Suicide Pact: The Radical Expansion of Presidential Powers and the Lethal Threat to American Liberty

Chapter 1

1. Chester James Antieau, “Natural Rights and the Founding Fathers—The Virginians,” Washington & Lee Law Review 17, no. 1 (1960): 50.

2. Ibid., 43.

3. The Declaration of Independence (1776).

4. Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic: 1776–1787 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 8, 14, 283–4, 289, 292, 348, 601–2, discussing the role of Hobbes and Locke in influencing the Founding Fathers and their philosophies; “Foundations of American Government,” USHistory.org, http://www.ushistory.org/gov/2.asp.

5. U.S. Const. amend. IX.

6. Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479 (1965); Pierce v. Soc’y of Sisters, 268 U.S. 510 (1925).

7. John Locke, The Two Treatises of Civil Government, ed. Thomas Hollis (London: A. Millar et al., 1764), bk. 2, ch. 2, §4, http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=222.

8. Ibid., bk. 2, §6.

9. Thomas Hobbes, The Leviathan (1651), bk. 1, ch. 8.

10. “[T]hough in the state of nature he hath such a[n] [unlimited] right, yet the enjoyment of it is very uncertain, and constantly exposed to the invasion of others: for all being kings as much as he, every man his equal, and the greater part no strict observers of equity and justice, the enjoyment of the property he has in this state is very unsafe, very unsecure. This makes him willing to quit a condition, which, however free, is full of fears and continual dangers: and it is not without reason, that he seeks out, and is willing to join in society with others, who are already united, or have a mind to unite, for the mutual preservation of their lives, liberties and estates, which I call by the general name, property.” Locke, Two Treatises of Civil Government, bk. 2, §123, emphasis in original; see also bk. 2, §22.

11. Locke, Two Treatises of Civil Government, bk. 2, §126; see also, bk. 2, §§124–5, describing the lack of a written law and a judiciary.

12. Ibid., bk. 2, §§88, 127, 131.

13. Ibid., bk. 2, §131. Whether the consent is tacit, express, or implied is outside the scope of this work.

14. Lysander Spooner, No Treason, no. 1 (1867), http://lysanderspooner.org/node/44.

15. “George the Third called our ancestors traitors for what they did at that time. But they were not traitors in fact, whatever he or his laws may have called them. They were not traitors in fact, because they betrayed nobody, and broke faith with nobody. They were his equals, owing him no allegiance, obedience, nor any other duty, except such as they owed to mankind at large. Their political relations with him had been purely voluntary. They had never pledged their faith to him that they would continue these relations any longer than it should please them to do so; and therefore they broke no faith in parting with him. They simply exercised their natural right of saying to him, and to the English people, that they were under no obligation to continue their political [connection] with them, and that, for reasons of their own, they chose to dissolve it. What was true of our ancestors, is true of revolutionists in general. . . . This principle was a true one in 1776. It is a true one now.” Spooner, No Treason, no. 1, §§13–14; ibid., describing a legal defense to treason.

16. “The difficulty is, what ought to be looked upon as a tacit consent, and how far it binds, i.e. how far any one shall be looked on to have consented, and thereby submitted to any government, where he has made no expressions of it at all. And to this I say, that every man, that hath any possessions, or enjoyment, of any part of the dominions of any government, doth thereby give his tacit consent, and is as far forth obliged to obedience to the laws of that government, during such enjoyment, as any one under it; whether this his possession be of land, to him and his heirs for ever, or a lodging only for a week; or whether it be barely travelling freely on the highway; and in effect, it reaches as far as the very being of any one within the territories of that government.” Locke, Two Treatises of Civil Government, bk. 2, §119.

17. Murray Rothbard, “War, Peace, and the State,” Standard, April 1963, https://archive.org/details/WarPeaceAndTheState. “The fundamental axiom of libertarian theory is that no one may threaten or commit violence (“aggress”) against another man’s person or property. Violence may be employed only against the man who commits such violence; that is, only defensively against the aggressive violence of another. In short, no violence may be employed against a non-aggressor. Here is the fundamental rule from which can be deduced the entire corpus of libertarian theory.” Ibid., 2–3, emphasis in original.

18. Ibid.

19. Ibid.; see also n1.

20. Ibid.

21. “All State wars, therefore, involve increased aggression against the State’s own taxpayers, and almost all State wars (all, in modern warfare) involve the maximum aggression (murder) against the innocent civilians ruled by the enemy State. On the other hand, revolutions are generally financed voluntarily and may pinpoint their violence to the State rulers, and private conflicts may confine their violence to the actual criminals. The libertarian must, therefore, conclude that, while some revolutions and some private conflicts may be legitimate, State wars are always to be condemned.” Ibid., emphasis in original.

22. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, Second Part: Treatise on Law (1265–74), 2274–75, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa.pdf.

23. Ibid., 2268–79.

24. Locke, Two Treatises of Civil Government, bk. 2, §§4, 22.

25. William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, Book the First (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1765), 121, emphasis added, https://archive.org/details/BlackstoneVolumeI.

26. Randolph Bourne, “The State,” AntiWar.com, http://www.antiwar.com/bourne.php.

27. Ibid.

28. Ibid.

29. Andrew P. Napolitano, Theodore and Woodrow: How Two American Presidents Destroyed Constitutional Freedom (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2012); Andrew P. Napolitano, Lies the Government Told You: Myth, Power, and Deception in American History (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2010).

30. Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944).

31. Abrams v. United States, 250 U.S. 616 (1919) (Clarke, J.).

32. The Overman Act, 40 Stat. 556 (1918); see Opinions of the Judge Advocate General of the Army: April 1, 1917 to December 31 [1918], vol. 2 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1919), 605–6. “Like its predecessor, it delegated to the President virtually unrestricted authority with respect to the administrative machinery necessary to meet the war needs of the Federal Government. And like its predecessor, the effect was to give the President complete control over the functions, duties and powers of the executive agencies of the Federal Government insofar as matters relating to the conduct of the war were concerned.” Nathan Grundstein, Presidential Delegation of Authority in Wartime (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1961), 15–16.

33. Glenn Greenwald, “NSA Collecting Phone Records of Millions of Verizon Customers Daily,” Guardian (UK), June 5, 2013, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/06/nsa-phone-records-verizon-court-order.

34. State v. Shack, 277 A.2d 369 (N.J. 1971). The Shack court held that migrant workers cannot alienate their own right to association by their contracting to work under circumstances which would give rise to such an alienation, such as contracting to work and live on land where the owner may exercise a right to exclude government assistance workers.

35. “This right to property in one’s own body and its standing room must be considered a priori (or indisputably) justified by proponent and opponent alike.” Hans-Hermann Hoppe, “Rothbardian Ethics,” LewRockwell.com, 2002, http://www.lewrockwell.com/hoppe/hoppe7.html.

36. Andrew Byers, Faith Without Illusions: Following Jesus as a Cynic-Saint (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2011), 53.

