 388–9; in counselling and remediation 390–1; and critical period 387–8; and dyslexia 384; foreign language aptitude batteries 390–1; future directions for research 391–2; historical perspectives 381–2; instructional relevance 390–1; and learning context 382–4; and memory 384–6; phonological working memory (PWM) 385–6; practical measurement concerns 389–90; and second language acquisition 386–7; stages in L2 processing 385; test measures 383; working memory as 385–6
language assessment 50, 470 see also learner knowledge, assessment of; dynamic assessment (DA) 66–7; of heritage learners 499, 501; and individual differences 558; in instructional studies 153, 158, 273–4, 314; of oral features 153; of spoken word recognition 356; of writing tasks 324, 327
language processing 2, 119, 179–80 see also L2 processing research; architecture of 230; auditory-visual (AV) 355; brain activity during 74–5, 217, 579; and competition 214–15; connection and misconnection 217–18; consequences of 215; educational level and oral 463–4, 471; L2 linguistic forms 228; native 289; natural 556; online 115; proceduralization of 212; and reading 304; and recency effects 200; spoken 358; studies of cue usage during 215
language related episodes (LREs) 15, 63, 325
language use, in context of L2 learning 2; interaction hypothesis 7–17
Lantolf, J. P. 57–65, 67–8, 321, 326, 414, 417
Lardiere, D. 112–13, 118, 127, 479, 483–4
Larsen-Freeman, D. 74, 82–3, 200, 228, 477, 479–80
LeaP (Learning Prosody in a Foreign Language) corpus 342
learner-internal cognitive mechanisms 10–11, 17, 181, 315
learner knowledge, assessment of; data and common elicitation measures 578–82; educationally oriented 579–80; future directions for research 585–6; as grammaticality judgment task 578–9; historical perspectives 573–5; instructional relevance 584–5; learner knowledge as a construct 575–7; from a perspective of cognitive-interactionist SLA 576; profiling learner knowledge acquisition by assessing L2 production 580–1; from sociocultural perspective 576–7; targets and benchmarks 577–8; using naturalistic data 581–2; validation programs 582–3
learners’ proficiency levels 29
Lemmens, M. 136
Leonini, C. 117
Levelt, W. J. M. 181, 230, 233, 386
Levis, J. 343
Lexical Frequency Profile 166
lexically driven grammar 233–4
lexical mapping theory (LMT) 234
lexical meanings 127–8; acquisition of 134–6; transfer of 220
lexical preference principle 271
Liebner, M. 239
linguistic theories in SLA 2
LLAMA language aptitude test 390–1
Long, M. H. 8–9, 14, 17, 228, 321, 365, 478–9, 483, 494, 507–8, 541
Lovatt, P. 385
McKay, S. 416
Macken, M. 97
Mackey, A. 8–10, 13, 16, 30, 32–5, 236, 253, 255, 259, 321, 386–7, 436, 545, 561
Macqueen, S. M. 82
MacWhinney, B. 181, 215, 219, 453, 482
Majerus, S. 430
markedness differential hypothesis (MDH) 94–5, 98, 335
Meisel, J. M. 229
memory for contingent speech (MCS) 388–9
metalinguistic knowledge 31, 133, 253, 286, 466, 471, 549, 575, 583
minimal trees hypothesis 111
Modern Languages Aptitude Test (MLAT) 382–4, 387, 389–91
morphology and syntax, of a second language (L2) 34, 229, 285; acquisition of English past-tense morphology 49; acquisition of Japanese morphosyntax 238–9; acquisition of verbal tense morphology 253–4, 273; argument-change signaling morphology 135–6; data elicitation methods 114–16; in deductive consequences 117–18; empirical verification of data-based studies 116–19; English inflectional morphology 139; English verbal morphology 138–9; ESL morphology 233; functional morphology 140–1; future directions for research 120–2; inflectional morphology 139–41; instructional relevance 119–20; irregular morphology 283; morphosyntactic development 112–13; phonological working memory 385–6; principles and parameters framework 108–10; role of L1 knowledge in acquiring the L2 grammar 110–14; and universal grammar 106–8, 116–17; in wh-movement and constraints 118–19
