CHAPTER TWO
Day-to-Day Survival Skills—The Nitty-Gritty

Introduction

ART HAS ITS OWN CURRICULUM

Use varied approaches when you introduce a lesson. Through an early introduction to art, students learn to recognize and apply the elements and principles of art and design. They can develop an appreciation of artists in any culture. Art history, problem-solving, and skill building expectations are found in National and State Core Art Standards. Never lose sight of the simple joy that producing a work of art gives to most children. It gives them another way to express themselves and awakens imagination in them that no other discipline can.

RELATIONSHIPS WITH STUDENTS

Friendliness, caring, tolerance, and consistency are important attributes for teacher–student relationships. If you are relaxed and calm, and students know you love teaching them, they will recognize it. After you have presented a lesson, ask individuals in the class what the “steps” will be, or ask if they would like to share an idea related to the project. This helps to keep them involved and allows you to clarify any misunderstanding. Afterward, ask the students what they learned (if you write this on a poster board as they talk, their observations can be displayed with the artwork for viewers to see).

Sometimes it is good to be outside your classroom when students arrive—just chat with them when you get a chance. Be a good listener. It is often easy to pick up clues when a student is having a bad day, and sometimes paying a little extra attention may be something you can easily do during an art class to make it better.

Photo depicts the Collage and Watercolor, Yoel Lee.

HAVE HIGH EXPECTATIONS

Few students will work on something any longer than they have to. You will do them a favor by not accepting casual, half-completed work. A project might become more interesting by introducing more than one medium. For example, a less-than-successful watercolor could be combined with other media in a collage. Or a less-than-perfect painting might benefit by outlining details with a silver oil pastel. In the student example shown here, the student included a placemat that was woven from the previous year to create an altogether new composition. Informed teachers are willing to experiment with new concepts in art education. Some projects might be further developed, for example, by introducing a new medium such as adding watercolor to a crayon drawing or combining a completed artwork within a collage. Just remember to give the students the chance to surprise you!

Setting Up Your Classroom

MAKE IT VISUALLY AMAZING!

By its very nature, the art room can be an exciting place to enter. Before the year begins, take time to make it appealing with colorful posters and paper in a variety of colors. Perhaps you've chosen to feature one artist or culture on a bulletin board. Other important items (rules, timelines, color wheel, art materials) can be added when you need them for a lesson and may become more meaningful to the students at that time. Make an effort from time to time to refresh the room by posting new visuals (and removing some that are tired).

Obviously, the tables and stools or chairs for your students come first. If space permits, it is better to have more tables and fewer seats at each table. See the section titled “TAB (Choice-Based Art Education)” in Chapter 1 for another way to set up your room.

AS FOR YOUR DESK

It can go into a corner anywhere. You should not plan on sitting at your desk during class time. You will be constantly circulating in the room. When you move around, students are free to ask you for help – a great chance to praise the work of every student at one time or another. You will soon find the best places to stand and watch classroom behaviors. Proximity! Much can be headed off simply by where you stand.

TECHNOLOGY IN YOUR ART ROOM

Many art teachers are supplied with a computer, which is likely best placed on your desk to protect it from spills, clay dust, etc. Another desirable item to have either on or near your desk is a document camera. This will allow you to project your examples, student examples, and demonstrations with media that will be easy for all students to see. Speakers for your computer will make short videos or music (which you access through your computer) more easily heard throughout the room. Since the computer, document camera, and speakers are interconnected, these items are suggested to be on or near your desk. The projector is often ceiling mounted to show onto a whiteboard, interactive board, or pull-down screen.

If you need assistance getting equipment to work together, call for technology help from your school or from the school district. Make yourself aware of how other schools in your district or neighboring districts are set up with technology, as you should fit into the norm. If you think your room is not equipped similarly to others, talk first to your principal and ask for suggestions on how to acquire the items you need. There are often separate budgets set aside for technology. If not, another possibility is to write a grant application. Even though it is time consuming, it could be well worth your efforts.

Students in your school may be assigned Chromebooks or iPads, or the school may have a cart of computers that can be wheeled into your room when needed. It is then feasible to offer your students digital art lessons. Again, the projector will allow you to introduce the lesson and show steps from your computer (see Chapter 10).

