CHAPTER ELEVEN
The Apostle Paul’s Life and Teaching
Paul’s Importance
After Jesus, Paul is the most influential figure in the history of Christianity. The combination of his extraordinary life and ministry with his even more extraordinary writings made him a force that changed the world—and he continues to change it two thousand years later. His radical conversion and transformation were astonishingly profound. His extensive ministry established churches throughout the Mediterranean world. His grit, humility, love, and absolute trust in Christ made him a stellar example for all Christians everywhere at all times.
Figure 11.1. San Pablo Apóstol by El Greco [Wikimedia Commons]
Paul’s writings are profound, dense, challenging, and inspiring. They reveal a pastor-theologian who shares the knowledge of God in Christ so that people will believe and become mature in the faith. His letters made an indelible imprint on the early church, and on every generation of the church since. They continue to inspire in-depth study and debate, as well as radical living for the glory of Christ. When we put his teaching together with his life, we see a remarkable gift to the church whose importance is beyond measure.
Figure 11.2. Location of Tarsus [© Baker Publishing Group]
Paul’s Life
Paul was born around AD 6 in Tarsus, an important city that had been part of the Roman Empire from 64 BC. Located on the southeast coast of modern-day Turkey, Tarsus was the capital of the Roman province Cilicia and was known for its university. It was home to the famous Stoic philosopher Athenadorus, who taught the Roman emperor Octavian.
Sources for Paul’s Biography
Paul was born a Roman citizen (Acts 21:39), but we don’t know why he was born into such privilege. He was also born a Jew in the tribe of Benjamin (Phil. 3:5), likely named after the most famous Benjaminite, King Saul. Thus as a Jew and a Roman citizen, he had two names: Saul and Paul. He would have spoken Hebrew or Aramaic at home while growing up, but he was also fluent in Greek, the lingua franca of the empire at that time. These two facets of his heritage—a Jew born as a citizen of Rome—would dramatically shape his future ministry.
What Did It Mean to Be a Roman Citizen?
As a teenager, it seems that Saul (and his family?) moved from Tarsus to Jerusalem. He became a Pharisee and trained under the famous instructor Gamaliel (Acts 22:3), advancing beyond other Jews of his own age (Gal. 1:14). But Saul later diverged from his teacher Gamaliel regarding the followers of Jesus. While Gamaliel urged peace (Acts 5:34–39), Saul was filled with a zealous rage against “the Way” (Acts 8:3; 9:1; 26:11). It is not clear why Saul was so out of step with his mentor and teacher, but Acts implies that his rage was triggered by Stephen’s speech and stoning (Acts 7).
While Saul was trying to destroy the church, the risen Jesus Christ appeared to him on the road to Damascus and asked why Saul had been persecuting him (Acts 9:1–9). This encounter radically transformed Saul’s life and theology. He had been persecuting followers of Jesus, but now would become one himself. He had been a violent man, but now would become the object of violence. As a Pharisee, he believed in the resurrection of the dead on the last day, but now he believed that the last day had already come with the resurrection of Jesus. And since he had been persecuting the followers of Jesus, the fact that Jesus said that Saul was persecuting him meant that Jesus and his followers shared a special union—to persecute them was to persecute him. This would develop into Paul’s central theological motif of being “in Christ.”
Was Paul “Converted”?
Instead of going to the synagogues in Damascus to speak against Jesus and to capture his followers, Saul now spoke in favor of Jesus as the Messiah and encouraged his followers—though they were shocked by the 180-degree turnaround of their greatest persecutor (Acts 9:19b–22). In time he would become their greatest missionary, theologian, and pastor.
After some time in Damascus, Saul went to Arabia for three years (Gal. 1:17). We know nothing about this period except that by the end of it the king of Arabia, Aretas IV, wanted Saul arrested (2 Cor. 11:32). Given that he had inspired such trouble, it is fair to assume that Saul had been preaching in Arabia just as he had in Damascus.
Figure 11.3. The Conversion of Saul by Simeon Griswald [Wikimedia Commons]
Saul’s first visit to Jerusalem after encountering the risen Christ occurred after this three-year period in Arabia, via Damascus. There the apostles greeted him and sought to protect him, for his life was already in danger. They sent him back to his home city of Tarsus (Acts 9:26–30; Gal. 1:18–24). Thus began the second undocumented period of Paul’s life, lasting for about ten years.