37. “Charity gives every Man a Title to so much out of another’s Plenty, as will keep him from extream want, where he has no means to subsist otherwise.” Cited in George C. Christie, “The Defense of Necessity Considered from the Legal and Moral Points of View,” Duke Law Journal 48, no. 5 (March 1999): 1010n183, emphasis in original; Locke, Two Treatises of Civil Government, bk. 1, §42.

Chapter 2

1. Douglas G. Smith, “An Analysis of Two Federal Structures: The Articles of Confederation and the Constitution,” San Diego Law Review 34, no. 1 (1997): 249.

2. Alfred W. Blumrosen and Steven M. Blumrosen, “Restoring the Congressional Duty to Declare War,” Rutgers Law Review 63, no. 2 (2011): 420.

3. Ibid.

4. Ibid.

5. David P. Szatmary, Shays’ Rebellion: The Making of an Agrarian Insurrection (Cambridge, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984).

6. U.S. Const. art. I, §8.

7. Ibid.

8. U.S. Const. art. I, §8, cl. 12.

9. David Ackerman and Richard Grimmett, Declarations of War and Authorizations for the Use of Military Force: Historical Background and Legal Implications, CRS Report RL31133 (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service, 2003), CRS-2, 4, updated January 14, 2014.

10. Ibid., CRS-6.

11. Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 103 F. Supp. 569 (D.D.C. 1952), aff’d, 343 U.S. 579 (enjoining President Truman from seizing steel mills during the Korean War pursuant to Exec. Order 10340).

12. War Powers Resolution of 1973, 50 U.S.C. §§1541–48 (2012).

13. Blumrosen and Blumrosen, “Restoring the Congressional Duty to Declare War,” 412, emphasis added.

14. John R. Vile, The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of America’s Founding, vol. 1 (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2005), 224.

15. U.S. Const. art. II, §2, cl. 1.

16. Saikrishna Prakash, “Unleashing the Dogs of War: What the Constitution Means by ‘Declare War,’ ” Cornell Law Review 93, no. 1 (2007): 51.

17. Ibid., 63.

18. Erwin Chemerinsky, Constitutional Law: Principles and Policies, ed. Vicki Been et al., 4th ed. (New York: Aspen Publishers, 2011), 290.

19. The Prize Cases, 67 U.S. 635, 668 (1863).

20. Prakash, “Unleashing the Dogs of War,” 93.

21. “Comment: Congressional Control of Presidential War-making Under the War Powers Act: The Status of a Legislative Veto After Chadha,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 132, no. 5 (1984): 1217.

Chapter 3

1. John Bakeless, Turncoats, Traitors, and Heroes, 4th ed. (New York: Da Capo Press, 1959), 15–16.

2. “His espionage had begun months before the war broke out; but no one seriously suspected anything until after he gave his mistress the ciphered letter.” Ibid., 11.

3. Ibid., 11–16, describing how his treachery was discovered; 11, describing his positions.

4. Glenn P. Hastedt and Steven W. Guerrier, eds., Spies, Wiretaps, and Secret Operations: An Encyclopedia of American Espionage, vol. 1 (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2011), 192.

5. “First Traitor a Boston Doctor,” Washington Times, June 26, 2008, http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2008/jun/26/first-traitor-a-boston-doctor/; see Journals of the Continental Congress—Articles of War, vol. 2, ed. Worthington C. Ford et al. (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1905), 111–23, (hereinafter cited as JCC II), http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/contcong_06-30-75.asp; “Congress had foreseen such cases. Article XXVIII provided that anyone communicating with the enemy should suffer such punishment as a court-martial might direct.” Bakeless, Turncoats, Traitors, and Heroes, 19.

6. Hastedt and Guerrier, Spies, Wiretaps, and Secret Operations, 192.

7. JCC II; “Article LI limited the punishment a court-martial could inflict. It could give penalties of thirty-nine lashes or a fine of two months’ pay and it could cashier the offender and that was all!” Bakeless, Turncoats, Traitors, and Heroes, 19.

8. Journals of the Continental Congress—Articles of War, ed. Worthington C. Ford et al. (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1905), 111–23, (hereinafter cited as JCC), http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/contcong_09-20-76.asp; Hastedt and Guerrier, Spies, Wiretaps, and Secret Operations, 192.

9. For example, “Paul Revere’s American spy ring in Boston had noticed some suspicious leaks.” Bakeless, Turncoats, Traitors, and Heroes, 16.

10. Central Intelligence Agency, “Intelligence in the War of Independence,” last modified September 5, 2013 (hereinafter cited as CIA, “Intelligence in the War of Independence”), https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/intelligence/.

11. “The Secret Committee, for instance, sought military information and aid.” Ed Crews, “Spies and Scouts, Secret Writings, and Sympathetic Citizens,” Colonial Williamsburg Journal 26, no. 2 (2004), http://www.history.org/foundation/journal/summer04/spies.cfm.

12. CIA, “Intelligence in the War of Independence.”

13. Ibid.

14. Hastedt and Guerrier, Spies, Wiretaps, and Secret Operations, 191; CIA, “Intelligence in the War of Independence,” for contrasting viewpoint.

15. CIA, “Intelligence in the War of Independence.”

16. Ibid., emphasis added.

17. Ibid.

18. Hastedt and Guerrier, Spies, Wiretaps, and Secret Operations, 191.

19. See below, the section The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798.

20. Charles Francis Adams, ed., The Works of John Adams, vol. 1 (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1856), 224–25, http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=2099&Itemid=27.

21. Ibid.

22. Ibid., 224.

23. Compare Adams, Works of John Adams, 225, “[W]ho shall levy war against any of the said colonies within the same, or be adherent to the king of Great Britain, or other enemies of the said colonies, or any of them, within the same, giving to him or them aid and comfort, are guilty of treason against such colony,” with the Treason Act, 1351, 25 Edw. 3, c. 2, declaring treason to consist of levying war and adhering to the enemies of the king of Britain.

24. Adams, Works of John Adams, 225.

25. James Madison, Federalist No. 43, Library of Congress, January 23, 1788, http://thomas.loc.gov/home/histdox/fed_43.html.

26. James Willard Hurst, The Law of Treason in the United States: Collected Essays, no. 12, Contributions in American History (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1971), 83, http://www.constitution.org/cmt/jwh/jwh_treason.htm. “[I]t used the familiar terms of the Statute of Edward III, with a suggestion of the evidentiary requirements of the Statute of 7 William III.” Ibid.

27. Carlton F. W. Larson, “The Forgotten Constitutional Law of Treason and the Enemy Combatant Problem,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 154, no. 4 (2006), arguing that the Treason Clause applies to U.S. citizen-enemy combatants; Randal John Meyer, “The Twin Perils of the al-Aulaqi Case: The Treason Clause and the Equal Protection Clause,” Brooklyn Law Review 79, no. 1 (2013).

28. Meyer, “Twin Perils,” 234.

29. Ryan Patrick Alford, “The Rule of Law at the Crossroads: Consequences of Targeted Killing of Citizens,” Utah Law Review, no. 4 (2011): 1203, 1205–6, 1215; Meyer, “Twin Perils,” 237 nn50–52 and accompanying text.

