(For complete citation information for Founders Online sources, see Selected Bibliography.)
The majority (approximately 95 percent)
…in Africa. “Estimates,” Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database.
“among my first wishes…imperceptable degrees.” George Washington to John Francis Mercer, 9 September 1786, Founders Online.
“The unfortunate condition…unavoidable subject of regret.” Humphreys, 78.
Enslaved children got fewer clothes than the adults. Mary V. Thompson, “The Only Unavoidable Subject of Regret”: George Washington, Slavery, and the Enslaved Community at Mount Vernon (Pending publication 2019, University of Virginia Press), 217.
With his horn on his back…through the tangled woods. Custis, 387.
“saw [General Washington] and his colored servant…talking to them.” Dann, 408–409.
“If it will give Will any pleasure…are both very well.” Thompson, Mary V. “William Lee & Oney Judge: A Look at George Washington & Slavery.” Journal of the American Revolution, 28 Aug. 2016, allthingsliberty.com/2014/06/william-lee-and-oney-judge-a-look-at-george-washington-slavery/.
“two Waistcoats, and two pair of Breeches…nothing of the kind is to be had here.” George Washington to Captain Caleb Gibbs, 1 May 1777, Founders Online.
“The servants of the general officers…reconnoitered the enemy.” Custis, 224.
“with his usual dignity…received the salute.” Thacher, 163.
“Old Billy, Washington’s body-servant…with great dignity.” Lossing, 123.
“Billy, hand me my horse.” Custis, 279.
“The Mulatto fellow William…Lee (the name which he has assumed).” George Washington to Clement Biddle, 28 July 1784, Founders Online.
“revered and beloved…every countenance in his presence.” Lee, 23.
“to my utter astonishment…private virtue of Washington.” Lee, 23.
“with much difficulty…neither Walk, stand, or ride.” George Washington Diary, 22 April 1785, Founders Online.
“plain blue coat…black breeches and boots.” Lee, 28.
“a clean shirt on…white silk stockings.” Lee, 28.
“servant as your old acquaintance Will…blacken your shoes.” George Washington to David Humphreys, 20 June 1786, Founders Online.
“determined by adding…three fifths of all other Persons” “The Constitution of the United States: A Transcription.” National Archives and Records Administration.
“at length I have the happiness…rising and not a setting Sun.” James Madison, Notes on the Debates in the Federal Convention, Sept 1.
“sent my Waiter Will…of his other Knee.” George Washington Diary, 1 March 1788, Founders Online.
“Will appears to be…well enough to go on.” Tobias Lear to Clement Biddle, April 19, 1789, “Selections from the Correspondence of Colonel Clement Biddle.” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography.
“continues too bad to remove…for a week or two.” Clement Biddle to George Washington, 27 April 1789, Founders Online.
“would thank you to propose it to Billy…every reasonable wish.” Tobias Lear to Clement Biddle, May 3, 1789, “Selections from the Correspondence of Colonel Clement Biddle.” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography.
“I shall have a Steel made…some Day this Week.” Clement Biddle to George Washington, 27 April 1789, Founders Online.
“I hope that Billy…New York without accident.” Clement Biddle to George Washington, 27 April 1789, Founders Online, Note 1.
“It will be with a heavy expense.” Clement Biddle to George Washington, 27 April 1789, Founders Online, Note 1.
“Billy arrived here…by his misfortunes.” Clement Biddle to George Washington, 27 April 1789, Founders Online, Note 1.
“kept steadily to work…their business.” George Washington to Anthony Whitting, 18 November 1792, Founders Online.
“Mulatto Will should be kept close…this business behind.” George Washington to William Pearce, 18 May 1794, Founders Online.
“would send his compliments…body-servant of the Revolution.” Custis, 451.
Historians think…to July of 1774. Thompson, “The Only Unavoidable Subject of Regret”: George Washington, Slavery, and the Enslaved Community at Mount Vernon, 160.
“Richmond and Christopher…yesterday by Water.” George Washington to Tobias Lear, 22 November 1790, Founders Online.
“pleased to find by the former that the apprehensions…are removed.” George Augustine Washington to George Washington, 28 December 1790, Founders Online.
to give directions…blacks in this family.” Tobias Lear to George Washington, 5 April 1791, Founders Online.
“I know not…yourself & Mrs. Washington.” George Washington to Tobias Lear, 12 April 1791, Founders Online.
“give no advice…to governmental officials.” Tobias Lear to George Washington, 24 April 1791, Founders Online.