motivation; in classroom setting 397; core issues 398–401; data and common elicitation measures 401–4; Dörnyei's L2 Motivational Self proposal 405; dynamic systems perspective 400; future directions for research 405–6; historical perspectives 396–8; individual difference approach 399–400; instructional relevance 404–5; process-oriented dimension of L2 405; shortcomings of process model of L2 398; social-psychological dimensions 397–400; teachers’ motivational strategies 404–5
moving window technique 186
multidimensional model (MM) 228–9
multiple-trace memory theory 357
Muñoz, C. 456
Nation, I. S. P. 171
nativism and first language (L1) acquisition 107
naturally-occurring feedback in L2 classrooms 25; characteristics 25–6
negative feedback, in second language (L2) learning 24–5; effectiveness of 26–7; impact 34–5; influencing factors of effectiveness 27–9; and learners’ views 36; taxonomy 25
neurocognition of second language; applications 293–4; competition model 286–7; convergence hypothesis 287; declarative/procedural (DP) model 283–5; empirical studies 290–3; ERP and hemodynamic (fMRI and PET) evidence of lexical and grammatical aspects of L2 291–3; event-related potentials research 288–9; functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) 289; future directions for research 294; historical perspectives 282–3; instructional relevance 293–4; L2 vs L1 287–8; Paradis’ model 285–6
New London Group 52
Nguyen, H. 97
Nguyen, T. T. 156
nonword repetition task 384, 391, 429–32
noticing hypothesis 9, 27, 33–4, 250–1, 471
noun phrases (NPs) 111, 130, 213, 271, 418
objective test of learning 257
obstruent 102
Ohta, A. 24, 34, 60, 62, 68, 549
open skill environments 185
oral and written tasks, impact on L2 performance 156, 325, 495, 514, 536, 558; argumentative writing tasks 372; data and common elicitation measures 367; dictogloss 372; effect of corrective feedback 13–14; empirical evidence 367–70; future directions for research 375; historical perspectives 364–5; information gap task 370–1; instructional relevance 370–5; language performance 370; making an appointment 371; relationship with memory recall 366; role of working memory 323; use of verb tenses 321
Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI) 497, 499, 527, 580
organic syllabus 83
organized complexity 74
ought-to L2 self 400–1, 404, 411
Paradis, M. 211, 219, 253, 283, 285–8, 292–3, 443
parallel language architecture 130
parasitism 211, 215, 220–1, 286
Paribakht, T. S. 169
parsing 137, 187, 271, 275, 277, 385
Patkowski, M. S. 337–8, 448, 450–1, 453
Pawley, A. 509
Peirce, N. 416
perceptual assimilation model (PAM) 93, 351
Perez, J. 136
persistent imitation 59
Phinney, M. 117
phonological awareness 305, 309–11, 466, 470
phonological processing 429, 465, 468
phonological short-term memory (PSTM) 428–30
Pienemann, M. 181, 220, 228–9, 231, 233–8, 241–2, 320–1, 386, 463
Pierce, B. N. 339
Pierozak, I. 51
Pimsleur's Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB) 382–3, 389
Pirt, G. 336
Poehner, M. E. 57, 63–4, 67, 501
Polio, C. 24–5, 255, 258, 321, 326–7
Portner, P. 129
positive and negative transfer 220
poverty of the stimulus 106–8, 116, 121, 138
pragmalinguistic resources, L2 149–50, 157, 369
pragmatic competence 149–50, 343, 367, 369, 528
