Remembering the Poor (8:1–9:15)

The collection for the poor in Jerusalem is a critical venture for Paul, one that the Corinthians have already committed themselves to (see “The Collection”). However, the unstable situation in Corinth, especially the church’s strained relationship with Paul, has caused their enthusiasm for the project to wane. The earlier visit of Titus with the “tearful letter” helped get the Corinthians back on board, and in these two chapters Paul gives further advice on the subject prior to his arrival.

The grace that God has given the Macedonian churches (8:1). Paul’s ministry in Macedonia began as a result of a vision the apostle received while in Troas, in which he saw a Macedonian pleading for help (Acts 16:6–10). Paul and his companions established churches in Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea (Acts 16:6–17:15), and by the time of this writing the Macedonians were now offering help to others, in the form of a monetary donation to the Jerusalem fund.

Out of the most severe trial, their overflowing joy and their extreme poverty welled up in rich generosity (8:2). Although Paul does not mention the details of the severe trials in Macedonia or the cause of their poverty, his letters to the Christian communities in this province confirm these hardships. Intense persecution accompanied Paul’s proclamation of the gospel in the Macedonian city of Thessalonica, and it seems likely that this contributed significantly to their economic deprivation.101

It is important to remember that the distribution of wealth in ancient Mediterranean society was enormously lopsided compared with modern Western societies, and Paul’s report of the Macedonians’ “extreme poverty” needs to be understood in this light. Considering that there was virtually no middle class in the first-century Roman world of Achaia and Macedonia and that the vast majority of the population lived at or below the subsistence level, the colloquialism “dirt poor” would not be an inappropriate description of the Macedonian communities responsible for this generous gift.

They gave as much as they were able, and even beyond their ability (8:3). Perhaps it was their own low estate that allowed the Macedonians to feel more keenly the deprivation of their brothers and sisters in Judea. Dio Chrysostom, who was once clothed, fed, and given shelter by a local peasant and his family after being shipwrecked on Euboea (an island south of Macedonia, off the coast of Greece) reflects on the openhanded generosity of the poor:

They light a fire more promptly than the rich and guide one on the way without reluctance … and often they share what they have more readily. When will you find a rich man who will give the victim of a shipwreck his wife’s or his daughter’s purple gown or any article of clothing far cheaper than that: a mantle, a tunic, though he has thousand of them, or even a cloak from one of his slaves?102

This service to the saints (8:4). The word rendered “saints” represents the Greek term hagioi (lit., “holy ones”), which is one of Paul’s favorite designations for those who have placed their faith in Christ.103 This language is common in the Old Testament, where it denotes persons or objects separated and consecrated to the Lord’s service.104 It later came to refer to God’s elect people as a whole, particularly in distinction from the pagan nations.105 Paul’s frequent use of such rich and powerful language serves to reinforce the new personal identity of the believer (“a new creation,” 2 Cor. 5:17), while also helping to reorient the social identity of the believing community as God’s elect and holy people.

ERASTUS INSCRIPTION IN CORINTH

Erastus was a well-known patron in Corinth, a city administrator, and a Christian.

So we urged Titus, since he had earlier made a beginning, to bring also to completion this act of grace on your part (8:6). Apparently during his previous visit, after successfully representing Paul’s grievance, Titus was also able to revive the stalled collection. Paul’s decision to send Titus ahead of him with the present letter may have been a result of his progress on this front.

But just as you excel in everything—in faith, in speech, in knowledge … see that you also excel in this grace of giving (8:7). Paul probably refers here to those remarkable manifestations of the Spirit discussed in his earlier correspondence: glossalalia (1 Cor. 12:10; 14:1–19), miracle-working faith (12:9–10; 13:2), and supernatural discernment (12:8; 13:2). Paul uses the same word here (perisseuō) to describe the Corinthians’ excelling in charismata as he did earlier (2 Cor. 8:3) to describe Macedonians’ excelling in generosity. He wants the Corinthians to abound not only in the spectacular gifts that inspire awe and are focused on the local assembly, but also in the less dramatic gifts that benefit the larger body of Christ.

For if the willingness is there, the gift is acceptable according to what one has (8:12). The sentiment expressed here was widely held in the Jewish and Greco-Roman world and is illustrated in the story of “the widow’s mite” in Mark 12:41–44. On the Jewish side, Tobit 4:8 is relevant: “Measure your alms by what you have; if you have much, give more; if you have little, do not be afraid to give less in alms.” The enlightened pagan moralist Dio Chrysostom thought along similar lines: “No gift is inadequate which is prompted by affection.”106

Our desire is … that there might be equality (8:13). “Equality” was deeply imbedded in the ideals of Greek democracy and was copiously extolled by the great thinkers of Greece: Plato, Aristotle, Demosthenes, Isocrates, and so on. The playwright Euripides advised: “It is better, my son, to honor Equality, who always joins friend to friend, city to city, allies to allies … but the lesser is always in opposition to the greater, and so begins the dawn of hatred.”107 Philo, Paul’s older contemporary in Alexandria, devoted a lengthy essay to this theme, defining equality as “the parent of peace.”108 In a similar vein, Paul also understands that extreme economic disparity will engender discord and disunity, and this recognition seems to have played a role in his strenuous campaign for this relief fund.

