Page numbers refer to the print edition but are hyperlinked to the appropriate location in the e-book.
acidification, 91–92, 194; of oceans, 62, 67, 88–89, 89, 115, 131, 185
adaptive cycles, in SES, 234–36, 235
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR), 210
agriculture, 86, 108–9, 183; bottom-up governance for, 188; in ESMs, 133; genetic diversity in, 118; nitrogen and, 2
AIS. See automatic ship identification
albedo (reflectance): of snow/ice, 38–39, 45, 46–47; of vegetation cover, 62–63
Amazon: deforestation in, 100; in Icarus scenario, 144–45; indigenous people in, 160–61; NPP and, 221
American Geophysical Society, 55
AMOC. See Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
Antarctica: in 10,000 years, 143; in Icarus scenario, 144; in ice age cycles, 46, 47; ice sheets of, melting of, 123; ozone and, 97, 195
Anthropocene geological period, 3
Anthropocene narrative, 13, 13–14, 249–52
antiglobalization, 159–60
apocalypse blindness, 160
aquifers, 99–100
ARGO, 209
Aristotle, 7
asteroid collisions, 32, 34, 39, 43
Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC), 131, 136–37, 142, 144
atmosphere: biosphere and, 75; carbon dioxide in, 55, 74, 88, 89, 103; carbon in, 88; chemistry of, in last 60 million years, 44; climate change and, 16–17; in Earth system, 130; energy budget and, 25; ESMs and, 129; governance of, 193–97; mercury in, 94–95; monitoring of, 216–18, 217; oxygen in, 36; tectonic plates and, 27; transpiration and, 40; water in, 100
automatic ship identification (AIS), 224
autotrophs, 35
AVHRR. See Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer
Bateson, Gregory, 11
BAU. See business-as-usual scenario
Bernhart, E. S., 80–81
Biermann, F., 204
Big Bang, 24
biodiversity, 75; early proliferation of, 41; EMT on, 169–71; in ESMs, 133; extinctions and, 109–11; in forests, 235; governance of, 197; monitoring of, 222–23; resilience and, 111; in SES, 245; technosphere and, 109–11
biogeochemical cycles, 14, 34–35; biological evolution and, 75–76; in biomass, 77; biosphere and, 54; chemical recycling and, 72; Earth system and, 18; extinctions and, 2; guilds of, 72–74; metabolism and, 77–80; noösphere and, 10, 80; technobiosphere and, 11; technosphere and, 77–103
biological evolution: biogeochemical cycles and, 75–76; biosphere and, 68–74; ecosystems and, 230
biological pump, 86
biomass, 34, 38, 73, 246; biogeochemical cycles and, 77; NPP and, 219–20
biosphere, 7–8; 100-year view, 67–68; 500-million-year view of, 64–67; 4-billion-year view of, 63–64; atmosphere and, 75; autonomy of, 36; biodiversity in, 75; biogeochemical cycles and, 54; biological evolution and, 68–74; biomass in, 73; carbon cycle and, 86; carbon dioxide and, 7, 57, 58–60, 64–68, 72; carbon sinks and, 38; climate and, 31–32, 58–68; climate change and, 17, 39–40; cooperation and, 76; energy balance and, 61–63; in Equilibrium phase of Anthropocene Narrative, 14; evolution of, 53–76; extinctions and, 41–43; feedback and, 72; in Gaia hypothesis, 13, 13, 54–56, 63; greenhouse gases and, 8, 32, 50, 54–55, 58–61; in Icehouse Earth, 64–65; lead in, 94; life and, 35, 39–40; Medea hypothesis and, 63–64; metabolism of, 74; methane from, 60; negative feedback and, 62; nitrous oxide from, 60; nutrient cycling and, 81; soil and, 40–41; solar radiation into, 77; survival of, 119; technosphere and, 105–20
Bronowski, J., 1
Brower, David, 2
Budyko, M. I., 49
Building the Technosphere, 13, 14, 251
business-as-usual scenario (BAU), 136–39, 145, 151, 154, 171
C4 photosynthesis, 45
cadmium, 95
calcium cycle, 92–93
cap-and-trade, 201
capitalism, 152, 163–64, 176–77
carbohydrates, 35–36
carbon: agriculture and, 86; from fossil fuels, 85, 88; on land, 219–22
carbon budget, 87