“use all means to entice them from their masters.” Tobias Lear to George Washington, 24 April 1791, Founders Online.
“this will oblige him…be next week.” Tobias Lear to George Washington, 24 April 1791, Founders Online.
“in a Vessel that sails tomorrow for Alexandria.” Tobias Lear to George Washington, 24 April 1791, Founders Online.
“carry them out of the State…managed very well.” Tobias Lear to George Washington, 24 April 1791, Founders Online.
“You will permit me now…state of freedom.” Tobias Lear to George Washington, 24 April 1791, Founders Online.
“On Tuesday Mrs Washington…children with her & Christopher & Oney.” Tobias Lear to George Washington, 15 May 1791, Founders Online.
“On one side…if both were forgot.” George Washington to Tobias Lear, 9 March 1797, Founders Online.
“supposed to be a little diseased.” George Washington to William Stoy, 14 October 1797, Founders Online.
“cut out so far as…Course of mercury.” George Washington to William Stoy, 14 October 1797, Founders Online.
“in a state of Madness” George Washington to William Stoy, 14 October 1797, Founders Online.
“under Your care…my own Body servant.” George Washington to William Stoy, 14 October 1797, Founders Online.
“in no danger…Sheels is Safe.” William Stoy to George Washington, 19 October 1797, Founders Online.
“discovery of the Vessel, they contemplate to escape in.” George Washington to Roger West, 19 September 1799, Founders Online.
“would be equally desirous…our cases differ.” George Washington to Roger West, 19 September 1799, Founders Online.
With the fires beginning to crackle…for the next time she emptied them. Glasse, 11-38.
“Thanks for the Loan of Peter…send him Home unhurt.” William Fitzhugh to George Washington, 2 November 1785, Founders Online.
“Tarquin has recover’d the Laurells he lost at Alexandria.” William Fitzhugh to George Washington, 2 November 1785, Founders Online.
“I have no desire to keep him, if you find a use for him.” George Washington to David Stuart, 12 February 1787, Founders Online.
“As you have no immediate occasion…unwilling to part with his wife and Children.” George Washington to David Stuart, 22 January 1788, Founders Online.
“Caroline is very unwell has had a Smart fever all last week.” Anthony Whitting to George Washington, 16 January 1793, Founders Online.
“bled her in the early part of the week…hope She will Get better.” Anthony Whitting to George Washington, 16 January 1793, Founders Online.
“being in the yard certainly made it more difficult to keep it clean.” George Augustine Washington to George Washington, 14 December 1790, Founders Online
“a great number of Negro children…doing other mischief.” George Washington to William Pearce, 27 October 1793, Founders Online.
“could have tempted me…I do not wish to make any profit from it.” George Washington Papers, Series 5, Financial Papers: George Washington’s Revolutionary War Expense Account, 1775–1783, Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/mgw500022.
“I can only repeat to you…I am distressed for want of money.” George Washington to John Francis Mercer, 8 July 1784, Founders Online.
“If I can sell the Negroes…at Publick Sale.” Lund Washington to George Washington, 11 March 1778, Founders Online.
“With regard to Sellg the Negroes Mention’d…at least for this Summer.” Lund Washington to George Washington, 8 April 1778, Founders Online.
“Cash for the Following Negroes. Abram, Orford, Tom, Jack, Ede, Fattimore, Phillis, Bett & Jenny.” George Washington Papers, Series 5, Financial Papers: George Washington’s Revolutionary War Expense Account, 1775–1783, Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/mgw500022.
“I never mean…abolished by slow, sure, & imperceptable degrees.” George Washington to John Francis Mercer, 9 September 1786, Founders Online.
“With respect to the negroes…separation of man and wife, or of families.” George Washington to John Francis Mercer, 24 November 1786, Founders Online.
“a generous and noble proof.” George Washington to Lafayette, 10 May 1786, Founders Online.
“Would to God a like spirit would…by Legislative authority.” George Washington to Lafayette, 10 May 1786, Founders Online.
“I have now demands upon me…cannot or will not pay it.” George Washington to Mary Ball Washington, 15 February 1787, Founders Online.
“Short Crops, & other causes not entirely within my Controul.” George Washington to Richard Conway, 4 March 1789, Founders Online.
“what I never expected to…borrow money upon interest.” George Washington to Richard Conway, 4 March 1789, Founders Online.
“If Peter does any work at all…do nothing that he can avoid—of labour.” George Washington to Anthony Whitting, 4 November 1792, Founders Online.