EQUIPMENT MANAGEMENT

Take care of equipment in order to keep from constantly replacing it. Simple supplies such as scissors and erasers are frequently borrowed and not returned, and you may find it necessary to “sign out” borrowed equipment. Cutting knives can be kept blade down in a Styrofoam block, but we recommend for safety purposes that these be kept in a locked cabinet and checked out only as needed. Never allow them to leave your classroom.

STUDENT NOTEBOOKS

Middle school and even elementary art teachers sometimes purchase pre-punched copy paper and clear plastic-fronted three-ring binders for their art students. These are normally kept in the room. Students are requested to date and keep their thumbnail sketches. Another option is for students to make a copy paper journal for entries, notes, sketches, handouts, homework, and small works-in-progress in their notebooks. The first project of the year can be a front cover for the notebook.

STORING ARTWORK

Works-in-progress are often wet and messy, and must go on a drying rack, the hall floor, or a corner of the room until they dry. When dry enough to handle, two-dimensional works can be stored in class drawers or class portfolios. Three-dimensional works can be placed in boxes or trash bags, identified with the classroom teacher's name.

MAINTAINING PORTFOLIOS

Make large portfolios of folded and stapled 28” × 44” tagboards for each class, labeling the portfolio with the teacher's name for each of your classes. Work can be kept in these portfolios in the art room until it is ready to be taken home or displayed. This allows you to see the progress that a student has made, and you are easily able to select work for displays and exhibitions. Alternatively, a cell phone or classroom digital camera may be used to record each student's work when it is complete. This digital record allows the student (and parents) to see progress and reinforces the value that you and students place on their artwork.

SIGNING WORK

Students may sign their work on the front, but show them how they can inconspicuously print or sign their names next to a subject (such as along an arm or leg of a figure) without detracting from the composition. Or they can use a variation of a color to sign on a lower corner in the front (e.g., use dark green on light green grass).

LABELS

Make labels with space for the student name, grade, art teacher, and school. Have these neatly cut, and always ready to attach to any artwork that is displayed. For a uniform display, have students fill them out with black ink from a Sharpie marker.

DISPLAYING STUDENT WORK OUTSIDE THE ART ROOM

Try to keep several examples of a project for end-of-year displays, making sure that you have at least one thing from every student. One way to let all students see that their work is valued is to display the work of every student, not selecting just a few of the “best.” If the artwork is arranged with the more eye-catching compositions on the outsides and near the middle, even so-so work takes on importance. It is also very effective to make a placard to place with a group of similar projects to explain what was learned (ask the students, they will tell you). Use available walls and counters around the school or in the library for display. Displays in community, school, or district art exhibits and websites, as well as state art exhibitions, all offer opportunities to showcase your students' work. One general guideline to keep in mind is that the farther away from the art room, the higher the quality of the work should be. Most artwork can be enhanced with matting, even if the display is as simple as centering the work on a colored piece of construction paper. Remember to always put a tag with the student's name on or beside the work.

MATTING STUDENT ARTWORK

Placing a mat on student work enhances and gives it importance. These suggestions are for simple, relatively easy-to-make mats, not archival matting. It is important to teach presentation and mounting skills to students from the earliest years. They can learn that mats must be kept clean and that artwork must be centered.

Materials: poster board, metal ruler, construction paper, pencil, masking tape, markers, matboard, utility or craft knife

Personalize Purchased Mats

Mats are available for bulk purchase in white, black, or colors.

Use a metal yardstick and wide-nib marker to draw a line in a color related to the artwork around the outer and inner edges of a purchased white mat.
Have students mount their pictures in a purchased mat or on construction paper and “continue” the composition onto the mat.
Double-mount work by using a purchased white mat and cut a colored piece of construction paper that will show 0.25” on the inside and 0.25” on the outside of the mat. Or simply place the matted picture on construction paper.

Things to Keep in Mind

Colored work is effective with a mat in a related color, even if it is just a single line drawn with a marker on a white mat, or a double-mounted artwork.
Neutral media—such as black-and-white photos, pencil, charcoal, and ink—look better mounted on neutral mats (gray, black, brown).
The mat should be 2–3” wide on all sides (but the bottom may be slightly wider if you wish).
Display several small, non-matted works together on a single large sheet of construction paper to set them apart.