Paul’s Incubation Period
After significant growth in the church in Antioch (Syria), Barnabas went to Tarsus to find Saul in order to get his help for the work to be done in Antioch (Acts 11:19–26). During a year of ministering in Antioch, Saul and Barnabas made a brief trip back to Jerusalem in order to deliver relief to the disciples in Judea in the wake of a severe famine (Acts 11:27–30).
It had been about fourteen years since Saul’s encounter with the risen Christ on the road to Damascus. Now it was time to embark on his first missionary journey to the gentile world. Saul left Antioch with the help of Barnabas and his cousin John Mark (Acts 13:1–3, 5b). Their first stop was the Mediterranean island of Cyprus, Barnabas and John Mark’s home country, before going into the region of Galatia, in what today is central Turkey (Acts 13:4–14:23). It is during this mission to the gentile world that Saul became known as Paul (his Roman name) and was known that way henceforth.
Figure 11.4. Paul’s three missionary journeys [© Baker Publishing Group]
Paul’s first missionary journey was modest compared to his next two, both in time spent and in distance traveled. But it was important for several reasons. Most important was Paul and Barnabas’s testimony that gentiles were accepting Christ and receiving the Spirit. This experience informed the Jerusalem Council as they deliberated about the inclusion of gentiles in the church (Acts 15). It also established patterns that Paul would follow going forward. For instance, on this journey he developed the practice of going to the Jewish synagogues first before preaching to the gentiles. This pattern would continue throughout Paul’s missionary activity.
Why Did Paul Go to the Jews First?
We also see Paul’s letter-writing ministry develop as he sought to encourage (and/or rebuke) the churches he planted, while being absent. His Letter to the Galatians (arguably his earliest) was written to the churches that began as a result of the first missionary journey. Nearly all of Paul’s letters to churches had the same intent: to strengthen the young churches that came into being through his missionary activity. He also established the pattern of selecting elders to pastor these churches so that they were not reliant on Paul.
Paul as Letter Writer
Paul’s second missionary journey was much more ambitious. After revisiting the Galatian churches first (Acts 15:36–41), he and Silas went into Europe for the first time, preaching in Macedonia and Achaia (modern-day Greece). Churches were formed in Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea, though persecution against them began to increase (Acts 16:1–17:15). Paul preached his famous Areopagus speech in Athens, to mixed reception (Acts 17:22–34), and then went to Corinth.
Though Paul’s speech at the Areopagus was important for demonstrating his engagement with gentiles (compare his synagogue sermon in Pisidian Antioch [Acts 13:16–41]), his ministry in Corinth became the most important element of Paul’s second missionary journey (Acts 18:1–17). In Corinth, Paul first demonstrated his priority to target strategic cities. Corinth was a significant seaport that saw multitudes coming and going through the city. While that created several problems for the church, since the city’s debauched culture seeped in, Paul no doubt saw Corinth as an opportunity to have his message spread far and wide, carried along by his converts there. Paul spent more time in Corinth than any other place so far on his missionary journeys (eighteen months), and he wrote 1 and 2 Thessalonians there (Romans too, but a few years later, on his third missionary journey).
On his way from Corinth back to Syrian Antioch, Paul made a brief stop in Ephesus, on the western coast of modern-day Turkey. The city no doubt made an impression on him, because his third missionary journey saw him go straight there and remain there for nearly three years—the longest he spent in any city during his missions (Acts 19:1–41).
Paul stayed in Ephesus for the same reason he had earlier stayed in Corinth—its wide influence. It was a hub for the whole of Asia Minor, it was the third-largest city in the Roman Empire, and it saw thousands of travelers passing through as they visited the temple of Artemis and conducted business there. Paul anticipated that his message would spread throughout the region by focusing on Ephesus, and he was right (Acts 19:10). A key example is found in the church at Colossae. Paul never went there, but one of his converts in Ephesus was from Colossae and planted the church there. Paul’s Letter to the Colossians acknowledges this fact (Col. 1:5b–8).