“I have long suspected that Peter…his own pleasures than my benefit.” George Washington to Anthony Whitting, 30 December 1792,” Founders Online.
“only Six shirts a week…under the Overseers thereat.” George Washington to Anthony Whitting, 23 December 1792, Founders Online.
“half my Stock may be stolen…nothing left to be robbed of.” George Washington to Anthony Whitting, 25 November 1792, Founders Online.
“was never celebrated for her honesty…it could be done with impunity.” George Washington to Anthony Whitting, 17 February 1793, Founders Online.
“it is indispensably necessary…find them transgressing these orders.” George Washington to Anthony Whitting, 19 May 1793, Founders Online.
“Our horses and the men…care of by his domesticks.” Staples and Frost, A Day at Mount Vernon in 1797, 9–10.
“Unless some one pops in…set down to dinner by ourselves.” George Washington to Tobias Lear, 31 July 1797, Founders Online.
“besides this a ½ doll. for the boy.” Lee, 76.
“Either from habit…very good English.” Lee, 79.
“We entered one of the huts of the Blacks…some cups and a teapot.” Lee, 77–79.
“I was not a stranger…of my linen, of my clothes, etc.” Lee, 83.
“I have not had one half hour to myself since the day of my arrival.” Fields, 215.
“an indulgent master.” John Carlile to George Washington, 21 December 1794, Founders Online.
“often complains of not being well…does not like to be told so.” Fields, 215.
“Betsy you know is often complaining…does not take much pleasure in going out to visit.” Fields, 286.
“Absconded from the household…FREDERICK KITT, Steward. May 23” Encyclopedia of Virginia. “Advertisement for the Capture of Oney Judge” Philadelphia Gazette and Universal Daily Advertiser, May 24, 1796, 1.
“been the particular attendant on Mrs Washington…recover and send her back.” George Washington to Oliver Wolcott Jr., 1 September 1796, Founders Online.
“simple and inoffensive.” George Washington to Oliver Wolcott Jr., 1 September 1796, Founders Online.
“It is certain the escape has been…if it can be avoided.” George Washington to Oliver Wolcott Jr., 1 September 1796, Founders Online.
“a thirst for compleat freedom.” “Ona Marie Judge,” Weeks Public Library.
“she expressed great affection & Reverence…sold or given to any other person.” “Ona Marie Judge,” Weeks Public Library.
“in favor of universal freedom.” “Ona Marie Judge,” Weeks Public Library.
adopt such measures…Constitution of the United States.” “Ona Marie Judge,” Weeks Public Library.
“To enter into such a compromise…far more deserving than herself, of favor.” George Washington to Joseph Whipple, 28 November 1796, Founders Online.
“conduct will be forgiven by her Mistress” George Washington to Joseph Whipple, 28 November 1796, Founders Online.
“put on board a Vessel.” George Washington to Joseph Whipple, 28 November 1796, Founders Online.
“mean however, by this request…in the minds of well disposed Citizens.” George Washington to Joseph Whipple, 28 November 1796, Founders Online.
“be a pleasing circumstance to your Aunt.” George Washington to Burwell Bassett Jr., 11 August 1799, Founders Online.
“unpleasant, or troublesome” George Washington to Burwell Bassett Jr., 11 August 1799, Founders Online.
“twenty-five choice SLAVES…cattle, sheep, and hogs.” The Friends of Freedmen’s Cemetery. Virginia Gazette Items Relating to Slaves in Alexandria and Fairfax County: 1768–1777, “October 19, 1769 (Rind).”
“a dark-brown man…namesake of fabulous history.” Custis, 422.
“No one need apply who is not perfect…to the duties of the station.” Decatur, Private Affairs of George Washington, from the Records and Accounts of Tobias Lear, Esquire, His Secretary, 93.
“not from his…comes as a Scullion for the Kitchen.” George Washington to Tobias Lear, 22 November 1790, Founders Online.
“as highly accomplished a proficient in the culinary art as could be found in the United States.” Custis, 422.
“the whole household, treated the chief cook with much respect…good character and pleasing manners.” Custis, 422–423.
“Herculas can answer every purpose…she will not.” From George Washington to Tobias Lear, 19 June 1791, Founders Online.
“blue cloth coat with velvet collar and bright metal buttons…the celebrated dandy.” Custis, 423.
“shone in all his splendor…everywhere at the same moment.” Custis, 423.
“Many were not a little surprised on beholding…the most polished gentlemen.” Custis, 424.
“nothing can be expected from Richmond…no manner of service there.” Tobias Lear to George Washington, 1 April 1791, Founders Online.