Cutting a Mat

If the paper or matboard used for matting is not the appropriate size, cut the outside dimension of the mat on a paper cutter.
Measure the artwork and make the mat opening 0.25” smaller in both height and width.
On the back of the mat, hold a long ruler diagonally from corner to corner and make a small “X” in the center.
From the center of the mat, mark the size of the opening on all four sides of the back. Either measure in from the edges and draw a straight line or use a T-square to mark where you will cut.
Hold a metal ruler steady and, starting at a corner, cut along the edge several times, making sure to cut slightly past the corner so the inside will fall out.
After cutting the mat, place masking tape on the back edges of the artwork, allowing the tape to extend over the edge. Turn it over and center the mat above the front of the artwork before placing it firmly down.
Turn both artwork and mat over and firmly press down the edges of the tape.

CLEANUP

Many art rooms have a single sink. If at all possible, avoid having young students wash their brushes or hands at the sink. Younger students can put paint brushes in a tall container for later washing by an older student helper or the teacher. Sponges may be used by students to wipe tables, but some teachers prefer moistened wipes for hand and table washing. If students washed their hands, they can use the damp paper towel on which they've dried their hands to clean the table.

DISMISSAL

Give ample warning about the end of the period. Take advantage of every teaching minute you have, using the last five to do or talk about something special.

NEW ART MATERIALS

Vendors attend state and national conventions and have some of the finest art educators in the country demonstrating how to use new materials. Even young students can be told that they are using very special materials, and that care must be taken in putting them back in the box to help make them last. If they mistreat new boxes of materials, then these should be put away and the old ones brought back out.

RECYCLING

Art teachers are natural scavengers. They use things from nature and were into recycling long before it became fashionable. Notes sent home to parents often result in marvelous things being sent into the classes. Of course, you must be prepared to store all the donations or use them quickly. Clear plastic storage boxes with lids and stackable drawers can be labeled with marker on the front so students can locate their own supplies. Some towns have organized recycling centers for teachers, where, for a slight fee, out-throws from factories—such as foam sheeting, buttons, plastic yardage, lace, newsprint roll centers, fabric, centers from fabric bolts, carpet tubes, and so on—are available for teachers. If your town doesn't have one of these centers, why not get together a group of teachers (or parents) and organize one!

USE A SEATING CHART FOR ALL GRADE LEVELS

This will help both you and the students. Remind them that the purpose is to give each student a seat where they can produce their best work. Its intent is not necessarily to have friends sit together. Also remind them that seats will likely change according to what you observe works the best for their class.

DEVELOP A SIMPLE RULES CHART

State the rules positively and post in a prominent place in the room! Keep your rules simple and easily understood by all grade levels you will teach in the room. Be ready to discuss your rules with the class on the first day but know that you will have to bring them back up from time to time. Try not to change your classroom rules. Children thrive with routine. There is a comfort level in knowing that acceptable behaviors will not change. Year-after-year, your students quickly learn what your expectations are.

THINK ABOUT INCLUDING A CALMING CORNER

This is simply a small, somewhat secluded area where students can go if they feel they are about to lose self-control. It is best if only one student is in this spot at a time. Set a timer for 3 minutes. Provide quiet activities for the calming corner, such as some art books (they love books that show them how to draw something). The idea is to de-escalate the student. After 3 minutes, they should rejoin the class.

Fostering Creativity

Part of your job as an art teacher is to nurture a fertile ground for your students’ creativity.

Think of what is normal, then encourage changing the normal.
Give examples of “going outside the box.”
Be the spark! Show enthusiasm and acceptance for a new spin on your directions.
Offer suggestions to expand the student's thoughts.

INDIVIDUALISM AND PROBLEM SOLVING

Young people build on artistic concepts and skills by review and practice, gaining confidence each year. A blank piece of paper, a lump of clay, or a pile of recycled “treasures” would be intimidating to any artist, but the art teacher (and “liberated student”) sees fresh material as an opportunity to do an original, creative work of art.

