Introduction Seeking Nefertiti
1. Baikie (1929: 3), writing not long after the public unveiling of the Berlin bust of Nefertiti, provides the introductory chapter for Great Ones of Ancient Egypt: a series of brief biographies accompanied by modern portraits by Winifed Brunton. The ‘Great Ones’ selected for portraits include Amenhotep III, Tiy, Smenkhkare, Tutankhamen and Ankhesenamen, but neither Akhenaten nor Nefertiti.
2. Tyldesley (1998).
3. Carter and Mace (1923). For a discussion of the discovery of Tutankhamen’s tomb, and the outbreak of ‘Tut-mania’ see Tyldesley (2012).
Background to the Amarna Age
1. Murray (1949: 54).
2. Ägyptisches Museum Berlin: ÄM 21300.
3. Readers interested in the complex relationship between Akhenaten, the Aten and Amarna, may like to consult Dodson (2009, 2014), Kemp (2012), Redford (1984), Reeves (2001) or Tyldesley (1998). Each of these authorities uses the same evidence to tell the same story in a different way. Proof, if proof were needed, that there is as yet no universally acknowledged version of Egyptian history.
4. Based on the chronology suggested by Shaw (2000: 481).
5. Figure suggested by Kemp (2012: 17). Kemp adds that ‘maybe twice that number’ followed Akhenaten to Amarna.
PART I Creating Nefertiti
1. March Phillipps (1911: 43).
2. Baikie (1926: 292–3).
1 Thutmose
1. Davies (1903–8, III: 14).
2. Ägyptisches Museum Berlin: ÄM 21193. To read about the identification of the blinker, see Krauss (1983).
3. I am grateful to Dr Pauline Norris for sharing this insight.
4. The tomb of Khaemhat (TT 57) remains unpublished. The horses and their blinkers can be seen in Griffith Institute squeeze 4.27: http://www.griffith.ox.ac.uk/gri/4gisquee.html.
5. The incomplete Amarna tomb of Ay (Amarna Tomb 25), for example, shows Ay and his wife Tey receiving gold necklaces from the royal family. Davies (1903–8, VI: Plate XXIX).
6. The original names and numbers for the Amarna houses, streets and suburbs are now lost. The names and numbers used here are those given by the archaeologists who have worked at the site.
7. Thutmose’s extensive compound is designated P47.1–3; his villa is P47.2. Seyfried (2012) provides a series of helpful plans.
8. Ägyptisches Museum Berlin: ÄM 29881.
9. This house is designated P47.4.
10. See, for example, Carter (1933: Plates II, XII and XIII).
11. Petrie (1894: 30). Hodgkinson (2013) provides a valuable analysis of the evidence for production and socio-economics in New Kingdom royal cities, with a focus on Amarna.
12. For example, Shaw (2004: 18) highlights a group of houses arranged around a courtyard (P49.3–6): although Borchardt’s team excavated the houses, it was only during the 1987 excavation season that large quantities of basalt fragments were found in the courtyard. This would appear to be yet another sculptor’s workshop.
13. Many of these fragments were excavated by John Pendlebury in the 1930s; he reburied them to conserve them when it became clear that no museum was interested in acquiring them. Today they are being re-excavated by the current Amarna team.
14. Amarna Tomb 1. Davies (1903–8, III: Plates X and XI).
15. Today they are displayed in Cairo and Luxor Museums.
16. Petrie (1894: 18).
17. Petrie (1932: 142).
18. Harrell (2014: 9).
19. This house is designated R43.2. For a discussion of this discovery, see Hill (2011).
20. For further information about smiting scenes see Hall (1986). It seems unlikely that the stone statue(s) which originally rested in this wooden shrine would have depicted a smiting scene, as this theme did not appear in three-dimensional stone until the Nineteenth Dynasty.
21. Reeves (1990: 128–32).
22. For a full translation of this stela with commentary, consult Lichtheim (1976: 43–8).
23. Many of the Sekhmet statues were discovered out of their original context, having been moved in antiquity to the Mut Temple, which is part of the Karnak Temple complex of Amen. Examples may be found in many Western museums, with more than thirty being housed in the collections of the British Museum.
24. The name and appearance of the Aten is discussed in more detail in Goldwasser (2010).
25. Davies (1903–8, II: 24 and Plate XIX) illustrates and describes the benben in the tomb of the ‘chief servitor of the Aten in the temple of the Aten in Akhetaten’ Panehsy (Amarna Tomb 6). Various excavators have discovered fragments of red quartzite and ‘black granite’ (possibly diorite) within the Great Temple; these may represent the remains of the benben and its associated statue.