“intended to send Richmond home…willing that he should go.” Tobias Lear to George Washington, 17 April 1791, Founders Online.
“Richmond goes in a Vessel that sails…the best I can think of to accomplish this business.” Tobias Lear to George Washington, 24 April 1791, Founders Online.
“go home this week in the Stage…make arrangements for his departure.” Tobias Lear to George Washington, 22 May 1791, Founders Online.
“was about to go…tomorrow takes his departure for Virginia.” Tobias Lear to George Washington, 5 June 1791, Founders Online.
“If it shall be found…gravel at the place I shewed you.” George Washington to James Anderson, 5 November 1796, Founders Online.
“In short let them be employed…Keep them out of idleness & mischief.” George Washington to James Anderson, 5 November 1796, Founders Online.
“I hope Richmond was made an example of, for the Robbery he committed on Wilkes Saddle bags.” George Washington to William Pearce, 14 November 1796, Founders Online.
“ten dollars & a Quarter that had been stolen by Richmon from James Wlks” Manager Ledger (William Pearce) 1794-1797, 15 November 1796. Mount Vernon Database for Richmond.
“I wish he may not have been put upon it by his father…perhaps of a journey together.” George Washington to William Pearce, 14 November 1796, Founders Online.
“P.S. What has Frank Herculas & Cyrus been employed in…gardeners or other Reports.” George Washington to William Pearce, 18 December 1796, Founders Online.
“Herculees absconded.” Farm report, 25 February 1797. Mount Vernon Database for Hercules.
“to make all the enquiry he can after Hercules, and send him round in the Vessel if he can be discovered & apprehended.” George Washington to Tobias Lear, 10 March 1797, Founders Online.
“said to this little girl that she must be very sad…he is free now.’” Lee, 68.
“unless some particular circumstances should compel me to it.” George Washington to John Francis Mercer, 9 September 1786, Founders Online.
“fondness for liquor.” Bushrod Washington to George Washington, 8 November 1797, Founders Online.
“the running off of my Cook…resolution I fear I must break.” George Washington to George Lewis, 13 November 1797, Founders Online.
“We have never heard of Herculas…he would elude all your vigilance.” George Washington to Frederick Kitt, 10 January 1798, Founders Online.
“Since your departure…inform you of my success.” Frederick Kitt to George Washington, 15 January 1798, Founders Online.
“It is demonstratively clear…scarcely been able to keep me a float.” George Washington to Robert Lewis, 17 August 1799, Founders Online.
Mary V. Thompson, a research historian at Mount Vernon…Martha Washington’s estate was around £6,055. Thompson, “The Only Unavoidable Subject of Regret”: George Washington, Slavery, and the Enslaved Community at Mount Vernon, 865.
“be more tranquil & freer from cares…can be defrayed.” George Washington to Tobias Lear, 6 May 1794, Founders Online, Note 13.
Thompson estimated…people owned by George Washington was around £4,640. Thompson, “The Only Unavoidable Subject of Regret”: George Washington, Slavery, and the Enslaved Community at Mount Vernon, 864.
“Upon the decease of my wife…to manumit them.” Washington, George. George Washington’s will, Fairfax County, Virginia.
“I do herby expressly forbid the Sale” Washington, George. George Washington’s wil, Fairfax County, Virginia.
“under any pretence whatsoever.” Washington, George. George Washington’s will, Fairfax County, Virginia.
“And to my Mulatto man William (calling himself William Lee)…his faithful services during the Revolutionary War.” Washington, George. George Washington’s will.
“the remains of the provisions were distributed among the blacks.” George Washington, Letters and Recollections of George Washington: Being Letters to Tobias Lear and others between 1790 and 1799 (London, Archibald Constable and Co., 1906), 141.
“clear of her negroes & of plantation cares & troubles.” Fields, 329.
Rumors of poison and a possible house fire circulated. Thompson, “The Only Unavoidable Subject of Regret”: George Washington, Slavery, and the Enslaved Community at Mount Vernon, 865.
“Mrs. Washington has announced…emancipated. According to the General’s wishes.” Spectator (New York), February 1, 1800, https://lccn.loc.gov/sn83030559.
“The slaves were left to be emancipated…after the general’s decease.” Custis, 158.
“Mrs. Washington with all her fortune…set them all free at the close of the year.” Abigail Adams to Mrs. Richard (Mary) Cranch, December 21, 1800, Massachusetts Historial Society, Adams-Cranch family papers, 1752–1894.