The Temple of Artemis
After leaving Ephesus, Paul traveled again through Macedonia and Achaia, spending three months in Greece (probably mostly in Corinth [Acts 20:1–3]). On this third missionary journey, Paul wrote 1 Corinthians (in Ephesus), 2 Corinthians (in Philippi), and Romans (in Corinth)—his three longest letters. He knew that this was his last journey to this part of the world (Acts 20:25), as he set his path to Jerusalem.
Though being warned about the dangers facing him in Jerusalem, Paul was determined to go there, counting his own life as nothing (Acts 20:22–24). His presence at the Jerusalem temple caused a violent riot, and the Roman soldiers had to intervene on Paul’s behalf (Acts 21:26–36). With a plot set against his life, the Romans sent Paul to Caesarea with the protection of hundreds of soldiers in order to appear before Felix, the governor of Judea (Acts 23:12–24).
Felix did not know what to do with Paul, who sat in prison in Caesarea for two years. Felix was replaced by Festus (Acts 24:27), who took Paul more seriously. He would have released Paul except that Paul had used his right as a Roman citizen to appeal to Caesar (Acts 25:11; 26:30–32). Festus was thus obliged to give him safe passage to Rome in order to appear before the emperor. Given Paul’s ambition to reach Rome, it is possible that he appealed to Caesar in order to get there. He knew that Festus would be obliged to send him there, and this move not only got him out of prison but also helped him to fulfill his agenda.
How Many Times Was Paul Imprisoned?
A disastrous sea voyage saw Paul, his traveling companions, and the crew shipwrecked on the Mediterranean island of Malta, where they stayed for three months and were treated to kind hospitality (Acts 28:1–10). Eventually Paul made it to Rome and was placed under house arrest for two years (Acts 28:11–31).
At some point in the mid-60s, Paul was beheaded in Rome by order of the emperor. But there is some ambiguity as to what happened after his house arrest and before his beheading. It is possible that he went straight from house arrest to a more serious form of imprisonment and then to his death. But it is also possible, and perhaps more likely, that after his house arrest Paul traveled to Spain. This had been his ambition (Rom. 15:24) and was attested by early sources, most importantly Clement of Rome. Clement was bishop in Rome at the end of the first century, so he would have had good knowledge of what happened to the apostles in Rome. He wrote in 1 Clement 5 (AD 96) that Paul had “reached the farthest limits of the west.”1 Though Clement’s wording is a little unclear, the most likely reading is that he affirms Paul’s Spanish mission. It is also the historic tradition of the church in Spain that it had been founded by the apostle Paul. After preaching in Spain, Paul must have been arrested again, and this time he faced a severe imprisonment leading to his death.
It was during his time in Rome (and perhaps Spain) that Paul composed more than half of his New Testament letters: Philippians, Ephesians, Colossians, Philemon, 1 and 2 Timothy, and Titus. The first four, known as the Captivity Letters, would have been penned during Paul’s house arrest. The last three, known as the Pastoral Letters, may have been written during his brief free period between the house arrest and re-arrest.
Paul’s biography is the most complex in the New Testament—more so than Jesus’s as reported in the Gospels, and much more so than Peter’s, John’s, or anyone else’s. But knowing the basic outline of his life and ministry is enormously helpful for reading his letters. So to assist in this task, the following brief chronology is offered. The only firm dates in this chronology are Paul’s time in Corinth in 50–52—since the proconsul Gallio (mentioned in Acts 18:12) was in Corinth in 51–52—and the fire of Rome in 64. Paul’s dates are figured out from these two fixtures (especially the former).