carbon cycle, 85–90; carbon dioxide and, 37–38; carbon sinks in, 78; decomposition and, 113–14; ESMs and, 129, 132; in ice age cycles, 48; monitoring of, 224–25; in oceans, 48; positive feedback and, 49
Carbon Cycle Observing System, 226
carbon dioxide (CO2): in 2300, 141; in 10,000 years, 142–43; AMOC and, 131; in atmosphere, 55, 74, 88, 89, 103; in BAU, 136; biosphere and, 7, 57, 58–60, 64–68, 72; C4 photosynthesis and, 45; carbohydrates and, 36; carbon cycle and, 37–38; climate change and, 15–16; deforestation and, 14; EMT and, 162; EPME and, 41–42; ESMs and, 140; forestland and, 108; from fossil fuels, 2, 9, 14; future projections for, 18; GCMs and, 123–25; geosphere and, 51; governance and, 201; Himalayan Mountains and, 45; IAMs and, 127; Icarus scenario and, 145; in ice age cycles, 46, 47, 47–48, 59–60; increases of, 2, 14–16, 15, 183; Medea hypothesis and, 58–60; monitoring of, 207, 216–18; from natural gas, 173; negative feedback and, 4, 145; NPP and, 113–14; ocean acidification and, 62, 67; in oceans, 59, 89, 223; oxygen and, 96; PETM and, 43; in Phanerozoic eon, 41, 65; photosynthesis and, 31, 50; positive feedback and, 59–60; recent reduction of emissions, 173, 174; rock cycle and, 29–30; rock weathering and, 38, 49, 66; seasonal oscillation of, 15; technosphere and, 9; tectonic plates and, 67; in United States, 174; water vapor and, 100–101
carbon monoxide, 37
carbon sinks, 18, 78; biosphere and, 38; coal in, 66; IAMs for, 127; land as, 88; missing, 87; oceans as, 86, 88, 103, 132, 142; soil and, 41
CarbonTracker, 218
Carson, Rachel, 117–18
Carter, V. G., 117
CCN. See cloud condensation nuclei
CEOS. See Committee on Earth Observation Satellites
CESM. See Community Earth System Model
CFCs. See chlorofluorocarbons
CH4. See methane
Chase-Dunn, C., 149
chemoautotrophy, 35
Chernobyl nuclear accident, 96
China: acidification in, 91–92; cadmium in, 95; coal in, 175; economic globalization and, 157; greenhouse gases from, 199; pollution in, 165–66
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 97–98, 98, 164, 195–97
chlorophyll, 35
chromium, 95
climate: biosphere and, 31–32, 58–68; clouds and, 61–63; equilibrium of, 175; feedback and, 125; geosphere and, 24–27; greenhouse gases and, 29; IAMs and, 125–28; in last 60 million years, 44; models for, 123–28, 124, 134–35; monitoring of, 212–14; negative feedback and, 74; rock cycle and, 29–30; tectonic plates and, 27; water vapor and, 29
climate change: atmosphere and, 16–17; biosphere and, 17, 39–40; carbon dioxide and, 15–16; extinctions and, 111; governance of, 198–203; greenhouse gases and, 16–17; human impact on, 18–19, 19; IAMs and, 128; in Icarus scenario, 144; in ice age cycles, 48–49; life and, 39–40; planetary boundaries for, 185; pollinators and, 117; range shifts from, 112; scenarios of, 121–47; sea level rise from, 146; technosphere and, 102–3; in United States, 16–17; wildfires from, 112, 247
cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), 61–62
Club of Rome, 126
CMIP5. See fifth phase of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
CO2. See carbon dioxide
Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS), 210
common pool resources (CPR), 232–33, 244
Community Earth System Model (CESM), 129
Community Land Model, 129
Consilience (Wilson), 159
Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, 194
coral reefs, 89, 115, 117, 223
CPR. See common pool resources
cryosphere, 129, 132, 141, 214–15, 215
cultural globalization, 158–59
cultural niche construction. See niche construction
cyanobacteria, 39
Dale, T., 117
de Duve, Christian, 33
Deep Ecology, 151–52
deforestation, 107–8; for agriculture, 108–9; in Amazon rain forest, 100; carbon cycle and, 85–86; carbon dioxide and, 14; demodernization and, 152; extinctions from, 110–11; fossil fuels and, 2; governance of, 197; IAMs and, 127; in Icarus scenario, 144–45; monitoring of, 219; positive feedback and, 100; water and, 100