26. Ägyptisches Museum Berlin: ÄM 37391.
27. Ägyptisches Museum Berlin: ÄM 34701.
28. Bennet (1939). Part of a duplicate text was discovered in the temple of Montu at Karnak. Both are now in the collections of the Cairo Museum (JE 41504 and 41565).
29. House T34.1: Willems (1998: 240).
30. The Akhenaten and Nefertiti busts are now in the Ägyptisches Museum Berlin: ÄM 21360 and 21300. An additional plaster head was discovered in R14.
31. Ägyptisches Museum Berlin: limestone statue ÄM 21263; plaster model ÄM 21349; limestone head ÄM 21352.
32. Petrie (1894: 40). Cairo Museum: JE 753.
33. R. H. Hall, Keeper of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities in the British Museum, writing for the Illustrated London News, 19 March 1927.
34. Roeder (1941: 154–60).
35. Wildung (2012: 36).
36. Thutmose’s tomb is numbered Bubasteion 1.19, Maya’s tomb Bubasteion 1.20. They were discovered on the same day, by the Mission Archéologique Française du Bubasteion directed by Alain Zivie. Zivie (2013).
37. Discussed in Černý (2001: 35–40).
38. Amarna Tomb 8. Murnane (1995: 187).
2 Chief of Works
1. Gombrich (1972 [1950]: 4).
2. We may not know the names of the nineteenth- and twentieth-century sculptors whose works surround us on the streets of London, Paris or, in my case, Bolton, but this is because we tend not to notice public art; the name of the artist will be available if we wish to seek it out.
3. See, for example, Duncan (1995: 7).
4. Baines (1994: 67). Baines concludes his discussion by saying that ‘Egyptian art is a typically inward-looking and almost self-sustaining product of a professional group. It is no less “art” for the wide range of functions and purposes it fulfilled.’
5. Davies (1903–8, III: 13–14 and Plate XVIII). Huya, whose many and varied titles included ‘superintendent of the royal harem, superintendent of the treasury, steward in the house of the King’s Mother’, was the steward of Queen Tiy. As such, he was responsible for all the craftsmen who worked for the dowager queen.
6. Hatiay’s stela is now housed in Leiden Museum: Leiden VI. It has been discussed by several authorities including Kruchten (1992) and Willems (1998).
7. Van Dijk (1995: 29–30). I have amended his translation slightly.
8. The Memphite Theology, as recorded on the Shabaka Stone, British Museum: EA 498. Translation after Lichtheim (1973: 54).
9. Tyldesley (1996: 194).
10. Murnane (1995: 128–9).
11. Krauss (1986). Ägyptisches Museum: ÄM 31009. The provenance of this piece is unknown.
12. Murnane (1995: 192).
13. Smith (2012: 70–73 and Plate LXII).
14. For example, Ramesses II was never depicted as the ninety-year-old king that he became; Tutankhamen was approximately eighteen when he died, yet some of his statuary gives him the maturity of a middle-aged man; the mummies of the Tuthmoside kings and queens betray their pronounced incisors; the Twelfth Dynasty female king Sobeknofru wore a dress and a kilt simultaneously in an attempt to conform to the male and female dress codes.
15. Kozloff and Bryan (1992: 127).
16. Robins (1986: 43–52).
17. Schäfer (1919); discussed in Baines (1985).
18. Winckelmann (1764: 191–2).
19. Preziosi (2009: 14).
20. Moser (2006: 34), describes the early British Museum presentation of its Egyptology collection as ‘objects that were designed to surprise and entertain, as opposed to those that were intended to inform and enlighten’.
21. Assmann (1996: 56).
22. British Museum: EA 15. Patmore (1826: 35).
23. Ashmolean Museum: 1894/105e.
24. Ashmolean Museum: 1894/105d and 105e. Petrie (1932: 153).
25. The stylistic evolution of Amenhotep’s image, with particular reference to the Luxor Temple, is discussed by Johnson (1998: 80–94).
26. British Museum: EA7399.
27. Weigall (1922: 44).
3 Taught by the King
1. Remarks on Hamilton’s Aegyptica, Edinburgh Review (1811) 36: 436. Discussed in Moser (2006: 89).
2. Louvre Museum: N.831(AF.109). The figure is made out of a curious yellow stone, variously described as limestone or steatite. It entered the Louvre in 1826 as part of the Salt collection, provenance unknown.