“there were about thirty Negroes…earnestly after Lord Cornwallis.” Sir Augustus John Foster, Jeffersonian America: Notes on the United States of America Collected in the Years 1805–6–7 and 11–12 by Sir Augustus John Foster, Bart., edited by Richard Beale Davis (California: The Huntington Library, 1954), 116–117 (typescript in MVLA Library, Black Research Notebook on “The Tomb”).
“I inquired for the old Slave Servants of the General…some inches higher up.” Peale, 696.
“frequently relieved him on such occasions, by bleeding him.” Custis, 157.
“sorry she left Washington…made a child of God.” Rev. T. H. Adams, “Washington’s Runaway Slave and How Portsmouth Freed Her,” Granite Freeman (Concord, N.H.), May 22, 1845.
“nearly white, very much freckled…maintained as a pauper” Rev. Benjamin Chase, letter to the editor, The Liberator (Boston), January 1, 1847.
“only be managed by one groom, and that always at considerable personal risk.” Mason, 175.
“Upon losing my groom (Peter)…I parted with my stock.” Mason, 176.
“a mulatto, about 44 years old…emancipated by R. H. Miller.” Provine, 231.
“they were a few of the many slaves freed by general George Washington…pointed out for them to do.” Niles, 187.
“they were enclosing with a paling…training vines over the graves.” Joseph A. Downer, “Hallowed Ground, Sacred Place: The Slave Cemetery at George Washington’s Mount Vernon and the Cultural Landscapes of the Enslaved” (master’s thesis, George Washington University, 2015), 48. Western Literary Messenger, 1846:201.
“I was painfully distressed at the ruin and desolation of the home of Washington…a blot on our country!” “Ann Pamela Cunningham,” George Washington Digital Encyclopedia, George Washington’s Mount Vernon, September 23, 2016, http://www.mountvernon.org/digital-encyclopedia/article/ann-pamela-cunningham.
“the path the…much about it since.” Gilliam, Dorothy. “REMEMBRANCE.” Washington Post, WP Company, 6 February 1982, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1982/02/06/remembrance/44ab74fb-0144-4bb2-b22a-2bd93fbf665c/, accessed May 7, 2018.
“This is not about slavery, it’s about the strength of the people who endured slavery.” Thomas, Pierre. “FORGOTTEN PIONEERS RECALLED AT MOUNT VERNON.” Washington Post, WP Company, 23 September. 1990, www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1990/09/23/forgotten-pioneers-recalled-at-mount-vernon/9df4558f-4d9c-4b0e-87f2-88bc33047108/, accessed May 7, 2018.
“focusing attention on the Slave Memorial at Mount Vernon and…the unknown slaves buried there.” House Joint Resolution No. 443, Commemorating the 15th Anniversary of the Slave Memorial at Mount Vernon. General Assembly of Virginia, 1998 Session, Legislative Information System, https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?981+ful+HJ443ER+pdf, accessed May 7, 2018.
“realized the cemetery’s grave shafts were amazingly clear, visible just a few inches below the current ground surface.” Personal communication with the author.
“We may never know the names of the individuals…they go ‘unnumbered’ no longer.” Personal communication with the author.
“recognized for the sacrifices they gave.” Personal communication with the author.
“We seek to commemorate the lives…locations of individual burial plots.” “Videos on Slavery, Slave Memorial Ceremony.” George Washington’s Mount Vernon, Mount Vernon, www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/slavery/.
“unnumbered trailblazers who rest beneath this hallowed space.” “Videos on Slavery, Slave Memorial Ceremony.” George Washington’s Mount Vernon, Mount Vernon, www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/slavery/.
“Visible, tangible, and buried in the ground…they buried their loved ones.” Personal communication with the author.
“tentacles of slavery are reaching from the earth…those enslaved at Mount Vernon.” Personal communication with the author.
“the power of archaeology…enslaved at the plantation.” Personal communication with the author.
“It is a profound thing to uncover and identify a grave shaft…not possible on other areas of the estate.” Green, Nathaniel C. “Uncovering the Past at Mount Vernon’s Slave Cemetery.” American Historical Association, 27 April. 2017, blog.historians.org/2015/07/uncovering-the-past-mount-vernons-slave-cemetery/, accessed May 7, 2018.
“is a direct tangible link to the enslaved community over multiple generations.” Personal communication with the author.
“the impact that archaeological fieldwork…make a visit more meaningful.” Personal communication with the author.
“History belongs to all of us…honor the lives of those that made it all possible.” Personal communication with the author.