DeFries, R. S., 229
degassing, of lithosphere, 25
degrowth movement, 152
demodernization, 151–52
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 34, 71
Descartes, René, 5
DGVMs. See dynamic global vegetation models
dimethyl sulfide (DMS), 62
dinosaurs, extinction of, 43
DMS. See dimethyl sulfide
DNA. See deoxyribonucleic acid
Dubos, René, 3
dynamic global vegetation models (DGVMs), 133
Earth: energy balance of, 27–31, 28; future of, 49–50; as garden, 5; as machine, 5–6; as mother, 4–5; water on, 25–26
Earth Observing System (EOS), 210, 220
Earth Summit, 191–92
Earth system, 1–21; Anthropocene narrative for, 13, 13–14, 249–52; big history of, 12–14, 13; biogeochemical cycles and, 18; early (3.7–0.541 BYA), 35–40; grand narrative of, 12–13, 13, 153, 250; human impact on, 3; mature period (541 MYA–present), 40–45; metaphors for, 4–6; model calibration for, 122; new planetary paradigm for, 249–54; Phanerozoic eon of, 40–45; planetary boundaries of, 184, 185–86; science of, emergence of, 14–20; spheres of, 6–12; transdisciplinary approach to, 73–74
Earth system models (ESMs), 121–47; to 2300, 141–42; for 10,000 years, 142–43; in BAU, 136; for carbon cycle, 129, 132; for carbon dioxide, 140; for greenhouse gases, 139–41; Icarus scenario, 143–45; in IPCC, 134–41, 137, 138; for vegetation distribution, 133
ecological footprint, 2
ecological modernization theory (EMT), 19–20, 154, 161–78, 253–54; biodiversity and, 169–71; energy demand and, 171–75; human population growth and, 166–69, 168, 169; long-term effects of, 166–78
economic globalization, 155–57, 160–61
ecosystems, 70–71, 229–48, 230
Ehrlich, Paul, 126
Ellis, E. C., 79
El Nino–southern oscillation (ENSO), 131, 223
EMT. See ecological modernization theory
end-Permian mass extinction (EPME), 41–43, 57, 67, 119, 145
energy balance, 27–31, 28, 61–63, 129
energy budget, 25
energy demand, 134, 164, 171–75
energy source partitioning, in IAMs, 127
ENSO. See El Nino–southern oscillation
environmental governance. See governance
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 174, 192, 194–95
EOS. See Earth Observing System
EPA. See Environmental Protection Agency
EPME. See end-Permian mass extinction
equilibrium, 13, 14, 145–46, 175, 252
Eratosthenes, 7
ESA. See European Space Agency
ESMs. See Earth system models
European Space Agency (ESA), 225
evapotranspiration, 63
exotic species, 110
Extended Evolutionary Synthesis, 72, 82
extinctions, 2, 41–43, 57, 109–11, 183
extreme weather events, 130, 139
FAO. See Food and Agriculture Organization
FCCC. See Framework Convention on Climate Change
feedback, 4, 72, 125; homeostasis and, 30–31; with NMHCs, 61; in SES, 236–37. See also negative feedback; positive feedback
feed-in tariffs, 172
fifth phase of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5), 125, 129
fish, 115; BAU on, 139; governance of, 193; monitoring of, 224; sustainability of, 183, 188
flowers, pollinators and, 69, 117
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 207
forests: governance of, 197; grazing and, 71, 107; succession in, 234–36, 236; sustainability of, 183; technosphere and, 107–8. See also deforestation
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), 162–63, 187–88, 192
fossil fuels: in BAU, 136; carbon dioxide from, 2, 9, 14; carbon from, 85, 88; demodernization and, 152; IAMs and, 127; mercury from, 94–95; modernization and, 149; oxygen and, 96; sulfur cycle and, 103; sulfuric acid from, 91
Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC), 199
Franck, S., 58
Friends of the Earth, 2–3
FSC. See Forest Stewardship Council
fuel efficiency, 174
Fukushima nuclear accident, 96
fungi, of Paleozoic era, 72
Gaia, a New Look at Life on Earth (Lovelock), 55