30. The Treason Act, 1351, 25 Edw. 3, c. 2; United States v. Rahman, 189 F.3d 88, 112 (2d Cir 1999) (per curiam).

31. Hurst, The Law of Treason in the United States, 143.

32. Meyer, “Twin Perils,” 238nn54–55; “Mindful of their status as traitors while fighting the rule of England, they sought to eliminate the potential for abusive prosecution of treason against groups with public grievances by including systemic, constitutional restrictions.” Ibid.

33. U.S. Const. art. III, §3.

34. James Madison, Federalist No. 51, Library of Congress, February 6, 1788, http://thomas.loc.gov/home/histdox/fed_51.html.

35. Hurst, The Law of Treason in the United States, 155. “[T]he tradition expressed in the First Amendment is a much broader one.” Ibid.

36. U.S. Const. amend. I.

37. “Thus the historic background of the treason clause furnishes specific evidence rather than a priori reasoning for assigning a higher value to the free and nonviolent play of controversy over public issues than to the broad prevention of possible danger to security of social institutions. Especially does it underline the importance of preventing the use of the criminal law as an instrument of competition for political power.” Hurst, The Law of Treason in the United States, 165–66.

38. Andrew P. Napolitano, Lies the Government Told You (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2010), 2–9, describing the deplorable conditions of slaves owned by some Founding Fathers.

39. William Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, act 3, scene 1, http://shakespeare.mit.edu/julius_caesar/full.html.

40. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 462; Gordon S. Wood, Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 134–35.

41. Elkins and McKitrick, The Age of Federalism, 478.

42. Joseph J. Ellis, His Excellency, George Washington (New York: Random House, 2005), 225.

43. “Jan. 1, 1781: Mutiny of the Pennsylvania Line,” History.com, http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/mutiny-of-the-pennsylvania-line.

44. Israel Shreve to George Washington, January 20, 1781, in George Washington Papers, Series 4, General Correspondence, 1697–1799 (Washington, DC: Library of Congress), http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mgw4&fileName=gwpage074.db&recNum=522.

45. Ibid.

46. Ibid.

47. Ron Chernow, Alexander Hamilton (New York: Penguin Press, 2004), 475–76; William Hogeland, The Whiskey Rebellion: George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and the Frontier Rebels Who Challenged America’s Newfound Sovereignty (New York: Scribner, 2006), 189.

48. T. S. Eliot, “The Hollow Men,” ArtofEurope.com, http://www.artofeurope.com/eliot/eli2.htm.

49. Elkins and McKitrick, The Age of Federalism, 482.

50. Hurst, The Law of Treason in the United States, 269.

51. Geoffrey R. Stone, Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime, from the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terrorism (New York: W. W. Norton, 2004), 21.

52. U.S. Congress, Senate, Washington’s Farewell Address to the People of the United States, 106th Cong., 2d Sess., 2000, S. Doc. 106–21, p. 6, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-CDOC-106sdoc21/pdf.

53. Stone, Perilous Times, 21.

54. Ibid.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid.

57. Ibid., 22.

58. John Adams, Special Session Message, May 16, 1797, the American Presidency Project, University of California, Santa Barbara, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=65636.

59. William Stinchcombe, “The Diplomacy of the WXYZ Affair,” William and Mary Quarterly 34, no. 4, 3rd series (1977).

60. Ibid.

61. Ibid.

62. Ibid.

63. Ibid.

64. Ibid.

65. Randolph Bourne, “The State,” AntiWar.com, http://www.antiwar.com/bourne.php.

66. Stone, Perilous Times, 21; 5 Cong. Ch. 67, July 7, 1798, 1 Stat. 578; 5 Cong. Ch. 64, June 30, 1798, 1 Stat. 575; 5 Cong. Ch. 63, June 28, 1798, 1 Stat. 575.

67. Stone, Perilous Times, 25.

68. Ibid.

69. Ibid., 26.

70. George Athan Billias, Elbridge Gerry, Founding Father and Republican Statesman (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976).

71. Stone, Perilous Times, 28.

72. 1 Annals of Cong. 567–68; 570–72; 577–78; 596–97.

73. 50 U.S.C. §21.

74. Stone, Perilous Times, 28.

75. Ibid.

76. Ibid.

77. 50 U.S.C. §21.

78. 5 Cong. Ch. 54, June 17, 1789, 1 Stat. 566.

79. Cited in American Eloquence: A Collection of Speeches and Addresses, ed. Frank Moore, vol. 2 (New York: D. Appleton, 1895), 222.

80. Sedition Act, 1 Stat. 596, sec. 2 (1798).

81. Ibid.

82. Nancy Murray and Sarah Wunsch, “Civil Liberties in Times of Crisis: Lessons from History,” Massachusetts Law Review 87, no. 2 (2002): 72.

83. Akhil Reed Amar, “Of Sovereignty and Federalism,” Faculty Scholarship Series, Yale Law Journal 96, no. 7 (1987): 1502.

84. Alien and Sedition Acts, Library of Congress, http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/Alien.html.

85. Paul S. Gillies, “Ruminations: The Trial of Matthew Lyon,” Vermont Bar Journal 37, no. 2 (2011): 7; U.S. House of Representatives, “The Life of Representative Matthew Lyon of Vermont and Kentucky,” History, Art & Archives, http://history.house.gov/HistoricalHighlight/Detail/36323?ret=True; “History of the Federal Judiciary: The Sedition Act Trials—Historical Background and Documents,” Federal Judicial Center, http://www.fjc.gov/history/home.nsf/page/tu_sedbio_lyon.html.

86. Stone, Perilous Times, 49n130.

87. Gillies, “Ruminations,” 9; U.S. House of Representatives, “The Life of Representative Matthew Lyon”; Federal Judicial Center, “History of the Federal Judiciary.”

88. “William Paterson was an Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, who sat, under the Judiciary Act of 1789, as half of the Circuit Court. Vermont U.S. District Judge Samuel Hitchcock joined Paterson on the bench.” Gillies, “Ruminations,” 9; “History of the Federal Judiciary: The Sedition Act Trials—Historical Background and Documents,” Federal Judicial Center; Stone, Perilous Times, 50.

89. Stone, Perilous Times, 51.

90. Ibid., 52.

91. Ibid., 52–53.

92. “Resolved . . . that whensoever the general government assumes undelegated powers, its acts are unauthoritative, void, and of no force; . . . that this government, created by this compact, was not made the exclusive or final judge of the extent of the powers delegated to itself, since that would have made its discretion, and not the Constitution, the measure of its powers.” Jonathan Elliot, ed., The Debates in the Several State Conventions, on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution, as Recommended by the General Convention at Philadelphia, in 1787, vol. 4 (Washington, 1836), 540.

93. Amar, “Of Sovereignty and Federalism,” 1502.

94. “In the longer term . . . the Resolutions proved to be among the most influential extraconstitutional, nonjudicial texts in American constitutional history.” H. Jefferson Powell, “The Original Understanding of Original Intent,” Harvard Law Review 98, no. 5 (1985): 927.