3. Discussed by Johnson (1998: 91), who cites as an example Ägyptisches Museum Berlin: ÄM 2072.
4. Cairo Museum: JE 55938.
5. Discussed in more detail in Tyldesley (2010: 37–51).
6. Lepsius (1849–58).
7. Krauss (1995) and Silverman et al. (2006: 185) summarise the various explanations for Akhenaten’s appearance.
8. Wilkinson (1847: 306–7).
9. Petrie (1894: 39): discussed in Challis (2013: 155–7). Petrie was greatly influenced by the eugenic ideas of Francis Galton, and supported him in his anthropometric data gathering.
10. Petrie (1894: 40).
11. A theory first suggested by Perrot and Chipiez (1883: 244).
12. Weigall (1922: 51–2).
13. Punch, 14 February 1923.
14. Arnold (1996: 17).
15. Montserrat (2000: 48).
16. Figures given in the Independent, 3 August 2000. Discussed in Tyldesley (2012: 110–11).
17. Arnold (2012: 147). In a highly unscientific experiment I have been asking my students for many years what they think of Akhenaten’s extreme appearance. While some find him disturbing, many find that his face has a compelling sexuality.
18. Gardiner (1961: 214).
19. Aldred (1973: 48–66).
20. Baikie (1917: 178).
21. Baikie (1926: 243).
22. ‘Marriage scarab’ published by Amenhotep III. Blankenberg-Van Delden (1969: 16).
23. The identification of Tey as Nefertiti’s nurse is supported by a relief fragment in the Louvre, which seems to show a woman sitting on the knee of her nurse. The nurse wears a golden necklace, and has one breast exposed. For the suggestion that the two women could be Tey and Nefertiti see Desroches-Noblecourt (1978) for the suggestion that they could be Nefertiti and Meritaten see Arnold (1996: 91–3).
24. Borchardt (1905).
25. Parennefer would soon be required to move to Amarna, where he would be granted a second rock-cut tomb (Tomb 7). As his Amarna tomb has no burial shaft it seems likely that he outlived Akhenaten and returned to Thebes, where he was eventually buried in his original tomb (TT 188). See Davies (1923: 136–45).
26. TT 55. Davies (1941: Plate XXXIII). Ramose disappears from our view when the court moves to Amarna, and it may be that he has already died.
27. Discussed in Williamson (2015).
28. Tyldesley (1996: 89).
29. Discussed in Arnold (1996: 38ff).
30. Assmann (1996: 68).
31. Discussed in O’Connor (2001).
32. Krauss (1995: 749).
33. For a summary of the lives of Egypt’s Eighteenth Dynasty queen consorts, see Tyldesley (2006: 86–141).
34. Amarna Letter EA 26. For a translation of the Amarna Letters see Moran (1992).
35. TT 192. Oriental Institute (1980: Plate 46).
36. TT 192. Oriental Institute (1980: Plate 47).
37. Metropolitan Museum of Art: 26.7.1342. There have been suggestions that this bracelet plaque may not be authentic.
1. Baikie (1926: 293).
2. Aakheperure, pers. comm., 2014.
3. For a discussion of this crown see Samson (1973) and Green (1992).
4. Ertman (1976). Nefertiti’s cap crown was blue with a yellow band; versions worn during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties were yellow and covered in discs or circles.
5. Davies (1903–8, II: Plate VIII).
6. The only woman previously known to have worn the atef was Hatshepsut, in her role as a female king. It has been suggested that we may have a second representation of Nefertiti wearing this crown in the tomb of Ay: Ertman (1992).
7. Just one example of a perfume cone has been tentatively identified in a burial in the Amarna cemetery: Kemp and Stevens (2010: 10).
8. Louvre Museum: E11076.
9. Quoted in Seyfried (2012: 181). Borchardt’s excavation diary for 1912/13 is preserved in the archive of the Berlin Egyptian Museum and Papyrus Collection, and has been published by Seyfried (2011).
10. Arnold (1996: 65).
11. Seyfried (2012: 183).
12. Discussed in Millet (1981). The mastaba tomb took the form of a subterranean burial chamber accessed via a burial shaft and topped by a rectangular stone superstructure known today as a mastaba.