Gaia hypothesis, 5, 68, 74–75, 96; biosphere and, 13, 13, 54–56, 63; homeostasis and, 53–56, 64; negative feedback and, 56, 57
Gaian biosphere, 250
Garden of Eden, 5
GATT. See General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GCMs. See general circulation models
GCOS. See Global Climate Observing System
GDP. See gross domestic product
GEF. See Global Environmental Facility
gene pools, 118–19
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 159–60, 190
general circulation models (GCMs), 123–25, 126
genetic diversity, in agriculture, 118
genetic engineering, 118–19
GEO. See Group on Earth Observations
GEOSS. See Global Earth Observing System of Systems
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES), 213
Global Climate Observing System (GCOS), 207, 225–26
Global Earth Observing System of Systems (GEOSS), 209
Global Environmental Facility (GEF), 198
Global Fishing Watch, 224
Global Forest Watch, 219
globalization: antiglobalization, 159–60; cultural, 158–59; economic, 155–57, 160–61; EMT and, 19–20, 161–78; political, 157–58; SES and, 237–38
Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS), 223
Global Precipitation Measurement Mission (GPMM), 213
global risk society, 158
glucose, 36–37
GOES. See Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite
Golding, William, 55
GOOS. See Global Ocean Observing System
governance, 4, 181–205; of atmosphere, 193–97; bottom-up, 186–89; greening of, 175–76; of land, 197–98; models for, 184; of oceans, 192–93; of radioactive elements, 193–94; requirements for, 203–4; for sustainability, 181–84, 231–33; top-down, 188
GPMM. See Global Precipitation Measurement Mission
GPP. See gross primary production
GRACE. See Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment
grand narrative, 12–13, 13, 153, 250
Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE), 216
Great Acceleration, 13, 14, 82, 82, 83, 251; globalization and, 155; indigenous people and, 161
Great Separation, 13, 13, 250–51
Great Transition, 13, 14, 252; carbon dioxide in, 173; ecological modernization theory and, 154; EMT and, 166–69; indigenous people and, 161; sustainability in, 229
Green Building Council, 189
greenhouse gases: in biosphere, 8, 32, 50, 54–55, 58–61; carbon sinks and, 18; from China, 199; climate and, 29; climate change and, 16–17; ESMs and, 139–41; future projections for, 18; IAMs and, 127, 134; nitrogen cycle and, 92; reduction scenario for, 140–41; SESs and, 245; stabilization scenario for, 139–40. See also specific gases
Greenland: in 2300, 141; in 10,000 years, 143; glaciation on, 46; in Icarus scenario, 144; melting of, 123; sea level rise from, 214
gross domestic product (GDP), 127, 153
gross primary production (GPP), 221
Group on Earth Observations (GEO), 207–8
guilds, of biogeochemical cycles, 72–74
H2S. See hydrogen sulfide
Hardin, Garret, 232
HCFCs. See hydrochlorofluorocarbons
heat transfer, 123–24
helium, 24
Henderson, Lawrence, 33
heterotrophic cells, 35
heterotrophic respiration, 113–14
human impact: on biodiversity, 133; on biosphere, 8; on carbon cycle, 88; on climate change, 18–19, 19; on Earth system, 3; on hydrologic cycle, 99; on nitrogen cycle, 91–92
human population growth, 2; EMT and, 166–69, 168, 169; IAMs and, 127; land use and, 107
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), 196–97
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), 36, 42–43, 145
hydrologic cycle: in ESMs, 133; oceans and, 26, 101–2; technosphere and, 99–102
hydrosphere. See water
hyperthermal events, 43, 59, 67
IAMs. See integrated assessment models
Icarus scenario, 143–45, 252–53
Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite (ICESat1), 214
ice age cycles, 45–49; carbon dioxide and, 46, 47, 47–48, 59–60; Milankovitch orbital forcings and, 66; positive feedback and, 59–60