ALLOW ENOUGH TIME FOR A PROJECT TO DEVELOP

If materials are simply placed in front of the student with no discussion, it is likely that it would take a long time for much to happen. Try to teach in a manner that will avoid a predictable outcome. If you know in advance what the end result will be, then every individual's work will be similar, and you haven't given the student the chance to consider possibilities and come up with a personal solution. Sometimes allowing a project to develop over several class periods gives students opportunities to develop an idea that will give a remarkable result.

NEVER DRAW ON A STUDENT'S WORK

If you want to show an individual how to do something, draw it with your finger or draw a suggested change on a piece of paper, then throw your paper away. If you draw directly on a student's artwork it is the same as telling them that their work isn't good enough.

BE FAIR TO ALL STUDENTS

Observe your interactions with all students from time to time to be sure you are being fair to everyone. Try not to allow needy students take a disproportionate share of your class time. All students are entitled to their share of your time—those to whom art comes easily, those to whom nothing comes easily, and those in the middle who may need help but rarely ask for it. If some students have an IEP (Individualized Education Plan) or IDEA/504 (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act/504), follow it exactly to provide a better classroom experience for the student.

QUIET THINKING TIME

When introducing a new lesson, have a quiet thinking interval for students to sketch and plan what they will do. Sometimes writing or drawing on copy paper helps. One colleague teaches students from kindergarten on up to make a preliminary pencil drawing for every project. A notebook allows them to keep track of their previous lessons.

PRAISE WHEN IT IS JUSTIFIED

Try to avoid simply telling a student the work is good. If you always say something is wonderful, it will lose its meaning. Instead, praise one aspect of the artwork. Point out something that is especially appealing, such as “You really made an effort to fill the page,” or “I notice that you varied the thickness of your lines,” or “I love how you used these two colors together.”

COMPOSING A BULLETIN BOARD

Consider a bulletin board as similar in composition to a billboard or poster. The viewer only has a few seconds to get the impact and the message. If it is too busy, the message simply cannot be absorbed. Plan ahead and have a main element that catches the eye. A few large words and a main element draw in the viewer. The supporting information may be smaller. If you only have small items to use, group them together on one sheet of colored background paper. Try to have larger elements at the bottom in order to keep the composition from looking as if it will fall over.

MATERIALS: Posters; roll paper in a variety of colors; construction paper; fadeless paper; cloth; pushpins or staple gun

Hints. When you take down a display, place letters and other elements into a tagboard portfolio to keep them flat for reuse. Cut paper into 4” × 6” pieces and cut out the letters by hand, or request that your school purchase a letter-cutting machine. For titles, use questions such as: Who is this artist? Did you know? Can you imagine? Can you explain? Cut geometric and free-form shapes from construction or fadeless paper to place behind artwork. Vary the color scheme when you put up a new display.

Suggested Themes

Design concepts: Feature one element or principle of art, using large letters and various examples.
Artist(s) of the month (from history): Select an artist or historical time period to feature each month. Include the artist's name, reproductions, and biographical information.
Seasons: Display artists' interpretations of summer, fall, winter, and spring.
Nature: Show different interpretations of the same subject (mountains, animals, landscapes, seascapes, cityscapes) by artists from different time periods or cultures.
Portraiture: Show unique approaches to portraiture by several different artists.
Crafts: Display photos of crafts such as basketry, ceramics, jewelry, masks, or weaving, or feature the work in several media by artisans of one culture.
Architecture: Use pictures of local buildings or famous buildings. Identify individual elements of a building such as columns, different roof styles, door or window styles, or differing cultural styles.
Cultures: Display examples of artwork by such cultures as Native American, Asian, Inuit, African American, Indian, African, Cajun, Mexican, or Hispanic. Make a comparison between the traditional art of one culture and a contemporary artist who is inspired by his or her cultural background.
Ancient and modern cultures: Include Egyptian, Greek, cave art, German Expressionism, Cubism, Abstract Expressionism, or Impressionism.
Careers in art: Students could research famous artists in a variety of art careers (dress, shoe, and interior designers), architects, art educators, illustrators, digital artists, and so on, and feature them on a bulletin board.