13. The curious circumstances surrounding the discovery of this head are discussed in Tyldesley (2012: 256). Cairo Museum: Carter object number 8.
14. Quoted in the Illustrated London News, 17 February 1923: 16. Cairo Museum: Carter object number 116.
15. Discussed in Hoving (1978: 186–7). The quotation is taken from A. H. Bradstreet, who covered the Tutankhamen discovery for both the Morning Post and the New York Times. Due to an exclusive deal signed with The Times, journalists from other newspapers were unable to enter the tomb or make a proper examination of the grave goods; in consequence, their reports tend to be imaginative rather than fact-based.
16. Carter and Mace (1923: 120). The quotation is taken from the Manchester Guardian, 27 January 1923.
17. Discussed in Phillips (2004). Thutmose is occasionally credited with being the inventor of the composite statue, but see Thompson (2012: 164).
18. Cairo Museum: JE 59286 (Nefertiti head); ÄM 20494 and 20495 (arm and hands).
19. Ägyptisches Museum Berlin: ÄM 21220.
20. Ägyptisches Museum Berlin: ÄM 21834 (head) and 17852 (headdress).
21. Petrányi (2003).
22. Dietrich Wildung quoted in Eakin (2003).
23. Quoted in Urice (2006: 164).
24. Baines (2007: 264).
25. Discussed by Ashton (2004).
26. Discussed with useful references in Exell (2008).
27. Wildung (2012: 29).
28. Huppertz et al. (2009). The results of the two scans were compared, in an attempt to evaluate damage progression. See Illerhaus et al. (2009).
29. Independent, 31 March 2009; National Geographic, 30 March 2009; author Michelle Moran, quoted in the Guardian, 15 August 2015.
30. Discussed in Sweeney (2004).
31. Ägyptisches Museum Berlin: ÄM 21263. The statuette was found in fragments, and has been almost entirely reconstructed.
32. Wildung (2012: 29). Drooping breasts are often regarded as a signifier of old age, although they can also indicate prolonged breast feeding.
33. Website of the Non Surgical Clinic accessed December 2016. The Nofretete Klinik in Bonn displays a replica bust in its reception area, and has held occasional forums dedicated to the study of Nefertiti in ancient and popular culture.
34. Nileen Namita has received a large amount of coverage in the popular press; see, for example, ‘Meet the mother who took her daughter out of top girls’ public school because she’s spent the fees on plastic surgery’, written by Alison Smith Squire for Mail Online, 21 March 2011. Namita is not alone in thinking that Nefertiti has been reincarnated; a quick trawl of the internet reveals a wide range of beautiful but tragic women, including Cleopatra, Marie Antoinette, Isadora Duncan, Marilyn Monroe and Princess Diana, who have each been identified, by others, with Nefertiti.
35. Robin Snell, pers. comm., 2016.
36. See, for example, the brightly painted cast of the Peplos Kore in the Museum of Classical Archaeology, Cambridge. She wears a bright red dress decorated with green, white and blue motifs, and has olive skin and red-brown hair. The museum’s website tells us that one shocked visitor left the comment ‘Didn’t like the painted woman …’ in the official Visitors’ Book. www.classics.cam.ac.uk/museum/collections/peplos-kore.
37. Baines (2007: 245–7).
38. TT 100. Davies (1943: Plate LX).
39. For an introduction to Afrocentric history, see Bernal (1987). See also Lefkowitz and Rogers (1996). Monserrat (2000: 116–23) has highlighted the importance of Akhenaten and his family in Afrocentric history.
40. The New Kingdom mummy known as the ‘Younger Lady’ (KV 335YL) has a shaven head; this seems to have led to the mummy initially being identified as a man, and to its occasional identification as Nefertiti.
41. For the history of the Nubian wig see Aldred (1957) and Eaton-Krauss (1981). For a discussion of the relationship between hairstyle and social identity see Robins (1999).
42. Paglia (1990: 68).
43. McGuiness (2015: 1).
44. Baikie (1926: 242–3).
45. Reeves (2001: 160).
46. Perrett (2010).
47. Huppertz et al. (2009: 239).
48. Krauss (1991a).
49. Borchardt (1923: 33).
50. Wildung (2012: 22).
51. Borchardt (1923), quoted by Urice (2006: 139) after Krauss (1987: 87).
52. Simon cited by Seyfried (2012: 186 n. 49).
53. Vandenberg (1978).
54. Weigall (1927).
55. The Sphere, 4 February 1928: 173.
56. The Evening Chronicle, 10 July 1939.
1. Edgeworth (2007: 98).
2. Under James Simon’s prudent management, Simon Brothers achieved an annual turnover of 50,000,000 Reichsmarks, and an annual profit of 6,000,000 Reichsmarks. Figures quoted by Tony Paterson, Independent, 4 December 2012.