ICESat1. See Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite
IGOS. See Integrated Global Observing System
IMF. See International Monetary Fund
indigenous people’s rights, 160–61
INFEWS. See Innovations at the Nexus of Food, Energy and Water Systems
INGOs. See international non-governmental organizations
inheritance, in niche construction, 80
Innovations at the Nexus of Food, Energy and Water Systems (INFEWS), 246
integrated assessment models (IAMs), 125–28, 134
Integrated Global Observing System (IGOS), 207
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 106, 198–99; biomass and, 246; ESMs and, 134–41, 137, 138
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), 106
International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, 106
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 155, 157–58, 190–91
international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs), 163
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 207
International Whaling Commission (IWC), 193
Internet, 10
IPBES. See Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
IPCC. See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
irrigation, 94
IUCN. See International Union for the Conservation of Nature
IWC. See International Whaling Commission
Kaibab Plateau, 116–17
Kaufmann, Stuart, 10
Keeling, Charles David, 14–16, 216
Keeling, Ralph, 96
Klein, Naomi, 152
Kyoto Protocol, 199
land: for agriculture, 108–9; carbon and, 219–22; as carbon sink, 88; governance of, 197–98; monitoring of, 218–23; NPP of, 219–21; sustainability of, 183; technosphere and, 106–9. See also soil
Landsat satellites, 209–10, 221, 225
land use and coverage, 107; extinctions from, 110–11; IAMs and, 128; monitoring of, 218–19; planetary boundaries for, 185
Land Use and Land Cover Change Project, 106
Law of the Sea convention, 193
lead, 94
Leadership in Energy Environmental Design (LEED), 189
Leemans, R., 73–74
Leopold, Aldo, 116–17
Lerro, B., 149
life: in biospheres, 35, 39–40; origin of, 33–34; oxygen for, 36–37
light use efficiency (LUE), 221
lithosphere, 25
Lovelock, James, 5, 8, 54–56, 57, 63, 68, 96, 195
LUE. See light use efficiency
Malhi, Y., 77
Mankind and Mother Earth (Toynbee), 5
Marine Fisheries Council, 188
MEA. See Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Medea hypothesis, 5–6, 56–58, 74–75; biosphere and, 63–64; carbon dioxide and, 58–60
Medea Hypothesis, The (Ward), 56
mercury, 94–95
metals, 94–95
metaphors, 4–6
meteorite collisions, 54
methane (CH4), 29, 36, 51, 60, 89–90; EPME and, 41–42; in ice age cycles, 47; monitoring of, 217, 217; oxygen and, 37, 54; PETM and, 43
Milankovič, Milutin, 46–47
Milankovitch orbital forcings, 46–49, 66
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), 106, 183
missing carbon sink, 87
model calibration, 122
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), 214, 220–22, 225
modernization, 149–54; political, 163; responses to, 151–54. See also ecological modernization theory
Modern Synthesis, 71–72
MODIS. See Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
Mol, A. P. J., 160
Molina, James, 195
monitoring, 207–27; of atmosphere, 216–18, 217; of biodiversity, 222–23; of carbon cycle, 224–25; of carbon dioxide, 207, 216–18; of climate, 212–14; of cryosphere, 214–15, 215; of deforestation, 219; of fish, 224; of freshwater, 215–16; integration of satellites and ground-based observations, 211–12; of land, 218–23; of methane, 217, 217; of oceans, 223–24; recent developments in, 224–26; satellite remote sensing for, 209–12, 225; of vegetation, 219
Montreal Protocol, 97–98, 196, 197
moon, 25
Morris, Simon Conway, 81
Mother Earth, 4–5
Mount Pinatubo eruption, 93
mutations, 34
mutualism, 69
mycorrhizal association, 69
myth of individuality, 71–72