95. Ibid.

96. Ibid., 930–31.

97. Ibid., 931, emphasis added.

98. “Through their power to select senators and presidential electors, state lawmakers helped sweep the high-Federalist friends of the Alien and Sedition Acts out of national office in the election of 1800, replacing them with Jeffersonians who allowed the repressive acts to expire.” Akhil Reed Amar, The Bill of Rights (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 6.

99. David F. Enicson, “the Nullification Crisis, American Republicanism, and the Force Bill Debate,” Jof Southern History, vol. 61, no. 2, May 1995, 249

100. Thomas E. Woods, Nullification: How to Resist Federal Tyranny in the 21st Century (Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, 2010), 87–89.

101. Ibid.

102. Ibid., 89.

103. Ronald Reagan, First Inaugural Address, January 20, 1981, http://www.bartleby.com/124/pres61.html.

Chapter 4

1. Zechariah Chafee Jr., Free Speech in the United States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967), 5.

2. James Madison, The Papers of James Madison, vol. 2 (Washington: Langtree and Sullivan, 1840), 741.

3. U.S. Const. art. I, §9, cl. 2.

4. Amanda L. Tyler, “The Forgotten Core Meaning of the Suspension Clause,” Harvard Law Review 125, no. 4 (2012): 901.

5. Brian McGinty, The Body of John Merryman: Abraham Lincoln and the Suspension of Habeas Corpus (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), 1.

6. Ibid.

7. Ibid., 1–5.

8. Ibid., 1.

9. Ibid., 17.

10. Roger Brooke Taney: “I can see no ground whatsoever for supposing that the President, in any emergency, or in any state of things, can authorize the suspension of the privileges [sic] of the writ of habeas corpus, or the arrest of a citizen, except in aid of the judicial power.” Ex parte Merryman, 17 F. Cas. 144 (C.C.D. Md. 1861) (No. 9487).

11. Ibid.

12. McGinty, Body of John Merryman, 116.

13. Ibid., emphasis in original. For a thorough discussion of the tension between civil liberties and authority in the Civil War, see William H. Rehnquist, All the Laws But One: Civil Liberties in Wartime (New York: Knopf, 1998).

14. McGinty, Body of John Merryman, 5.

15. In re Kemp, 16 Wis. 359, 382 (1863).

16. Tyler, “The Forgotten Core Meaning of the Suspension Clause,” 901.

17. See Amanda L. Tyler, “Suspension as an Emergency Power,” Yale Law Journal 118, no. 4 (2009): 638n177.

18. James G. Randall, Constitutional Problems Under Lincoln (New York: D. Appleton, 1926), 150, https://archive.org/details/constitutionalpr00randa.

19. Tyler, “The Forgotten Core Meaning of the Suspension Clause,” 992; statement of Sen. Jacob Collamer, Cong. Globe, 37th Cong., 3d Sess. 1206 (1863) at 550, noting that by a suspension “the President would be in the exercise of his power rightfully in arresting men who had been guilty of no crime, for the purpose of securing against the commission of [acts] . . . dangerous to the Government.”

20. See Act of March 3, 1863, ch. 81, §I, 12 Stat. 755, 7552, 12 Stat. at 755–56: “[A] list of the names of all persons [who are] citizens of States in which the administration of the laws has continued unimpaired in the said federal courts [and] who are now, or may hereafter be, held as prisoners of the United States, by order or authority of the [Executive], . . . as State or political prisoners, or otherwise than as prisoners of war.”

21. Tyler, “The Forgotten Core Meaning of the Suspension Clause,” 987.

22. Ibid., 990.

23. See Sanford Levinson, David C. Baum Lecture, “Was the Emancipation Proclamation Constitutional? Do We/Should We Care What the Answer Is?,” University of Illinois Law Review 2001, no. 5 (2001): 1135.

24. “On April 27, 1861, President Lincoln simultaneously declared martial law and authorized Commanding General Winfield Scott to suspend the writ of habeas corpus in Union territories. . . . Lincoln proclaimed that all persons who discouraged enlistments or engaged in disloyal practices would be subject to trial in a military commission, regardless of whether they were citizens or military. Lincoln thought that military commissions were necessary because, according to him, state courts did not have the authority to convict war protesters.” Anne English French, “Trials in Times of War: Do the Bush Military Commissions Sacrifice Our Freedoms?,” Ohio State Law Journal 63, no. 4 (2002): 1228–29.

25. See Merriam-Webster Dictionary, s.v. “drumhead court-martial,” http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/drumhead%20court-martial.

26. Joseph A. Ranney, “Abraham Lincoln’s Legacy to Wisconsin Law, Part 2: Inter Arma Silent Leges: Wisconsin Law in Wartime,” Wisconsin Lawyer 82 (February, 2009): 14.

27. Gen. Ambrose Burnside, General Order No. 38 (1863).

28. Randall, Constitutional Problems Under Lincoln, 177.

29. Geoffrey R. Stone, Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime, from the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terrorism (New York: W. W. Norton, 2004), 102.

30. Ranney, “Abraham Lincoln’s Legacy.”

31. Judge Humphrey H. Leavitt went on to say that “self-preservation” is the “paramount law,” rising above even the Constitution. In such times no “one connected with the judicial department should in any way ‘embarrass or thwart the executive in his efforts to deliver the country from the dangers which press so heavily upon it.’ ” Stone, Perilous Times, 103–4.

32. Ranney, “Abraham Lincoln’s Legacy,” where the court would not take jurisdiction over a military commission’s final judgment; Ex parte Vallandigham, 68 U.S. (1 Wall) 243 (Wayne, J.) (1863).

33. Ex parte Vallandigham, 68 U.S. (1 Wall) 243, 251 (Wayne, J.) (1863).

34. The Trial of Hon. Clement L. Vallandigham by a Military Commission: and the Proceedings Under His Application for a Writ of Habeas Corpus in the Circuit Court of the United States for the Southern District of Ohio (Cincinnati: Rickey & Carroll, 1863).

35. Ex parte Milligan, 71 U.S. 2 at 142.

36. Marouf Arif Hasian, In the Name of Necessity: Military Tribunals and the Loss of American Civil Liberties (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2005), 80.

37. Ibid., 100.

38. Ibid., 87.

39. Ibid., 88. James Speed was once characterized by Rehnquist as “one of the least competent Attorneys General in the history of that office.” William H. Rehnquist, “Civil Liberty and the Civil War: The Indianapolis Treason Trials,” Indiana Law Journal 72, no. 4 (1997): 933.

40. Hasian, In the Name of Necessity, 104.

41. Ex parte Milligan, 71 U.S. (4 Wall) 2, 120–21 (Davis, J.) (1866).

42. Bryant Smith, “Book Review: Ex Parte Milligan: In the Matter of Lambdin P. Milligan,” Texas Law Review 9, no. 1 (1930): 122.