3. Roughly the equivalent of €300,000 today; figures suggested by Matthes (2007).
4. Krauss (2008: 47).
5. Borchardt (1923), quoted by Urice (2006: 139) after Krauss (1987: 87).
6. Quoted and discussed by Wildung (2012: 15); Wilhelm (2016: 22).
7. Quoted in Anthes (1958: 19): discussed in Montserrat (2000: 72).
8. Said (1989: 207).
9. Recorder, 9 July 1926.
10. Petrie (1932: 249–50).
11. Private letter written by Breasted: Larson (2010: 107).
12. Quoted in Krauss (2008: 49).
13. Quoted in Wilhelm (2016: 23). The letter and protocol were made public following the 1998 DOG centenary celebrations, which prompted an exploration of its extensive archives. Güterbock’s letter, written in 1924 more than a decade after the division but soon after the display of the bust in Berlin, highlights the controversy that was already surrounding the discovery and display.
14. The legal details of the division are discussed in Urice (2006: 142).
15. Quoted by Krauss (2008: 52).
16. The stela is now in the collection of Cairo Museum: JE 44865.
17. Quoted by Krauss (2009: 20).
18. Quoted ibid.
19. Quoted by Krauss (2008: 47).
20. Quoted by Savoy (2012: 454).
21. Perrot and Chipiez (1884: 244).
22. Readers old enough to recall the 1972 Tutankhamen touring exhibition in London will remember a similar, nationwide interest in ancient Egypt backed up by press reports, books, lectures, radio and television programmes. A whole generation of professional Egyptologists was inspired by that tour.
23. Borchardt (1913: 43, Plate 19).
24. Parzinger (2016: 149).
25. Der Mann, der Nofretete verschenkte: James Simon, der vergessene Mäzen. Wedel’s documentary is summarised by Tony Paterson, Independent, 4 December 2012.
26. FO 371/2724. Quoted by Desplat (2016).
27. FO 141/589. Quoted by Desplat (2016).
28. For details of the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamen, and subsequent events, see Tyldesley (2012).
29. Huppertz et al. (2009: 236).
30. Borchardt (1923).
31. Hutton (1785: 110). This phenomenon is not confined to museums: it has long been realised that the more paintings an art gallery houses, the less time visitors will spend looking at any particular painting in that gallery. See, for example, Robinson (1928).
32. See, for example, Casey (2003: 2–3): ‘Museums do not just gather valuable objects but make objects valuable by gathering them. The museum is able to produce cultural knowledge by organising how the materials it authorises are seen – by controlling the Gaze.’
6 The German Queen
1. Quotations taken from B. Rohnan, German Foundation Refuses to Return Nefertiti Bust, Reuters Science News, 24 January 2011.
2. Quoted and discussed in Schneider (2014) and Krauss (2009: 22).
3. FO 371.12388. Quoted by Desplat (2016).
4. FO 371.13878. Quoted by Desplat (2016).
5. Berlin Museum 14145.
6. Breger (2006: 291).
7. Cited ibid. (289). Breger notes that in the same month Berliner Morgenpost reported that the bust stood alone and unvisited.
8. Simon’s letter is discussed in Carola Wedel’s television documentary Der Mann, der Nofretete verschenkte: James Simon, der vergessene Mäzen, and is quoted by Kischewitz (2012: 474).
9. George Rothschild, pers. comm., 2016.
10. Our information about this thwarted attempt to return the bust comes from an interview given by von Stohrer to Journal d’Égypte, published on 23 and 29 October 1948. Its accuracy is discussed in Krauss (1991b).
11. The ‘fascist Akhenaten’ is discussed by Montserrat (2000: 108–13).
12. Tiy overshadows Nefertiti in almost all early accounts of Akhenaten’s reign, because the evidence relating to Nefertiti was discovered later. For example, Janet Buttles, writing the History of The Queens of Egypt in 1908, was only able to accord Nefertiti six pages (1908: 131–6).