N2O. See nitrous oxide
NAFTA. See North American Free Trade Agreement
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 209–10, 214, 220–21, 225
National Atmospheric Deposition Program, 207
National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), 129
National Environmental Act Plan, 190
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 209, 210
National Science Foundation, 246
National Snow and Ice Data Center, 214
natural gas, 173
Natural Resources Defense Council, 163
Nature Conservancy, 163
NCAR. See National Center for Atmospheric Research
NDVI. See Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
NEE. See net ecosystem exchange
negative feedback: biosphere and, 32, 62; carbon dioxide and, 4, 145; climate and, 74; early human history and, 231; Gaia hypothesis and, 56, 57; hyperthermal events and, 59; photosynthesis and, 31; rock cycle and, 29–30, 30; rock weathering and, 30, 75
net ecosystem exchange (NEE), 220
net primary production (NPP): biomass and, 219–20; carbon and, 86; carbon cycle and, 113; carbon dioxide and, 113–14; ecosystems and, 70–71; increases in, 113–14; of land, 219–21; of oceans, 88, 114–16, 223–24
NGOs. See nongovernmental organizations
niche construction, 79–80; in ecosystems, 71
nitrate, 91
nitric acid, from fossil fuels, 91
nitrogen: agriculture and, 2; governance of, 194–95
nitrogen cycle, 90–92; EMT and, 162; greenhouse gases and, 92; human impact on, 91–92; planetary boundaries for, 185
nitrogen saturation, 91
nitrous oxide (N2O), 29; biosphere and, 60; nitrogen cycle and, 92
NMHCs. See nonmethane hydrocarbons
NOAA. See National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 162–63; bottom-up governance and, 187–89; UNCED and, 192
nonmethane hydrocarbons (NMHCs), 61; CCN and, 62
noösphere, 9–11, 253; biogeochemical cycles and, 80
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), 219
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 163, 190
NPP. See net primary production
nutrient cycling: arthropods and, 69–70; biosphere and, 81; ecosystems and, 70; life and, 35
oceans, 8; in 2300, 142; acidification of, 62, 67, 88–89, 89, 115, 131, 185; carbon cycle and, 48; carbon dioxide in, 59, 89, 223; as carbon sink, 86, 88, 103, 132, 142; in ESMs, 131; governance of, 192–93; hydrologic cycle and, 26, 101–2; monitoring of, 223–24; NPP of, 88, 114–16, 223–24; planktonic algae in, 62; technosphere and, 114–16; THC and, 101–2, 131; warming of, 114–15. See also sea level rise
OCO. See Orbital Carbon Observatory
Odum, Eugene, 10–11
Ogallala Aquifer, 99–100
OH. See hydroxyl radical
Orbital Carbon Observatory (OCO), 221
organic molecules, 34–35
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 172
oxygen: in atmosphere, 36; in biosphere, 7, 36–37; carbon dioxide and, 96; fossil fuels and, 96; Gaia hypothesis and, 96; ice age cycles and, 60; life and, 36–37; methane and, 37, 54; in Phanerozoic eon, 41; photosynthesis and, 36; for respiration, 54; solar radiation and, 36; technosphere and, 96–99
ozone: in Antarctica, 97, 195; CFCs and, 97–98, 98; climate and, 29; hydrogen sulfide and, 42; in Icarus scenario, 145; nitrous oxide and, 92; in stratosphere, 36, 97, 185, 195–97; in troposphere, 60–61; ultraviolet radiation and, 36, 60, 97, 195–96
Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum (PETM), 43, 59, 67; carbon cycle in, 90
Paleozoic era, fungi of, 72
Pangea, rock weathering of, 66
Paris Agreement, 163, 166, 174; key features of, 200; renewable energy and, 175; United States and, 200–201
pastureland, 106–7. See also grazing
pedosphere, 40–41
Permian period, 64–66
PETM. See Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum
Phanerozoic eon: carbon dioxide in, 65; of Earth system, 40–45
Phenomenon of Man, The (Teilhard de Chardin), 10