The Elements and Principles of Art

Art educators talk about the elements of art and principles of design as if artists had always based their work on them. These formal terms used to analyze art have come into use in the relatively recent past, and the terms may be totally unfamiliar in many parts of the world. Today, less emphasis is placed on the elements and principles in teaching, but they continue to offer a structure that bolsters art lessons in all media.

Work done by some contemporary artists looks as if it might have been done hundreds of years ago because art traditions have changed very little in that culture over the centuries. Designs were passed down through families or from artist to artist in a system of apprenticeship, or through copying existing artworks. In China, copying the work of an old master is considered a compliment to the master and the tradition. In African carvings and bronzes, stylistic traditions have continued for hundreds of years and might identify a particular region or cultural group. Artists instinctively understood how to create works of art that would be beautiful in their culture, even though these might appear “strange” to people from another culture who lack understanding of the tradition. Contemporary artists from some cultures might continue the tradition, incorporating familiar designs, whereas others show no evidence of a cultural heritage in their artwork.

MNEMONICS—REMEMBERING THE ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES OF ART

Art teachers often develop a mnemonic (pronounced newmonic)—words strung together that begin with the same first letter—to help students remember the elements and principles of art. Here are mnemonic examples developed by Parkway School District teachers Meg Classe, Peggy Dunsworth, and Marilyn Palmer.

REMEMBER THE ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES OF ART

Elements

Some	Tender	Loving	Care	Saves	Valuable	Friends
Shape	Texture	Line	Color	Space	Value	Form

Principles

Pretty	Ballerinas	Eat	Very	Much	Candy
Pattern	Balance	Emphasis	Variety	Movement	Contrast

Developed by art teachers Meg Classe, Peggy Dunsworth, and Marilyn Palmer, Parkway School District, St. Louis County, Missouri.

Element: Shape

Shape has two dimensions—height and width—whereas form has three dimensions: height, width, and depth. Shapes may be enclosed by a line, but some shapes with indistinct edges (such as a cloud) are defined by their inner structure. Geometric shapes appear stronger than free-form shapes. Artists such as Matisse and Toulouse-Lautrec recognized the drama that can be created by allowing shape to be the dominant element in a composition.

Figure 2.2

Definitions

Abstract: shapes that may be based on reality
Amorphous: lacking definite form (clouds)
Free-form: shapes that are irregular and asymmetrical (oil spills)
Geometric: triangles, rectangles, squares, parallelograms, circles, ovals
Natural shapes or forms: clouds, water
Organic: living organisms such as animals, fish, fowl

Element: Texture

Texture in an artwork can be real or implied; you can actually feel it, or it may only be an illusion. Some artists, such as Vincent van Gogh, reveled in real textural emphasis in their paintings by applying paint thickly, whereas others, such as Pablo Picasso, often used pattern in a painting to imply texture. Sculptors use texture effectively by varying smooth and rough areas to call attention to one surface or another. Pattern differs from texture in that it is deliberately repetitive, two-dimensional, and used for decorative purposes. Texture and pattern are terms sometimes used interchangeably.

Figure 2.3

Definitions

Actual texture: bumpy; grainy; pebbly; prickly; rough; slick; smooth; soft; velvety
Implied texture: looks like you can feel it, but the appearance is an illusion, such as a pattern

Element: Line

Line is the first mark made by a child and is present in most works of art. We see it as we look at the branches of a tree, a plowed field, a road going off into the distance, or the horizon. It is used to describe emotion or thought. The character of a work can be determined by how thick or thin, close together, or far apart the lines are. Movement and direction, energy, and restfulness can be depicted through the use of line, which is often used to lead the eye to the main subject in a work of art.

Figure 2.4

Definitions

Style: angular; bent; bold; blurred; broken; continuous; converging; crisscross; curved; delicate; dynamic; expressive; flowing; heavy; implied; interrupted; long; meandering; parallel; radiating; rhythmic; scribble; short; spiral; static; straight; thick; thin; wavy; zigzag
Direction: diagonal; horizontal; vertical
Methods: contour; outline of a subject with a single line
Gesture: many rapidly drawn lines of a subject
Cross-hatched: closely drawn lines in more than one direction

Element: Color

If colors were not so important to children, their clothing would be neutral; their toys, bland; and their paintings, subdued. Instead, most children love brightly colored clothing, and they paint with bright pure color. Young children are far less concerned with “realism” in color, selecting what appeals to them.