43. Hasian, In the Name of Necessity, 80–81.

44. Ibid., 88.

45. Ex parte McCardle, 74 U.S. 506 (1868).

46. Ex parte McCardle, 74 U.S. at 508.

47. Ibid.

48. U.S. Const. art. III, §2.

49. Ex parte McCardle, 74 U.S. at 514.

50. Ibid.

51. “The Army became involved in traditional police roles and in enforce politically volatile Reconstruction-era politics.” Mark D. Maxwell, The Enduring Vitality of the Posse Comitatus Act of 1878, Office of the Judge Advocate General, the Pentagon 37 Jun Prosecutor 34 (2003).

52. Gary Felicetti and John Luce, “The Posse Comitatus Act: Setting the Record Straight on 124 Years of Mischief and Misunderstanding Before Any More Damage Is Done,” 175 Military Law Review 86, 109 (2003).

53. Wrynn v. United States, 200 F. Supp. 457, 464 (E.D.N.Y. 1961) (quoting Gillars v. United States, 182 F.2d 962, 972 (D.C. Cir. 1950)).

54. Wrynn, 200 F. Supp. at 465 (quoting Sparks, National Development 1877–1885, in The American Nation: A History, vol. 23 [1907], 127).

55. 1879 Army Appropriations Bill, 20 Stat. 152, at §15 (1878). The Posse Comitatus Act was passed as part of this legislative package.

56. Sean J. Kealy, “Reexamining the Posse Comitatus Act: Toward a Right to Civil Law Enforcement,” Yale Law and Policy Review 21, no. 2 (2003): 384.

57. Ibid., 388.

Chapter 5

1. Geoffrey R. Stone, Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime, from the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terrorism (New York: W. W. Norton, 2004), 137, 155.

2. Plato, The Republic, in Plato: Complete Works, ed. John M. Cooper (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1997), 1020–22, §§382–83; 1050, §414.

3. Ibid.

4. See chapter 3, discussing the Alien Enemies Act.

5. While treason is defined and restricted in the Constitution, see U.S. Const. art. III, §3; it is criminalized at 18 U.S.C. §2381 and has been modified from time to time, e.g., §1038. The §1097 rules created the crimes of unlawful entry and theft of property or “records.” 35 Stat. §§1038, 1097 (1909).

6. Harold Edgar and Benno C. Schmidt, Jr., “The Espionage Statutes and Publication of Defense Information,” Columbia Law Review 73, no. 5 (1973): 939–40nn26–28.

7. Ibid., 939–40.

8. Defense Act, 36 Stat. 1804 (1911).

9. Edgar and Schmidt, “The Espionage Statutes and Publication of Defense Information,” 940.

10. Ibid.

11. Espionage Act, Pub. L. 65–24, 40 Stat. 217 (1917) (codified at 18 U.S.C. §792).

12. Edgar and Schmidt, “The Espionage Statutes and Publication of Defense Information,” 940.

13. Stone, Perilous Times, 147.

14. Edgar and Schmidt, “The Espionage Statutes and Publication of Defense Information,” 940–41.

15. Stone, Perilous Times, 148.

16. Ibid.

17. Ibid., 148–49.

18. Edgar and Schmidt, “The Espionage Statutes and Publication of Defense Information,” 964.

19. Ibid., 941.

20. Stone, Perilous Times, 150.

21. The Espionage Act, Pub. L. 65–24, 40 Stat. 217, 18 U.S.C. §792 (1917), sec. 3, http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=3&psid=3904; Stone, Perilous Times, 147.

22. Merriam-Webster Dictionary, s.v. “disaffect,” http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/disaffect.

23. Stone, Perilous Times, 151.

24. The Espionage Act of 1917, sec. 3, emphasis added; Stone, Perilous Times, 151.

25. U.S. Const. amend. I, emphasis added.

26. Stone, Perilous Times, 147, 149–50.

27. Peter Grier, “Postmasters General, Kings of Political Patronage?” Christian Science Monitor, March 11, 2010, http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/DC-Decoder/Decoder-Wire/2010/0311/Postmasters-general-kings-of-political-patronage; United States Postal Service, “Reform Proposal,” http://about.usps.com/publications/pub100/pub100_034.htm.

28. Stone, Perilous Times, 149–50.

29. Ibid.

30. Ibid., 149.

31. Ibid., 150.

32. Ibid., 149n*.

33. The Sedition Act, 40 Stat. 553 (1918).

34. Stone, Perilous Times, 184–85.

35. The Sedition Act, 40 Stat. 553–54 (1918).

36. Stone, Perilous Times, 184–85.

37. Stone’s book, which this book often cites, decries this act as well. Stone, Perilous Times, 184–85.

38. Ibid., 189.

39. Ibid., 190.

40. Ibid., 189.

41. Ibid.

42. Ibid., 190.

43. Ibid., 191.

44. Ibid.

45. Declaration of War, Joint Resolution, 40 Stat. 1 (1917), emphasis added.

46. The Overman Act, 40 Stat. 556 (1918).

47. Ibid.; United States v. Kraus, 33 F.2d 406, 408 (7th Cir. 1929) (describing the president’s very broad powers).

48. Ibid.

49. Lochner v. United States, 198 U.S. 45, 53 (1905) (Peckham, J.).

50. Ibid.

51. Lochner v. United States, 198 U.S. 45, 63 (1905) (Peckham, J.).

52. Richard B. Gregg, “The National War Labor Board,” Harvard Law Review 33, no. 1 (1919): 45.

53. Ibid.

54. Melvyn Dubofsky, “Introduction,” Papers of the National War Labor Board, 1918–1919, ed. Melvyn Dubofsky and Randolph Boehm (Bethesda, MD: University Publications of America, 1985), vi.

55. Gregg, “The National War Labor Board,” 45–51.

56. Ibid., 54. The Supreme Court case referred to as being abrogated is Hitchman Coal & Coke Company v. Mitchell, 245 U.S. 229 (1917).

57. Gregg, “The National War Labor Board,” 54.

58. Ibid., 55.

59. Ibid.

60. Dubofsky, “Introduction,” vi.

61. Administrative History, microformed on Records of the War Industries Board, Record Group 61.1 (National Archives, Federal Records).

62. Ami J. Abou-Bakr, Managing Disasters Through Public-Private Partnerships (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2013), 144.

63. U.S. Const. amend. V, proscribing the taking of property for private use or without just compensation; see above.

64. United States v. Kraus, 33 F.2d 406, 408 (7th Cir. 1929).

65. Ibid., emphasis added.

66. “Constitutional Law—Contracts—Power of Government to Enforce War-Time Contract to Accept Agreed Profit—Recovery of Excess Profits,” Yale Law Journal 39, no. 3 (1930): 423.

67. United States v. Kraus, 33 F.2d 406, 408 (7th Cir. 1929).

68. United States v. Kraus, 33 F.2d 406, 409–10 (7th Cir. 1929).

69. 1 Williston on Contracts §1:17 (4th ed. 2013).