13. Petrie (1894: 40).
14. KV 46. Davis (1907).
15. FO 371.53375. Quoted by Desplat (2016).
16. Farmer (2000: 84).
17. FO 371.53375. Quoted by Desplat (2016).
18. FO 371.63051. Quoted by Desplat (2016).
19. Figures cited by Soltes (2006: 71).
20. Here we are concerned with ancient Egyptian artefacts alone. The wider subject of works of art acquired as souvenirs of imperialistic campaigns stretches from works seized by the Romans to works seized by the Third Reich. See the discussions in Merryman (2006).
21. Arguments over the return of the Nineteenth Dynasty funerary mask of Ka-nefer-nefer from the St Louis Art Museum make interesting reading. There is evidence to suggest that this mask was stolen from the Egyptian Antiquities Organisation some time between 1952 and 1959, and the US government has been willing to return it, but the museum has raised a successful legal challenge to the government’s attempts to seize the mask.
22. Krauss (2008: 52).
23. From Napoleon to the Nazis: The 10 Most Notorious Looted Artworks. Guardian online, 13 November 2014.
24. George Rothschild, pers. comm., 2016.
25. Quoted in Wilhelm (2016: 25).
26. Ibid. (24).
27. Der Spiegel interview with Hermann Parzinger quoted in Schneider (2014).
28. Urice (2006: 165).
29. Siehr (2006: 114).
30. The Graphic, 26 March 1927: 496.
31. Zahi Hawass to D. Wildung, 2007: quoted in Ikram (2011: 148).
32. Quoted in Der Spiegel online, 10 May 2007.
7 Multiple Nefertitis
1. Kemp (2012: 130).
2. This process was described in Teltscher and Teltscher (1987: 7); quoted in Merrillees (1990: 42–3):
the director of the Egyptian Museum (Berlin) commissioned her to produce copies of the busts of king Amenophis IV and of Queen Nefertite [sic] and other sculptures excavated at Tell el-Amana [sic]. The special challenge of this commission lay in the fact that Tina was not permitted to remove the originals from their climatically-controlled glass cases and so had to do her measurements ‘at a distance’. Stone had been specially shipped from Tell-el Amana for the commission. Tina did not seek to secure legal rights to her copies, and subsequently a series of copies was made from her originals. As a gift, the director invited her to select some antique Egyptian beads.
It seems unlikely that the Nefertiti bust was in a climate-controlled case when its official replica was made.
3. Historical Replica of Nefertiti: After a Model by Tina Haim. Press release issued by Gipsformerei of the Berlin State Museums December 2013. It is often claimed that a mould taken from the original bust was used to cast the first replicas; this has proved impossible to verify.
4. For example, in 1925 Richard Jenner was allowed to remeasure the bust and make a replica with the ears and uraeus restored. The various models of the bust, and the dates of their sales, are discussed by Dlugaiczyk (2016).
5. Mendonça (2016).
6. The two cast courts in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, home to an astonishing collection of Italian replica sculpture, are among the most popular galleries in the museum. The history of the cast collection is detailed on the museum’s website: www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/t/the-cast-courts/.
7. Berlin Gipsformerei website: www.smb.museum/en/museums-institutions/gipsformerei/about-us/profile.html.
8. Information supplied by Dr Carolyn Routledge, curator of Egyptology and archaeology at the Bolton Museum.
9. This theory is promoted by Stierlin (2009) and Ercivan (2009).
10. Petersen (2012: 446–7).
11. A Convicted Forger Calls Nefertiti’s Bust a Fake. Smithsonian Channel www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cckwn7jN3Ms.
12. The case of the ‘Amarna Princess’ was covered by local, national and international press as it unfolded. It has been told from the forger’s viewpoint in Greenhalgh’s A Forger’s Tale (Allen & Unwin, 2017). The purchase of the statue was funded by various grants and donations, including a substantial grant of £360,767 from the National Heritage Memorial Fund.
13. Krauss (2009).
14. Ägyptisches Museum Berlin: ÄM 14145.
15. Erman (1929: 230) quoted in Krauss (2008: 27).
16. The Bride of Frankenstein, directed by James Whale for Universal (1935). The Rocky Horror Show, directed by Jim Sharman for Twentieth-Century Fox (1975).