pragmatics 465, 485, 511, 528, 531, 576; affiliation of interlanguage pragmatics within applied linguistics 147–8; analysis of L2 156; data collection and common elicitation measures for evaluating 154–6; data elicitation in L2 pragmatics 149; definitions 147; differences in L1 and L2 production 150; empirical verification of, in interactive communication 157–8; future directions for research 159; grammar and 149–50; instructional effects on L2 pragmatics 152–4, 158–9; interface with language development 150; L1 influence in 154; role of learning environment in 150–2; in second language acquisition 148; syntax-pragmatics interface 141–2; tasks utilized in L2 155–6; in written-for-oral-production 156
primacy of content words 270–1
primary linguistic data (PLD) 108–9
private speech 34, 57–63, 68, 544, 577
proceduralization, of language processes 212, 215, 218–19, 222, 285, 387, 575
proceduralization deficit hypothesis (PDH) 219
procedural memory 283–8, 290, 292–3
processability theory (PT); basic idea underlying 230–1; data and common elicitation measures 236–9; in developmental approaches to the L2 classroom 240–1; developmental trajectories 230–1; in diagnosing language development 240; finding solutions to structural learning problem 232–3; future directions for research 242–3; historical perspectives 228–30; instructional relevance 241–2; interfaces between task-based language teaching and 241–2; Japanese SLA 238; key claims and constructs 231–3; principles and hypotheses 233–5
processing research, language see L2 processing research
prompt 35, 60, 81, 261, 325, 508, 564
prosodic transfer hypothesis 114
psycholinguistics 2, 130, 179–80, 197, 204, 325, 500, 525, 574, 579
Ranta, L. 25
Read, J. 165
reading research, L2; common underlying proficiency 305; construct analysis 308; cross-linguistic perspectives 304–6, 308–9; “developmental interdependence” hypothesis 305; empirical verification 310–13; examination of cross-linguistic relationships in reading skills 309–10; future directions for research 314–16; instructional relevance 313–14; involvement of L1 skills in 306–7; leaner-external factors 315–16; linguistic analysis 308; notion of transfer 303–4; variations 307
reading universals 305
recasts 9–10; and cognitive abilities 260–1; computer-delivered oral 11; effectiveness of 544–6; and learners’ memories 32; and literacy level 465; and L2 learning 24–6, 29, 33–5, 59; relationship between language anxiety and learners’ responses to 11–12, 14, 16; role in task-based learning 436; SCT-L2 60, 68; on specific linguistic structures 34
recency effects 195, 198, 200, 251
register, sociolinguistic perspectives on 51, 184, 341, 411, 461, 492, 498–500, 511, 584
resonance 211, 216–17, 222–3, 286
Reves, T. 383
Rinnert, C. 324
Robinson, P. 136, 204, 250–1, 255, 258, 260, 387–8, 392, 431, 435–6, 509
Roussou, A. 117
rules-of-thumb 65
Schauer, G. A. 151
schema of the orienting basis of action (SCOBA) 65–6, 68
Schmidt, R. 9, 148, 154, 250, 259, 482, 509; noticing hypothesis 9
Schumann, J. 75; acculturation model 47, 339; study on fossilization 482–3
Schwartz, B. D. 111–12, 116–17, 119, 142
Scovel, T. 335
Seashore, R. H. 165
second-language (L2) phonology; contrastive analysis hypothesis (CAH) 92–4; elicitation methods 100–1; empirical tests of hypotheses 101–2; future directions for research 103–4; instructional relevance 102–3; in interphonologies 99–100; L2 utterances and pronunciation 99; minimal sonority distance (MSD) parameter 98; NL–TL differences 92–4; optimality theoretic (OT) approach 96, 99; post-ILH focused 94–9; pre-ILH focused 92–4; prosodic hierarchies 96–7; psycholinguistic perspectives 91
selective attention 9, 197, 200, 248–9, 251, 258
selective fossilization hypothesis 481
self-organization, of a complex system 73, 80, 217
self-organizing maps (SOMs) 215
Selinker, L. 41, 476–9, 493, 507
Selkirk, E. 98
semantic category judgments 313