70. Stone, Perilous Times, 137.

71. Cited in ibid., 156–57.

72. For example, Jim Powell, Wilson’s War: How Woodrow Wilson’s Great Blunder Led to Hitler, Lenin, Stalin, and World War (New York: Random House, 2005).

73. See below, nn 160–67 and accompanying text; see Brandenburg v. Ohio, 395 U.S. 444 (1969).

74. Billy Murray, “Over There,” recorded June 28, 1917, http://www.firstworldwar.com/audio/overthere.htm.

75. Stone, Perilous Times, 153.

76. Compare ibid., 153 n*.

77. Ibid.

78. David Pietrusza, “Roiling the Mid-Term Waters: Recalling Woodrow Wilson’s Disastrous 1918 Gaffe,” DavidPietrusza.com, http://www.davidpietrusza.com/wilson-1918-midterm-election.html.

79. Compare Stone, Perilous Times, 137 n.†, “One measure of the depths of opposition to World War I is that some 300,000 men evaded the draft during the course of the war,” with “Draft-Dodger Memorial to Be Built in B.C.,” CBC News, September 8, 2004, http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/2004/09/08/draft_dogers040908.html, “[A]s many as 125,000 Americans . . . fled to Canada between 1964 and 1977.”

80. The Selective Service Act of 1917, Pub. L. 65–12, 40 Stat. 76–83 (May 18, 1917).

81. Executive Order No. 2594 (April 1917) (not listed in CFR or Fed. Reg., available in Nat. Archives), 223.

82. Andrew P. Napolitano, Theodore and Woodrow: How Two American Presidents Destroyed Constitutional Freedom (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2012), 222; Stone, Perilous Times, 153.

83. Michael F. Connors, Dealing in Hate: The Development of Anti-German Propaganda (London: Britons Publishing Co., 1966), www.ihr.org/books/connors/dealinginhate.html.

84. Napolitano, Theodore and Woodrow, 221; Sam Greenhill, “Secret of the Lusitania: Arms Find Challenges Allied Claims It Was Solely a Passenger Ship,” Daily Mail (UK), December 19, 2008, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1098904/Secret-Lusitania-Arms-challenges-Allied-claims-solely-passenger-ship.html#ixzz2YVhrZUQI.

85. “Disaster Bears Out Embassy’s Warning,” New York Times, May 8, 1915, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=F7081FFC385C13738DDDA10894DD405B858DF1D3.

86. “The Lusitania never was impressed into the Government service . . . and no guns ever were mounted on the emplacements,” Special Cable, “Why Lusitania Plans Show Gun Outlines: Made Before Ship Was Built—Merely Indicate Where Rifles Could Be Mounted,” New York Times, June 19, 1915, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=F50D16FD355E12738DDDA00994DE405B858DF1D3; the emplacements were considered a tourist attraction.

87. “The Lusitania’s passengers would, in all human probability, have been saved if the explosion of ammunition on the vessel . . . had not sent her to the bottom quickly.” “Surprise at the Capital,” New York Times, May 31, 1915; Greenhill, “Secret of the Lusitania,” describing that after surveying the wreckage, the Germans, in all human probability, were right.

88. Stone, Perilous Times, 136; Greenhill, “Secret of the Lusitania.”

89. Thomas Andrew Bailey and Paul B. Ryan, The Lusitania Disaster: An Episode in Modern Warfare and Diplomacy (New York: Free Press, 1975), 319.

90. Napolitano, Theodore and Woodrow, 221.

91. Thomas G. Paterson, J. Garry Clifford, Shane J. Maddock, Deborah Kisatsky, and Kenneth J. Hagan, American Foreign Relations: A History Since 1895, 7th ed., vol. 2 (Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2010), 73.

92. Ibid.

93. Ibid.

94. “[T]he truth is, Wilson was never the pacifist he had portrayed himself to be. Rather, his peace platform was a well-devised strategy to get himself elected president. In reality, he had goals on an international scale, which were his top priority, and he was willing to do anything to accomplish them, even if that meant lying about war and then conniving to enter it.” Napolitano, Theodore and Woodrow, 220.

95. “Sees Mainly Error in Lusitania Note,” New York Times, June 8, 1915, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=F3061FF83E591A7A93CAA9178DD85F418185F9.

96. Stone, Perilous Times, 171–72, 137; Harry N. Scheiber, The Wilson Administration and Civil Liberties, 1917–1921 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1960), 2–3; “Surprise at the Capital,” New York Times, May 31, 1915.

97. Napolitano, Theodore and Woodrow, 221; “Ends Struggle Over Policy,” New York Times, June 9, 1915, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9C00E7D81E3EE033A2575AC0A9609C946496D6CF.

98. “Wilson Rejects Lusitania Note: Asks Disavowal,” New York Times, January 26, 1916, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9F05E2D91E38E633A25755C2A9679C946796D6CF.

99. S. Doc. No. 5. (1917), http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/4943/.

100. Stone, Perilous Times, 153.

101. Geoffrey Stone, War and Liberty: An American Dilemma 1790–Present (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2007), 49–50.

102. Napolitano, Theodore and Woodrow, 222; Stone, Perilous Times, 154–56.

103. Stone, Perilous Times, 155, reprinting the liberty bonds poster; “Propaganda Posters—United States of America,” FirstWorldWar.com, http://www.firstworldwar.com/posters/usa.htm.

104. Napolitano, Theodore and Woodrow, 222.

105. Ibid., 223.

106. Walter Romig, Michigan Place Names: The History of the Founding and the Naming of More Than Five Thousand Past and Present Michigan Communities (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1986), 354.

107. “Of Fraud and Force Fast Woven: Domestic Propaganda During the First World War,” FirstWorldWar.com, http://www.firstworldwar.com/features/propaganda.htm.

108. The Kaiser, the Beast of Berlin, film directed by Rupert Julian, Rupert Julian Productions and Universal Film Manufacturing Co., 1918.

109. Stone, Perilous Times, 182, discussing Beethoven bans; “War Hysteria and the Persecution of German-Americans,” Authentic History, http://www.authentichistory.com/1914-1920/2-homefront/4-hysteria/index.html, discussing Bach and Mozart ban attempts.

110. Stone, Perilous Times, 154.

111. Napolitano, Theodore and Woodrow, 221.

112. Stone, Perilous Times, 156.

113. Ibid.

114. Ibid., 157.

115. Ibid., 157–58 n*.

116. “Nothing was done to punish this behavior.” Napolitano, Theodore and Woodrow, 223; “Il est défendu de tuer; tout meurtrier est puni, à moins qu’il n’ait tué en grande compagnie, et au son des trompettes.” Voltaire, Rights (1771), in Oeuvres Complètes de Voltaire (Paris: Garnier Frères, 1878), 425.

117. National Civil Liberties Bureau, War-Time Prosecutions and Mob Violence: Involving the Rights of Free Speech, Free Press and Peaceable Assemblage (New York: National Civil Liberties Bureau, 1919), 3–11.