Your plenty will supply what they need, so that in turn their plenty will supply what you need. Then there will be equality (8:14). Paul’s concern for equality should not be construed in terms of strict economic parity. Paul does not command wealthy converts to liquidate their assets. Rather, he exhorts them not to put their trust in ephemeral wealth but instead to be eager to share (1 Tim. 6:17–19). Both Paul and the local assemblies benefited from the hospitality of wealthy church members (Rom. 16:23), and Paul himself experienced seasons of plenty (Phil. 4:12). As the citation of Ex. 16:18 in verse 15 indicates, Paul’s concern is that everyone’s basic needs are met.

More important are the implications of these verses for Paul’s theology of work. According to Paul, the goal of work is not the accumulation of wealth, but its dissemination: “He who has been stealing … must work, doing something useful with his hands, that he might have something to share with those in need.”109 Paul ardently commends personal industry, not for personal gain, but in order to be a blessing to others: “You will be made rich … so that you can be generous on every occasion.”110

The brother who is praised by all the churches … [and] our brother who has often proved to us in many ways that he is zealous (8:18, 22). It is curious that Paul does not mention the names of the brothers he is recommending. Some commentators suppose that their names were recorded in the original, but were subsequently expunged after some moral failure on their part. This is an unnecessary conjecture. Since these individuals will be present with Titus when this letter is delivered and read, there is no need for their names to be mentioned here. To us, their identity will remain a mystery, though Luke, Timothy, and Apollos are frequently suggested as possibilities. The brother of verse 22 may have been one of the representatives from Macedonia who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem with the collection: Sopater, Aristarchus, or Secundus (Acts 20:4).

He was chosen by the churches to accompany us as we carry the offering (8:19). The method of selection used by the Macedonian churches was probably some kind of an electoral procedure, as suggested by the verb cheirotoneō, which originally meant to elect by a show of hands. This would have been a natural course of action for the democratically oriented Macedonian assemblies; it was also practiced in the primitive church: Didache 15:1; Ignatius, To the Philadelphians 10:1; To the Smyrneans 11:2. Other methods of selection attested in New Testament include direct appointment (Titus 1:9), casting lots (Acts 1:26), and direct revelation from the Spirit (13:2–3). The selection of this traveling companion ensures that all propriety is observed in handling the donations (8:20–22), as well as for safety along the journey.

For if any Macedonians come with me and find you unprepared … we would be ashamed of having been so confident (9:4). The possible embarrassment felt by Paul and the Corinthians will be all the greater, given the poverty of the Macedonians and the relative prosperity of at least some of the members of the Achaean-Corinthian assemblies. Erastus was able to donate an expensive pavement near the theater in return for his election to public office (see “Erastus Inscription” at 3:1). Titius Justus owned a home near the synagogue and hosted Paul (Acts 18:7). The home of Gaius was large enough to accommodate all the Corinthian house churches at once (Rom. 16:23).

The ability to travel is a good indicator of financial means, and we see many Corinthians on the move. Phoebe, a deaconess and patroness of the assembly in Cenchrea,111 had the resources to travel to Rome (on business?) and deliver Paul’s letter to the Romans (Rom. 16:1–2). Chloe was able to dispatch servants or family members to Ephesus (perhaps on other business) and keep Paul abreast of developments in Corinth (1 Cor. 1:11). Stephanas is also able to visit Paul in Ephesus, along with Fortunatus and Achaicus (his slaves?), and offer encouragement (16:15–18). Certainly the Corinthians had the wherewithal to contribute to those destitute believers in Jerusalem.

The generous gift you had promised (9:5). Not only were some of the Corinthians evidently persons of substance, but the region itself was almost legendary for its prosperity. Corinth’s location, commerce, festivals, and fertile agricultural regions provide the background for the assessment of Favorinus (A.D. 85–155) that the city was “both prow and stern of Hellas, having been called prosperous and wealthy and the like by poets and gods from olden days.”112 This is not to say that the Corinthian church as a whole was affluent (see 1 Cor. 1:26–29; 11:22). Yet the evidence from Paul’s letters suggests that they were better off than the Macedonian assemblies and more than capable of a generous donation.

Whoever sows sparingly will also reap sparingly, and whoever sows generously will also reap generously (9:6). Although the local economy of Roman Corinth was not agriculturally based, nor was Paul, as far as we know, ever deeply involved in rural life, ancient societies were more vitally connected to the field and farm than modern Western societies and so also with the agrarian wisdom that thrived in such a setting. The image of a farmer sowing seed in the field, harvesting, and bearing his produce to the market would have been a daily reality for both Paul and the Corinthians.

FARMING IMPLEMENTS

A sickle, scraper, hoe, and other tools found in Samaria.

He who supplies seed to the sower and bread for food … will increase your store of seed (9:10). Paul takes for granted that the Creator has supplied his creation with everything necessary for life and abundance. Yet this Jewish conviction clashes dramatically with the religious ideas of Greece and Rome, and this collision provides an opportunity for Paul to reeducate his pagan converts. In Corinth and throughout the Greco-Roman world, Demeter was worshiped as the goddess of grain, agriculture, and bountiful harvests, along with her daughter Kore. An ancient temple dedicated to these two goddesses was located on the north slope of the Acrocorinth and was remodeled during the first century B.C. This cult was especially popular among the poor of Corinth, judging from the large number of inexpensive votives found in the excavation.113 Demeter is commonly pictured with grain, fruit, cornucopia, and other symbols of agricultural fertility.