phosphorus cycle, 92–93
photoautotrophs, 35
photosynthesis: from bacteria, 35, 57; in biosphere, 7; C4, 45; carbohydrates from, 35–36; carbon dioxide and, 31, 50; climate change and, 133; hydrogen for, 36; negative feedback with, 31
phytoplankton: biomass from, 38; UV on, 115
planetary boundaries, of Earth system, 184, 185–86
planktonic algae, 62. See also phytoplankton
Pliocene epoch, 142
political globalization, 157–58
political modernization, 163
pollution: from economic globalization, 157; EMT on, 162, 165–66
population growth. See human population growth
positive feedback, 4, 30–31; carbon and, 49; carbon dioxide and, 59–60; cryosphere and, 132; deforestation and, 100; in ice age cycles, 59–60; Medea hypothesis and, 57; snow/ice albedo and, 38–39, 45, 46–47; water vapor and, 38
post-normal science, 202
potassium cycle, 185
precipitation: in 2300, 141; evapotranspiration and, 63; in hydrologic cycle, 99; in Icarus scenario, 144–45; jet stream and, 146–47; monitoring of, 213; from water vapor, 100
prokaryotes, 39
Pythagoras, 6–7
radioactive elements: governance of, 193–94; technosphere and, 95–96
Ramankutty, N., 107
range shifts, from climate change, 112
Raskin, Paul, 14
ratchet effect, in niche construction, 79
RCPs. See representative concentration pathways
Reduction in Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD), 197
reflectance. See albedo
relational values, 170
renewable energy, 171–72; at Google, 177; Paris Agreement and, 175
representative concentration pathways (RCPs), 134, 136
resilience: biodiversity and, 111; in SES, 233, 236
respiration: carbohydrates and, 35–36; climate change and, 133; glucose and, 36–37; oxygen for, 54
ribonucleic acid (RNA), 34
rice, methane and, 90
Rio Declaration, 11–12
RNA. See ribonucleic acid
Robertson, R., 155
rock cycle, 26, 26–27; negative feedback and, 29–30, 30
rock weathering: carbon dioxide and, 38, 49, 66; of Himalayan Mountains, 66; negative feedback and, 30, 75; of Pangea, 66
Rowland, Sherry, 195
SAL. See structural adjustment lending
salinization, of soil, 94
satellite remote sensing, for monitoring, 209–12, 225
Schlesinger, W. H., 80–81
science, 82; cultural globalization and, 158–59; post-normal, 202
Scripps Oceanography, 207
scrubland, technosphere and, 107–8
sea level rise: in 2300, 141–42; in 10,000 years, 142; in BAU, 136–37; from climate change, 146; in ESMs, 131–32; from Greenland ice sheets, 214
selfish gene, 71
self-organization: of Gaian biosphere, 13; life and, 33, 34
SES. See socioecological system
Silent Spring (Carson), 117–18
Simon, Julian, 126
slab ocean, 123–24
SMAP. See Surface Moisture Active Passive sensor
Snowball Earth, 8, 38–39, 51; solar radiation and, 66
snow/ice albedo, 38–39, 45, 46–47
social capital, 230, 232; in SES, 234
social systems, ecosystems and, 229–48
sociocultural revolution, globalization of, 156
socioecological system (SES), 233–47; adaptive cycles in, 234–36, 235; biodiversity in, 245; bioregions and, 240–42; feedback in, 236–37; globalization and, 237–38; global scale of, 243–45; greenhouse gases and, 245; hierarchy of, 238–45; household and, 238–39; incentives and, 237; landscapes and, 239–40; multiple ecosystem services and, 246–48; national scale and, 242–43; resilience of, 233, 236; social capital and, 234; sustainability of, 236–37
soil: agriculture and, 183; biosphere and, 40–41; carbon in, 86; ecosystems and, 70–71; salinization of, 94
solar radiation: in biosphere, 77; chlorophyll and, 35; energy balance and, 27–29, 28; GPP and, 221; hydrologic cycle and, 101; ice age cycles and, 46–47; long-term increase in, 49–50; monitoring of, 213; oxygen and, 36; Snowball Earth and, 66; snow/ice albedo and, 38–39. See also albedo; ultraviolet radiation
soybeans, nitrogen cycle and, 91
spheres, of Earth system, 6–12