118. Jess Zimmerman, “John Meints & WWI Anti-German Sentiment,” History by Zim (blog), June 18, 2012, http://www.historybyzim.com/2012/06/john-meints-wwi-anti-german-sentiment/.

119. Ibid.

120. Ibid.

121. Ibid.

122. Meints v. Huntington, 276 F. 245, 253 (8th Cir. 1921).

123. Zimmerman, “John Meints & WWI Anti-German Sentiment.”

124. John Fabian Witt, Patriots and Cosmopolitans: Hidden Histories of American Law (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007), 191.

125. National Civil Liberties Bureau, War-Time Prosecutions, 4.

126. Stone, Perilous Times, 172–73.

127. Ibid., 173.

128. Department of Justice, “Report of the Attorney General of the United States for the Year 1922,” 437; Stone, Perilous Times, 173n*.

129. Walter Coffey, “Espionage, Sedition and Fascism in World War I,” WalterCoffey.com (blog), December 6, 2012, http://waltercoffey.wordpress.com/2012/12/06/espionage-sedition-and-fascism-in-world-war-i/.

130. Jim Robbins, “Silence Broken, Pardons Granted 88 Years After Crimes of Sedition,” New York Times, May 3, 2006, http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50C17FC355B0C708CDDAC0894DE404482.

131. Stone, Perilous Times, 172.

132. Ibid.

133. Ibid., 171–72; see 171–72 n143, providing a detailed discussion of the events.

134. Ibid., 172.

135. “Warn Seditious Pastors,” New York Times, March 31, 1918, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=F50915FA355B11738DDDA80B94DB405B888DF1D3; see Stone, Perilous Times, 172 n*.

136. Eugene V. Debs, “Speech in Canton, Ohio”, in Writings and Speeches of Eugene V. Debs, ed. Arthur M. Schlesinger (New York: Hermitage Press, 1948), 417–18, alterations in original.

137. Burl Noggle, Into the Twenties: The United States from Armistice to Normalcy (Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1974), 113.

138. David Leip, “1912 Presidential General Election Results,” USElectionAtlas.org, http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/national.php?year=1912&f=0&off=0&elect=0.

139. David Leip, “1916 Presidential General Election Results,” USElectionAtlas.org, http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/national.php?year=1916&f=0&off=0&elect=0.

140. David Leip, “1920 Presidential General Election Results,” USElectionAtlas.org, http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/national.php?year=1920&f=0&off=0&elect=0.

141. “Eugene Victor Debs 1855–1926,” EugeneVDebs.com, debsfoundation.org/personalhistory.html.

142. Coffey, “Espionage, Sedition and Fascism.”

143. Ibid., emphasis added.

144. Ibid.

145. Stone, Perilous Times, 180.

146. Witt, Patriots and Cosmopolitans, 191.

147. Stone, Perilous Times, 184.

148. Ibid., 181n*.

149. David J. Bennett, He Almost Changed the World: The Life and Times of Thomas Riley Marshall (Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2007), 146.

150. Stone, Perilous Times, 180–81n†.

151. See infra, chapter 5 discussing the federal judiciary.

152. The Alien Act, 40 Stat. 1012 (1918).

153. Ibid.; Stone, Perilous Times, 181.

154. Stone, Perilous Times, 181.

155. Ibid.

156. Ibid.; Chafee, Free Speech in the United States, 207–8.

157. Chafee, Free Speech in the United States, 208.

158. Ibid., 207–8.

159. Ibid., 208.

160. Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47 (1919) (per curiam) (Holmes, J.).

161. Frohwerk v. United States, 249 U.S. 204 (1919) (per curiam) (Holmes, J.).

162. Debs v. United States, 249 U.S. 211 (1919) (per curiam) (Holmes, J.).

163. Abrams v. United States, 250 U.S. 616 (1919) (Clarke, J.).

164. Schaefer v. United States, 251 U.S. 466 (1920) (McKenna, J.).

165. Pierce v. United States, 252 U.S. 239 (1920) (Pitney, J.).

166. Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47 (1919).

167. Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47, 51 (1919).

168. U.S. Const. amend. I, emphasis added.

169. Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47, 52–53 (1919).

170. Thomas Healy, The Great Dissent: How Oliver Wendell Holmes Changed His Mind—and Changed the History of Free Speech in America (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2013).

171. Frohwerk v. United States, 249 U.S. 204, 208 (1919); Stone, Perilous Times, 195.

172. Stone, Perilous Times, 195.

173. Frohwerk v. United States, 249 U.S. 204, 205, 208 (1919); Stone, Perilous Times, 195.

174. Frohwerk v. United States, 249 U.S. 204, 208 (1919); ibid., at 210 (discussing Schenck).

175. Debs v. United States, 249 U.S. 211, 213 (1919).

176. Debs v. United States, 249 U.S. 211, 217 (1919).

177. Abrams v. United States, 250 U.S. 616, 617–18 (1919).

178. Ibid.

179. Abrams v. United States, 250 U.S. 616 (1919).

180. Abrams v. United States, 250 U.S. 616, 628 (1919) (Holmes & Brandeis, JJ., dissenting).

181. Schaefer v. United States, 251 U.S. 466 (1920).

182. Schaefer v. United States 251 U.S. 466, 476–77 (1920) (footnote omitted), emphasis added.

183. Pierce v. United States, 252 U.S. 239 (1920).

184. “Some 4.7 million Americans fought in World War I. Of these, 116,000 died in service and 204,000 were wounded.” US Department of Veteran Affairs, “VA History in Brief,” 2006, http://www.va.gov/opa/publications/archives/docs/history_in_brief.pdf.

185. Stone, Perilous Times, 220; see earlier in this chapter.

186. Ibid., 221; see earlier in this chapter.

187. Ibid.

188. John Milton Cooper, Woodrow Wilson: A Biography (New York: Vintage Books, 2009), 535.

189. Ibid., 544, 557–60.

190. Herbert Hoover, The Ordeal of Woodrow Wilson (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1958), 271–78.

191. Stone, Perilous Times, 221–22.

192. Ibid., 221.

193. Ibid., 222.

194. Ibid.

195. Ibid., 223.

196. Ibid., 223–25.

197. S. Res. 307 (September 19, 1918).

198. “Senators Tell What Bolshevism Means in America,” New York Times, June 15, 1919, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=F50613F6345D147A93C7A8178DD85F4D8185F9.

199. Charles H. McCormick, Seeing Reds: Federal Surveillance of Radicals in the Pittsburgh Mill District, 1917–1921 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2003), 92; “Senators Tell What Bolshevism Means in America.”

200. R. G. Brown et al., To the American People: Report Upon the Illegal Practices of the United States Department of Justice (Washington, DC: National Popular Government League, 1920), https://archive.org/details/toamericanpeople00natiuoft.

201. Stone, Perilous Times, 225.

202. For example, “Union Men Assail Palmer,” May 4, 1920, New York Times, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=F10D13F93555157A93C6A9178ED85F448285F9.