Figure 2.5

Color-related terms: bright; calm; cool; dark; dull; intense; light; loud; quiet; strong tranquil warm; weak

Definitions

Cool colors: blue, violet, green—appear to recede
Warm colors: red, yellow, orange—appear to advance
Intensity: brightness or dullness of a color
Neutral colors: white, black, gray, tan
Primary colors in pigment: red, blue, yellow
Primary colors in the light spectrum: magenta, cyan, yellow
Shade: black added to a pure hue
Tint: the pure hue with white added
Value: lightness and darkness of the hue
Modeling: showing roundness by varying values of one hue

Element: Space

Space is the area that surrounds a form in three-dimensional art and surrounds a shape in two-dimensional art. Artists consciously use space, organizing their work through techniques that make the painting appear to project outward to the viewer, or almost appear to draw the viewer inward. Renaissance artists organized their artwork with geometric forms such as rectangles, triangles, and circles, or used formal perspective. Artists sometimes add drama in compositions through the use of open space, or by organizing the work within a frame or box such as a window. Sculptors consider the space that surrounds and is within the sculpture to be an important element of the design.

Figure 2.6

Definitions

Actual space: the space that can be measured
Aerial perspective: areas farther away are lighter
Background: the area farthest away
Figure–ground relationship: figure (form) is distinct from the ground
Foreground: the area closest to the viewer
Foreshortening: the illusion that the form projects outward
Gradient: gradual change in value indicating distance
Linear perspective: a geometric means of organizing space
Middle ground: the area between the foreground and background
Negative space: the area surrounding a form
Picture plane: the flat space defined by height and width
Positive shapes: forms that are drawn or constructed
Projecting form: an object actually projects outward
Shallow: no actual depth or illusion of depth
Three-dimensional: the object has height, width, and depth
Two-dimensional: the object has height and width
Vanishing point: lines meet on the horizon at this point

How the Illusion of Space Is Done in Art

Aerial perspective (gradation): objects in the distance become lighter
Detail: objects in the distance have less detail
Linear perspective: vanishing point(s) show accurate size changes
Overlapping: objects in front are closer
Size changes: objects in the distance become smaller
Value differences: sky and ground (or water) nearer the horizon are lighter
Vertical location: objects higher in a painting are smaller and farther away

Element: Value

Value describes variations of a hue, ranging from the lightest to the darkest. An example of value that does not involve color would be a black-and-white photograph with a range of grays in between. A monochromatic composition would incorporate different values of the same hue, whereas a composition with a variety of colors would still have some dark values and some light values. Value can even be seen in a one-color object, such as sculpture, through noticing differences in depth and texture. Artworks of all kinds utilize value to lend emphasis, contrast, or balance to the composition.

Figure 2.7

Definitions

Aerial perspective: change in value indicating distance
Chiaroscuro: light and dark areas in a composition
Contrasting values: differences in dark and light
Grayscale: tones ranging from lightest to darkest
Monochromatic: different values and variations of one hue
Tonal gradient: subtle changes in value
Value scale: a means of showing differences in value

Ways to Show Differences in Value

Blending: making soft transitions from light to dark
Cross-hatching: intersecting sets of parallel lines
Gradation: a gradual darkening from light to dark
Hatching: making parallel lines close together or far apart
Shading (modeling): showing roundness by darkening edges
Stippling: making dots to create light and dark areas

Element: Form

Form has three dimensions: height, width, and depth. Unlike a painting, it extends into space, even if one side of it lies flat on a wall. This is called a bas-relief (French for “low-relief”). Traditional bas-reliefs include the Gates of Paradise, the doors of the Cathedral of Pisa, Italy. A bronze bas-relief example would be Auguste Rodin's The Gates of Hell. Other examples of bas-relief would include things like medals or textured sculptures. Painter Frank Stella began with normal two-dimensional painting. In later years, his paintings have become sculpture—still hanging on walls in a museum, yet with cut pieces of metal that extend beyond the surface as much as 12”.