storms, monitoring of, 213
stratosphere, ozone and, 36, 97, 185, 195–97
structural adjustment lending (SAL), 190–91
Suess, Hans, 90
sulfate, aerosols and, 93, 103
sulfur cycle, 92–93
sulfuric acid, from fossil fuels, 91
Summerhayes, C. P., 40
Surface Moisture Active Passive sensor (SMAP), of NASA, 214
sustainability: EMT and, 166; fish and, 183, 188; forests and, 183; FSC and, 187–88; governance and, 181–84, 231–33; Great Transition and, 229; land and, 183; in SES, 236–37; technobiosphere and, 11–12
swamp ocean, 123–24
technobiosphere, 11–12
technology, 150; EMT on, 164; extinctions from, 110; in noösphere, 9–11
technosphere, 8–9; in 2300, 142; in Anthropocene narrative, 13, 14; biodiversity and, 109–11; biogeochemical cycles and, 77–103; biosphere and, 105–20; capitalism and, 163; carbon cycle and, 85–86; climate change and, 102–3; consciousness and, 81–82, 102; emergence of, 81–82; forestland and, 107–8; gene pools and, 118–19; globalization and, 155; hydrologic cycle and, 99–102; land and, 106–9; metals in, 94–95; oceans and, 114–16; oxygen and, 96–99; radioactive elements and, 95–96; scrubland and, 107–8; toxins and, 117–18. See also human impact
tectonic plates, 25, 27, 38, 66, 67
Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre, 9–10, 155
THC. See thermohaline circulation
theory of mind, 82
thermohaline circulation (THC), 48–49, 101–2, 129, 131, 144
“Think Global, Act Local,” 2–3
This Changes Everything: Capitalism vs. the Climate (Klein), 152
Topsoil and Civilization (Dale and Carter), 117
toxins, technosphere and, 117–18
Toynbee, Arnold, 5
tragedy of the commons, 232
transdisciplinary approach, to Earth system, 12, 73–74
transpiration: atmosphere and, 40; leaf-level measurements of, 122
triggerfish, 117
troposphere, ozone and, 60–61
UCB. See UNCED Convention on Biodiversity
ultraviolet radiation (UV): hydrogen sulfide and, 42; ozone and, 36, 60, 97, 195–96; phytoplankton and, 115
UN. See United Nations
UNCCD. See UN Convention to Combat Desertification
UNCED. See United Nations Environment and Development
UNCED Convention on Biodiversity (UCB), 197
uncertainty, 121; of climate models, 134–35; in GCMs, 124–25; IPCC and, 136; planetary boundaries and, 184
UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), 198
UNEP. See United Nations Environment Programme
United Nations (UN): EPA and, 192; governance by, 191–92; MEA of, 106; monitoring by, 207; political globalization and, 157
United Nations Environment and Development (UNCED), 191–92, 197
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 176, 191, 207
United States: acidification in, 91; carbon dioxide and, 174; climate change and, 16–17; coal in, 172; EPA and, 174, 192, 194–95; landscapes in, 239; Law of the Sea convention and, 193; monitoring by, 207, 209–10; National Atmospheric Deposition Program in, 207; Paris Agreement and, 200–201
UN World Summit on Sustainable Development, 192
UV. See ultraviolet radiation
vegetation: in 2300, 142; albedo of, 62–63; in Arctic, 108; BAU and, 137–39; distribution of, 132–33; hydrologic cycle and, 100–101; monitoring of, 219
Vernadsky, Vladimir, 10–11, 17, 80
vertebrates, 41; extinctions of, 109
Visible Infrared Radiometer Suite (VIIRS), 225
water: acidification of, 91, 194; in atmosphere, 100; deforestation and, 100; on Earth, 25–26; photosynthesis and, 36. See also freshwater; hydrologic cycle; oceans
water vapor, 29, 38, 47, 61, 100–101
WEO. See World Environmental Organization
whaling, 193
wicked problems, 202
Williams, M., 105
WMO. See World Meteorological Organization
World Bank, 157–58, 159, 190–91
World Environmental Organization (WEO), 204, 245
World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 198, 209, 212–13
World Trade Organization (WTO), 155–58, 159, 189–90
Younger Dryas, 48–49
Zhu, K., 112