semantics; acquisition of lexical meaning 134–6; acquisition of sentence-level meaning 136–9; cognitive 129; elicitation procedures of L2 acquisition 132–4; formal 129; future directions for research 141–2; grammatical aspect 138; grammaticalization of concepts 131–2; historical perspectives 128–31; instructional relevance 140–1; linguistic structure 130; philosophical divide between theories of 129
sensitivity criterion 256
sentential meanings 128
serial order reconstruction task 430
Serrano, R. 323
shallow structure hypothesis 140
Shoaib, A. 403
similarity differential rate hypothesis (SDRH) 98, 338
Skehan, P. 365, 383–4, 388, 437, 509
Slabakova, R. 132, 138, 140, 450
Slobin, D. I. 58, 180, 183, 205, 229, 508
Smagorinsky, P. 61
Smith, B. 560
sociocultural theory (SCT)- L2 research; cognitive functioning 58–9; in concept-based instruction (CBI) 64–6, 68; in dynamic assessment (DA) 66–8; emergence of psychological processes from social activity 59–60; future directions for research 68; genetic method 61–3; historical perspectives 57–8; human imitation 59–60; in-depth study of listening comprehension 67; languaging, concept of 60; in L2 praxis 63–4; mediation, role of 60–1; zone of proximal development (ZPD) 57, 59–60
sociolinguistics, approaches to SLA 422, 496, 511, 527, 529, 531, 576, 580; related to identity 412; sociolinguistic competence 148; sociolinguistic interview 44–5, 48; sociopragmatic knowledge 149, 151, 187
soft-assembly 76
Song, H. -S. 142
Sonority Index (SI) 98
speech perception, L2; adult L2 perception training 351–4; data and common elicitation measures 355–7; empirical verification 356–8; future directions for research 359; historical perspectives 349–50; institutional relevance 358–9; L1 and L2 use 350–1; length of residence and L2 input 350; multiple-trace memory theory 357–8; natural 356; relationship between perception and production 354–5; role of visible articulatory movements 357–8; and segmental-level perception training 355; synthesized 355–6
speech production, L2; age-related effects 337–8; critical period hypothesis (CPH) 337–8; future directions for research 343–4; historical perspective 335–7; instructional relevance 342–3; intelligibility judgments 340; language-related effects 338–9; non-native speaker (NNS) perceptions of comprehensibility 340; segmental studies 341; socio-affective factors 339; suprasegmental studies 341–2
Sprouse, R. A. 111–12, 116–17, 119
stabilization, in language acquisition 480–3, 485, 507–8
Stockwell, R. 93
Stroop effect 213
structural conformity hypothesis (SCH) 98–9, 335
Structuralist Linguistics 194
study abroad experiences, on foreign language learning 51, 58, 62, 150–2; applications 536; data and common elicitation measures 526–36; empirical verification 531; future directions for research 536–7; individual variables and social factors 526, 531–6; language gain 531; research quantitative approaches 530
style-shift, of language forms 49–50
subjective test of learning 257
suprasegmental features, of L2 production 341–2, 359, 544
Swain, M. 8, 50–1, 60–1, 63, 65, 254, 321, 559; output hypothesis 8, 26
Syder, F. 509
synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC) 17, 560
synonymy 128
syntactic priming 186–7, 200, 325
syntax see also morphology and syntax, of a second language (L2); and instructional relevance, in second language (L2) learning 119–20; minimalist vision of 121; syntax-pragmatics interface 141–2
synthesized speech 350–2, 355–6
systematic variation, in linguistics 98
Taguchi, N. 158
Tajfel, H. 415
Takahashi, T. 154
Takimoto, M. 153
Talyzina, N. F. 65
Tanenhaus, M. K. 187
Tao, H. 341
Tarone, E. 34, 42, 44, 50–1, 325, 456, 463, 471, 478
Taube-Schiff, M. 183
Tavakoli, P. 365
teachability hypothesis 228–9, 240, 340–1
Thesen, L. 416
third person singular verbal -s; accuracy 42–3; grammatical meaning-form relationships 200–1
TL allophones 103
TOPIC hypothesis 233, 235, 242