Figure 2.8

Definitions

Natural forms: rocks, leaves, shells
Abstract forms: they do not resemble anything in reality
Portrait: it may be an entire figure made to resemble someone
Positive space: the sculpture itself
Negative space: the space outside and through open areas of the sculpture
Portrait bust: a three-dimensional head and (sometimes) shoulders
Nude: an unclothed sculpture of the human figure
Mass: a large body of indefinite shape
Bas-relief: a sculpture that is flat on one side and three dimensional on the other

Principle of Design: Pattern

A pattern is created by the repetition of similar elements such as shapes, lines, or color, and can be used to give an implied texture to a composition. Familiar patterns are waves, Greek Keys, spirals, dots, and grids. Patterns such as checkerboards or wallpapers can be boring unless relieved by some variation in color or by making an emphasis in one area. Rhythm can be seen when patterns are arranged in a way to move the eye through the composition.

Figure 2.9

Definitions

Pattern: the systematic use of line or motif
Broken pattern: a pattern might have interruptions, yet the eye tends to complete it
Irregular patterns: a broken pattern may help the viewer notice a change
Natural patterns: found on animals, in snowflakes, leaves, rocks, shells
Random pattern: groups of similar motifs arranged randomly
Rhythm: the use of pattern to create movement
Tessellation: the interlocking of shapes in an overall pattern
Zentangles: a line drawing on paper, filled in with black-and-white drawn patterns

Principle: Balance

Balance is the equilibrium of the forms used in a composition and is achieved by giving equal weight on both sides of a composition. Formal (symmetrical) balance often results in a static composition, whereas informal (asymmetrical) balance is somewhat livelier. The upper and lower halves of a composition should also be considered when thinking of balance, with weight somewhat heavier on the lower half of an artwork to keep it from appearing to fall forward.

Figure 2.10

Definitions

Formal (symmetrical) balance: if the composition were folded in half, both halves would be equal
Informal (asymmetrical) balance: one side dominates, but balance is still achieved
Quadrilateral symmetry: four quarters of the composition are similar
Radial symmetry: similar elements radiate from a central point

Principle: Emphasis

The principle of emphasis is used to focus attention in a composition. It may be an isolated form, or the largest, brightest, or darkest area. Attention can be drawn to the focal point by convergence of lines that sets one part apart from the others (as in da Vinci's The Last Supper); textural interest; or contrast between light and shade. Contrast in color or dynamic lines causes the viewer to look at that place. The theory of domination–subordination is that one portion of a composition is the major focal point, with subordinate areas being complementary to it. In general, a composition is more interesting if the area of emphasis is not in the center, but rather placed to the left or right (sometimes at the intersection of lines in a tic-tac-toe grid).

Figure 2.11

Definitions

Center of interest: the area of main interest; usually not in the center
Contrast: the center of interest is indicated by being lighter or darker
Converging lines: lines may be used to direct attention to the focal point
Dominant: the major element of a composition
Focal point: the first thing the eye sees when viewing an artwork
Isolation: one form is set apart from others
Rule of thirds: an imaginary tic-tac-toe grid, with the main subject placed at an intersection
Subordinate: elements that repeat or complement the dominant form

Principle: Variety

Variety is difference. Looking at a repetitious pattern such as a checkerboard without any change at all causes the viewer to move on to the next picture. If any one element or principle—such as line, shape, color, value, and pattern—is used exclusively, the composition will be monotonous. A good composition includes enough variety such as line to lead the eye to the focal point (emphasis). Movement of color or pattern causes the viewer to look through the entire composition, going back and forth to see how effectively repetition is used. If there is too much variety, one doesn't know where the artist wanted you to look.

Figure 2.12

Definitions

Ways to show variety: juxtapose and contrast different elements; vary the size of shapes; show differences and contrast in color or value; lines can be straight or curvy; textures can be real or imagined; variations of space allow the eye to rest.

National Coalition for Core Art Standards

The National Art Education Association (NAEA) has been working with the National Coalition for Core Art Standards (NCCAS) for some years to revise all arts standards, including visual arts and media arts standards.