17. Today part of the permanent collection in the contemporary art gallery of the Brooklyn Museum.
18. Wildung (2012: 82).
19. Nefertiti Hack website: http://nefertitihack.alloversky.com/.
20. See, for example, Charly Wilder’s article for the New York Times of 1 March 2016: Swiping a Priceless Antiquity … With a Scanner and a 3-D Printer.
21. Southern AFH created three Nefertitis, with the first being a study in painting and a test of their ability to reproduce the sculpture accurately in a standard 3D print. The Landis Nefertiti can be seen on www.southernafh.com/ and www.instagram.com/southernafh/.
22. ‘Pirate Party’ is a name adopted by political groups in different countries. Their political platform embraces civil rights, freedom of information and the reform of copyright and patent law, and they see great potential in the sharing of information without restrictions.
23. ‘Michelle’ of Southern Artists, Forgers and Hackers, pers. comm., 2017.
24. Wenman (2016) and pers. comm., 2017.
25. Interview with Mike Balzer and Chris Kopak from All Things 3-D, quoted by Wenman 2016.
8 Looking for Nefertiti
1. Akhenaten used the Amarna Boundary Stelae to explain his plan that the royal family be buried at Amarna. Translation after Murnane (1995: 77–8). Discussed in Kemp (2016).
2. Davies (1903–8, II: 36–45). Huya shows what seems to be the same festival, but in his tomb there are only four daughters, and the year is omitted.
3. Discussed in Kemp (2016).
4. Discovered by the Dayr el-Barsha Project, University of Leuven, directed by Harco Willems, and translated by Athena Van der Perre (2012).
5. Although Akhenaten had intended that Nefertiti would be buried in the royal tomb, Meritaten’s unexpected death and unanticipated interment in the royal tomb may have prompted a change of plan, with Nefertiti being granted a tomb elsewhere in the royal wadi. See Kemp (2016).
6. Stuart (1879: 74). Stuart had paid a visit to some of the Amarna elite tombs. The royal tomb had not yet been discovered.
7. Loeben (1986). The shabti could have been manufactured in advance of Nefertiti’s death; we have no proof that it was used in a burial. Aldred (1988: 229), however, suggests that it would have been inscribed during the embalming period and this would indicate that Nefertiti died at Amarna.
8. Pendlebury (1935: 28–9). For other references to Nefertiti’s ‘disgrace’ see Seele (1955: 168–80).
9. Davies (1923: 133).
10. Consult Harris (1973a, 1973b, 1974). See also Harris (2008).
11. See, for example, Samson (1977).
12. Object number 296b: Reeves (1990: 130–31).
13. This confusing name-based evidence is discussed by Dodson (2009: 27–52).
14. Ägyptisches Museum Berlin: ÄM 14145.TT 192. Oriental Institute (1980: Plate 47).
15. For example, Fletcher (2015: 225):
However he [Akhenaten] died, power now lay in the hands of his existing co-regent ‘Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten’ – Nefertiti – who now took the new name ‘Smenkhkara’ (c.1338–1336 BC). With her traditional titles written with a female determinative, later dynastic lists indeed acknowledged the existence of a female pharaoh at the end of the 18th Dynasty, a ruler portrayed wearing kingly crowns but with a distinctly female physique.
Fletcher traces the unwillingness amongst Egyptologists to acknowledge the existence of the female pharaoh Nefertiti to a reluctance by the early twentieth-century ‘Establishment’ to recognise that women were capable of ruling as pharaohs.
16. TT 139. Gardiner (1928).
17. Gabolde (1998: 153–7).
18. Allen (2009).
19. Davies (1903–8, II: 43–4).
20. Davis (1910); Bell (1990).
21. Smith (1910: xxiv; 1912: 53–4).
22. Cited in Engelbach (1931: 116).
23. Harrison (1966: 111); Filer quoted in Tyldesley (2000: 132).
24. Wente and Harris (1992).
25. ‘Dr Selim [radiologist Ashraf Selim] noted that the spine showed, in addition to slight scoliosis, significant degenerative changes associated with age. He said that although it is difficult to determine the age of an individual from bones alone, he might put the mummy’s age as high as 60.’ Quoted in Mystery of the Mummy from KV 55: Zahi Hawass website: www.guardians.net/hawass/articles/Mystery%20of%20the%20Mummy%20from%20KV55.htm.
26. Luban (1999).
27. Fletcher (2004).
28. Hawass et al. (2010).
29. Joseph Thimes, pers. comm., 2015.
30. Reeves (2015). This paper gives useful links to the Factum Arte images.