transitional competence 41
Trubetzkoy, N. 93
Trueswell, J. C. 187
truth value judgment task (TVJT) 115, 132, 139
ultimate attainment, of L2 knowledge 110, 114, 211, 335, 338–9, 417, 444–6, 479, 507–8, 573
unconscious processes 195, 253, 275
unified competition model (UCM); chunking 218–19; competition 212–13, 215, 222–3; connection and misconnection 217–18; cues 213–15, 222; data and common elicitation measures 222–3; entrenchment 215–16; future directions for research 224; historical perspectives 211–12; instructional relevance of 223–4; levels of linguistic processing 216; parasitism 220–1; positive and negative transfer 220; proceduralization 218–19; process of internalization 220–1; resonance 216–17; risk factor of social isolation 221–2; risk factors and support factors for second language learning 215
universal grammar (UG) 96, 106–8, 116–17, 194, 211; and acquisition of native language(s) 106–7; Chomsky's position 107; constraints 107; minimalist program parameter 109–10; null subject parameter 108–9; and special nativism 107
unmarked alignment hypothesis 234–5, 242
Ushioda, E. 396, 400, 403, 421
Valenzuela, E. 141
van Gelder, T. 84
VanPatten, B. 9, 141, 270, 273–5, 320
variationist perspectives, on SLA; accuracy in 3rd person singular verbal -s 42–3; constraints on variation 43–4; data for 44; development of academic and formal styles of speech 50–2; elicitation measures 44–7; future directions for research 50–2; historical perspectives 41–2; identity of research and impact on speech of L2 learners 43; implications for language assessment 49–50; in non (un-) moderated chat 51; perception of target language (TL) norm 43; range of styles in different social situations 42; studies of interlanguage constraints 49–50; variationist fieldwork, data analysis 48–9; vernacular, or speakers’ unmonitored styles 42–3
verb-argument constructions (VACs) 82, 199–200, 202
Vocabulary Levels Test 166, 169
voice onset time (VOT) 341, 351, 443–4, 447
von Bertalanffy, L. 74
von Stutterheim, C. 149
Vygotsky, L. 57–61, 63–4, 221, 462
Wagner-Gough, J. 7
Wang, Y. 354
Waring, H. Z. 543
WASP program 342
Weinreich, U. 180
Wen, Q. 322
White, J. 456
White, L. 8–9, 107, 114, 117, 119, 121, 133, 135, 140, 320, 483
Whitley, M. S. 65
Williams, J. 249, 320, 325, 385, 547
Williams, L. 52
Williams, M. 403
Wittgenstein, L. 195
Wong, S. L. 416
Wong, W. 325
word-final voiced obstruents 102
word searching programs 168
working memory 259; and artificial grammar learning 435; and category learning 435; data and common elicitation measures 432–3; and explicit instruction 436; and first language ability 433–4; future directions for research 437–8; and grammar learning 431–2; historical perspectives 427–8; and incidental training conditions 436–7; instructional relevance 437; and intentional induction 436; phonological short term memory (PSTM) 428–32; and reasoning 435; and second language ability 434–5; and task-based learning 436; and vocabulary learning 430–1
working memory capacity 10, 16, 34, 259–60, 427, 432
Wray, A. 184
writing research, L2; analysis of written texts 327; applications 327–8; data and common elicitation measures 326–7; effect of planning time 324; effect of task complexity on 324–5, 328; elicitation of written texts 327; future directions for research 329; historical perspective 319–22; instructional relevance 327–8; issue of written error correction 326, 328; longitudinal development of learners’ written language 323–4; models of L2 writing process 322–3; significance of medium 325
Yavas, M. 342
York Language Aptitude Test 382
Yuan, F. 324
zero correlation criterion, for demonstration of implicit learning 257
Zhang, S. 324
Zipf, G. K.; Zipfian distribution 198–200, 204; Zipf ’s law 199