Although state assessment systems by law annually test students in reading/language arts, mathematics, and science (because of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001), fine arts are not yet required to be tested. If you live in the USA, check to see if yours is one of the many states that has elected to write their own grade-level expectations in fine arts.

Art educators can find current information at the following URL, which will take you to the NAEA website, where you can learn more about the NCCAS and find the publication that they issued in March 2018. The Standards are a process that guides educators in providing a unified quality arts education for students in Pre-K through high school.

https://www.arteducators.org/learn-tools/national-visual-arts-standards

CREATING

Anchor Standard #1. Generate and conceptualize artistic ideas and work.
Anchor Standard #2. Organize and develop artistic ideas and work.
Anchor Standard #3. Refine and complete artistic work.

PRESENTING

Anchor Standard #4. Select, analyze, and interpret artistic work for presentation.
Anchor Standard #5. Develop and refine artistic techniques and work for presentation.
Anchor Standard #6. Convey meaning through the presentation of artistic work.

RESPONDING

Anchor Standard #7. Perceive and analyze artistic work.
Anchor Standard #8. Interpret intent and meaning in artistic work.
Anchor Standard #9. Apply criteria to evaluate artistic work.

CONNECTING

Anchor Standard #10. Synthesize and relate knowledge and personal experiences to make art.

Anchor Standard #11. Relate artistic ideas and works with societal, cultural, and historical context to deepen understanding.

The Standards in Action Planning Sheets that follow were developed by Dr. Marilyn Stewart, a member of the National Art Education Committee, which helped to develop the standards. Because of lack of space, these three grade levels were selected as examples.

Assessment

AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT

The art teacher can offer authentic assessment (real evidence of real learning) by building assessment methods into the lesson or a unit, reflecting the relationship between lesson plan objectives and evaluation strategies. Students should be told what they are expected to learn, and instruction given with that in mind. The evaluation is then based on how well the students met the objectives. The assessment should be manageable and appropriate for the age group. Older students often do self-assessment.

PORTFOLIOS

A student portfolio may be started in the primary grades. As students advance, they may become more selective about what is kept in the portfolio. Portfolios record the creative process by including preliminary sketches, providing a way for teacher, parent, and student to evaluate continued growth. Personal discussion with students about their portfolios is ideal, but if this is not feasible, students can do a written self-evaluation about which they think is their best work, and why. Alternatively, a written comparison could be made between work done early in the year and later work.

JOURNALS OR SKETCHBOOKS, SELF-ASSESSMENT

Student journals (three-ring loose-leaf binders are excellent) give students the opportunity to react to art through writing and drawing. Middle school teacher Judy Cobillas of the Clayton School District, St. Louis County, had her students use their notebook–journals to include writing, sketches, and critiques of their own art and historical examples. A standard reflection page was photocopied for students to occasionally turn in, containing questions about their own work based on a medium or technique, and what the student was trying to show.

CRITIQUING STUDENT WORK

Discussion about student work-in-progress is very effective, especially if it is a lesson that continues another day. At the elementary level, students generally have art once a week. With a long time between classes, it helps bring the focus back to the objectives. Beginning the class period by showing exemplary student examples of various steps is very effective. Also, while they are working, stopping the class to look at a piece you hold up for all to see while you “brag on the artist” is a great motivator. Both techniques work well at all grade levels. This is another reason to never allow students to throw away their work. Tell them you may need it as an example for next year's students who might do the same project.

A shoulder-to-shoulder discussion is another way of handling a critique without taking too much class time. Without students getting out of their seats, they should work with someone sitting next to them to ask for improvement suggestions. This short activity only needs about a minute of class time and allows students to help each other.

A formal critique done with all students' work hanging on a wall is more time consuming, and therefore works best with grades 6–8. Since you and the students would try to talk about each piece of artwork, the students must have a longer attention span. It may work well with one class and not with another at the same grade level. As you work with your students, you will get a feel for what works best with each class.

RUBRIC OR SCORING GUIDE

There are many ways to assess student artwork. In general, it becomes more necessary at the middle school level to show how you arrive at the grade that you assign for grade reports.

Be sure to communicate well how points will be achieved as the lesson progresses. A self-evaluation before the teacher evaluation is another helpful tool to encourage students to reflect on their work.