Paul’s Chronology
| 1. Early Ministry | Date (AD) |
| Birth | ca. 6 |
| Conversion and commissioning | ca. 33 |
| Period in Arabia | ca. 33–35 |
| First visit to Jerusalem after conversion | ca. 36 |
| Ministry in Cilicia and Syria | ca. 36–46 |
| Famine collection from Antioch taken to Jerusalem | ca. 46 |
| 2. First Missionary Journey | ca. 46–47 |
| From Antioch to Cyprus | ca. 46 |
| From Cyprus to Perga and Pisidian Antioch | ca. 46 |
| To Iconium, Lystra, Derbe—cities of South Galatia | ca. 46 |
| Return to Perga, then by ship to Syrian Antioch | ca. 47 |
| 3. The Apostolic Council in Jerusalem | ca. 48 |
| Galatians written around this time | ca. 48 |
| 4. Second Missionary Journey | ca. 49–52 |
| Overland from Syrian Antioch through Galatia | ca. 49 |
| Churches in Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea | ca. 49 |
| The visit to Athens | ca. 49 |
| Eighteen months in Corinth | 50–52 |
| 1 and 2 Thessalonians written in Corinth | 50 |
| A quick trip to Ephesus | 52 |
| Return to Syrian Antioch | 52 |
| 5. Third Missionary Journey | ca. 52–57 |
| From Syrian Antioch through Galatia to Ephesus | ca. 52 |
| Three years in Ephesus | ca. 52–55 |
| 1 Corinthians written in Ephesus | ca. 54 |
| Leaves for Macedonia | ca. 55 |
| 2 Corinthians written in Philippi | ca. 56 |
| Three months in Corinth, where Romans was written | ca. 57 |
| Bids farewell to the Ephesian elders in Miletus | ca. 57 |
| Sails to Caesarea, then on to Jerusalem | ca. 57 |
| 6. The Caesarean and Roman Imprisonments | ca. 57–?? |
| Imprisoned by the governor Felix in Caesarea | ca. 57–59 |
| Sails for Rome, spends three months in Malta | ca. 59–60 |
| House arrest in Rome | ca. 60–62 |
| Philippians, Ephesians, Colossians, Philemon written | ca. 62 |
| Visit to Spain? | ca. 63–?? |
| 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus written | ca. 63–65 |
| Great fire of Rome and persecution of Christians | 64 |
| Paul is executed | ca. 65? |
Paul’s Teaching
Paul is the premier theologian of the New Testament, and after Jesus he is the most important theologian in the history of the Christian church. His teaching has influenced every major thinker in the history of Christianity, and his letters continue to generate vigorous discussion. Paul’s writings lit the spark of the Protestant Reformation and profoundly shaped Western culture and its intellectual tradition. Today, Paul is a staple of every church’s preaching calendar and is the favorite author of millions of Bible readers around the world. It is simply impossible to overestimate the impact and significance of this remarkable man’s teaching.
But it is important to remember that Paul is not a professional theologian, writing for an academic audience. Paul is first and foremost a missionary and pastor. His writing always serves his missionary and pastoral objectives. It is striking how much theologizing Paul does in order to address his missionary and pastoral concerns, but his teaching must always be read in those contexts. He does not do abstract, systematic theology for its own sake, and it is easy to imagine him objecting to such a notion.
Having said that, we acknowledge that Paul is a systematic theologian in the sense that his theological thinking has a particular shape and logic. It is possible to piece together his thinking on various topics since there is an overarching coherence to his thought (despite the opinion of some commentators). In this way, we might say that Paul’s theology is systematic, but it is not presented systematically. It is always presented and packaged in missionary and pastoral concerns.
The center of Paul’s theology is the person and work of Jesus Christ. Christ is the fulfillment of God’s promises that a descendant of David would rule forever at God’s right hand. He is God’s anointed king, not just over Israel, but over the entirety of humanity. He was appointed Messiah through his resurrection from the dead and ascension into the heavens. But while he is the powerful, ruling king, Christ is also the humble servant who died for the sake of his enemies. He is the very demonstration of God’s love for humanity, enabling all people—both Jews and gentiles—to be reconciled to God.
Although the ascended Christ is seated in the heavens with his heavenly Father, he is not a remote figure. In fact, all those who believe in Christ have become one with him by the power of the Spirit. Believers are “in Christ,” and Christ is in them. This means that our relationship with Christ is intensely personal rather than mechanistic, and that our fellowship with God is one of mutual indwelling. It also means that all believers are connected to one another, since each person in union with Christ is a member of his body. Every blessing that God bestows on his people comes in and through Christ.
What Is Union with Christ?
If the center of Paul’s theology is the person and work of Christ, the Holy Spirit is the one through whom Christ is joined to his people. Where the Spirit dwells, there dwells Christ. The presence of the Spirit among believers is also evidence that God does not show partiality but instead dwells among any who will confess Christ as Lord. The Spirit intercedes for us with groans that words cannot express, and he produces his fruit in the lives of believers, taking the place of the law of Moses of the old covenant. The Spirit is also a deposit guaranteeing an inheritance to come, meaning that through the Spirit believers are connected to a glorious future in the presence of God.
What Is the Role of the Law?
The resurrection of Christ inaugurated an overlap of the ages, since it signaled that the new age had already dawned—before the old age has yet passed. This is because resurrection belongs to the end of time, to judgment day. Christ’s resurrection from the dead declares him righteous in the face of judgment and secures God’s verdict now of all who are in Christ. Thus the resurrection has created a “now and not yet” eschatological framework that gives shape to all of Paul’s theology. Believers are to live as new creations in Christ who belong to the new age, no longer enslaved by the powers that dominated the old age.
Because Christ sets his people free from the dominion of sin and death, he is their savior. By dying for sins on the cross, he canceled the debt that stood against us, and by rising from the dead, he secured our righteous status before God. He has inaugurated a new age of righteousness and peace into which believers have access by rising with Christ. Dying with Christ ends their allegiance to the old age, and rising with him secures their eternal life in the new age. Because of this, salvation is most assuredly by God’s grace and cannot be achieved by human works or boasting.
The New Perspective on Paul
As the Savior, Christ has overpowered the authorities and forces of darkness that rule over this present age and influence those who do not know Christ. He has publicly put those powers to shame, having canceled their hold on humanity, and having been seated above them in all authority. While we do not yet see Christ’s dominion over evil, sin, and death, his return will reveal his universal victory in glory.
In the meantime, the church must remember who it is, having been set apart for Christ as his bride, and living in the daylight rather than in darkness. Believers must put away all shameful acts and attitudes that are unfit for the people of Christ, as his Spirit works in and among them. While no believer will reach perfection in this lifetime, the church is called to be holy, while remembering that the grace of God is sufficient for all.
The church of God consists of believing Jews and gentiles, who are now unified in Christ Jesus. Nevertheless, Israel remains the recipient of the promises of God, and no one should forget Israel’s privilege: salvation is first for the Jew, then for the gentile. God is completely sovereign over Israel’s trajectory, even when it appears that the majority of Israel has rejected their Messiah. This partial hardening is so that the gentiles may come in, and is not necessarily indefinite.
The Way Paul Does Ethics
In order to live in a manner pleasing to God, believers are reminded of who they are in Christ: their old selves have died with Christ and their new selves have been raised with him. We are taught to imitate our heavenly Father as his children. And we are to set our eyes on things above, where Christ is seated, rather than on things below. By keeping in step with the Spirit, believers will reap according to the Spirit. But if we sow according to the flesh, we will reap death and destruction.
Finally, the goal of all things is the glory of God in Christ. In the end, Christ will be glorified by all creation to the glory of his heavenly Father. And an astonishing hope awaits us, as Christ will share his glory with his people. We will be glorified with him, if indeed we have suffered with him.
Implementation
Paul wrote, “Imitate me, as also I imitate Christ” (1 Cor. 11:1). That may seem like an impossible task to most of us. Who could possibly imitate Paul or live up to the standard he has set? And yet there is much to learn from Paul and much that can be implemented in our daily lives here and now. Our lives may look entirely different from Paul’s in so many ways, and yet there are principles gleaned from him that we can instill in ourselves.
The most radical principle is that Christ Jesus is Lord of all, and our lives must be lived in full submission to and trust in him. Likewise, Paul shows us that we will never exhaust the richness and beauty of Christ. Instead of moving on from Christ to something else, we must move deeper into him.
We can learn from Paul that it is right to live for glory, as long as it is not our glory. By living for the glory of Christ, we are living into our design, fulfilling our God-given mandate as his creatures made in his image. Our joy is found in the glory of Christ, not our own glory, but just as we share in the sufferings of Christ, so we will share in his glory. To him be the glory forever and ever!
Christian Reading Questions
- Create a mental image of Paul’s three missionary journeys and his final journey to Rome. Find a map of the Mediterranean region and attempt to draw the route of each journey.
- Now make a list of Paul’s thirteen New Testament letters. Can you connect each one to the journeys you’ve drawn? Think of the destination of each letter as well as where Paul was when he wrote each one.
- Scan Paul’s Letters for every time he mentions the “gospel” that he preaches. How does he describe this gospel?
- Read Romans 6 carefully. Put into your own words why it is not appropriate for believers just to keep on sinning.