203. Stone, Perilous Times, 225.

204. Ibid., 229.

205. Ibid., 231–32.

206. Ibid.

207. Ibid., 230; “American Civil Liberties Union,” USLegal.com, http://associations.uslegal.com/american-civil-liberties-union/.

208. Meyer v. Nebraska, 262 U.S. 390 (1923).

Chapter 6

1. See chapter 5.

2. 268 U.S. 652 (1925); 274 U.S. 357 (1927).

3. 268 U.S. 652, 654 (1925) (Sanford, J.), emphasis added, (quoting New York Penal Law, §§160–161).

4. 268 U.S. 652, 654–55 (1925) (Sanford, J.).

5. 268 U.S. 652, 655–57 (1925) (Sanford, J.).

6. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto (New York: Signet Classic, 1998), 76.

7. 268 U.S. 652, 655–58 (1925) (Sanford, J.).

8. American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), “The Successes of the American Civil Liberties Union,” http://www.aclu.org/successes-american-civil-liberties-union.

9. 268 U.S. 652, 672–73 (1925) (Holmes and Brandeis, JJ., dissenting).

10. “For present purposes we may and do assume that freedom of speech and of the press—which are protected by the First Amendment from abridgment by Congress—are among the fundamental personal rights and ‘liberties’ protected by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment from impairment by the States. We do not regard the incidental statement in Prudential Ins. Co. v. Cheek, . . . , that the Fourteenth Amendment imposes no restrictions on the States concerning freedom of speech, as determinative of this question.” 268 U.S. 652, 666 (1925) (Sanford, J.); see ACLU, “The Successes of the American Civil Liberties Union” for a list of victories in chronological order.

11. “[Sanford] served seven years [on the Court] and wrote the monumental opinion in Gitlow v. New York, which first suggested that the Fourteenth Amendment incorporated the Bill of Rights.” Sam D. Elliott, “A Supremely Strange Mix,” Tennessee Bar Journal 47, no. 3(2011): 3.

12. Whitney v. California, 274 U.S. 357, 364–66 (1927).

13. Whitney v. California, 274 U.S. 357, 367 (1927).

14. Whitney v. California, 274 U.S. 357, 369–71 (1927).

15. Whitney v. California, 274 U.S. 357, 372 (1927) (Holmes and Brandeis, JJ., dissenting).

16. Geoffrey R. Stone, Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime, From the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terrorism (New York: W. W. Norton, 2004), 238; 238n11, collecting an impressive record of cases invalidating state utterance statutes and similar laws.

17. Peter Peel, “The Great Brown Scare: The Amerika Deutscher Bund in the Thirties and the Hounding of Fritz Julius Kuhn,” Journal for Historical Review 7, no. 4 (1986–87), http://www.ihr.org/jhr/v07/v07p419_Peel.html.

18. ACLU, “Still the Fish Committee Nonsense!: The Answer of the Press to the Fish Committee Proposals to Outlaw Free Speech for Communists” (hereinafter cited as ACLU, “Fish Committee Answers”), 1932, http://debs.indstate.edu/a505s75_1932.pdf.

19. Hamilton Fish III, Hamilton Fish: Memoir of an American Patriot (Washington, DC: Regnery Gateway, 1991), 41–42, discussing targeting Communist Party presidential candidate William Foster and the ACLU.

20. William M. Wiecek, “The Legal Foundations of Domestic Anticommunism: The Background of Dennis v. United States,” Supreme Court Review, 2001, 393.

21. 71 Cong. Rec. 2526 (1931).

22. “More Patrioteering,” Pittsburgh Press, February 18, 1932, cited in ACLU, “Fish Committee Answers,” 4.

23. Wiecek, “The Legal Foundations of Domestic Anticommunism,” 393; “Hamilton Fish’s 1930 investigative committee wrapped up its work amid derisive laughter when Fish was conned.” Ibid., 398.

24. ACLU, “Fish Committee Answers.”

25. H. Res. 198, 73 Cong. Rec. 4934, 4949 (1934).

26. 22.87 Special Committee on Un-American Activities, microformed on Guide to the Records of the U.S. House of Representatives at the National Archives, 1789–1989: Chapter 22: Records of the Select Committees of the House of Representatives, Record Group 233 (National Archives, Federal Records), http://www.archives.gov/legislative/guide/house/chapter-22.html.

27. 22.86 Special Committee on Un-American Activities, microformed on Guide to the Records of the U.S. House of Representatives at the National Archives, 1789–1989: Chapter 22: Records of the Select Committees of the House of Representatives, Record Group 233 (National Archives, Federal Records), http://www.archives.gov/legislative/guide/house/chapter-22.html.

28. Remarks of Rep. Lindsay Warren, 81 Cong. Rec. 3287 (1937).

29. 22.87 Special Committee on Un-American Activities.

30. 79 Cong. Rec. 123 (1935), index for “Committee on Investigation of Un-American Activities” and “Committee on Investigation of Nazi Activities in the United States.”

31. 79 Cong. Rec. 24, 1405, 2029 (1935); see ibid., 123, index for “Committee on Investigation of Un-American Activities” and “Committee on Investigation of Nazi Activities in the United States.”

32. 81 Cong. Rec. 3290 (1937).

33. H. Res. 282, 83 Cong. Rec. 7568–7586 (1938) (introducing, debating and passing); G. L. Tyler, “House Un-American Activities Committee,” Encyclopedia of American Civil Liberties, vol. 1, ed. Paul Finkelman (New York: Taylor & Francis, 2006), 780.

34. Tyler, “House Un-American Activities Committee,” 780. Guide to Congress, CQ Press (2012), 322.

35. Remarks of Rep. John E. Rankin (D-MS), 91 Cong. Rec. 10–11 (1945); 14.112 House Un-American Activities Committee, 1945–75: Related Records, microformed on Guide to the Records of the U.S. House of Representatives at the National Archives, 1789–1989: Chapter 14: Records of the Judiciary Committee and Related Committees, Record Group 233 (National Archives, Federal Records), http://www.archives.gov/legislative/guide/house/chapter-14.html.

36. Kent. B. Millikan, “Congressional Investigations: Imbroglio in the Court,” William and Mary Law Review 8, no. 6 (1967): 406.

37. Stone, Perilous Times, 245–46.

38. Ibid., 245.

39. Ibid., 246.

40. Ibid.

41. Ibid.

42. Ibid.

43. 91 Cong. Rec. 10–15 (1945) (debating and passing an amendment to the rules of the House which created the committee permanent); ibid. at 10, Remarks of Rep. John E. Rankin (D-MS) (introducing the amendment); Stone, Perilous Times, 246–48.

44. Jose Carlos Palma, “FBI History,” Smart Encyclopedia, May 20, 2013, http://englishversion.smartencyclopedia.eu/index.php/43-the-fbi/82-fbi-history.

45. Federal Bureau of Investigation, “A Brief History of the FBI,” http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/brief-history.

46. Ibid.

47. Ibid.

48. Ibid.

49. Ibid.

50. Ibid.; see chapter 5.

51. Federal Bureau of Investigation, “John Edgar Hoover,” http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/directors/hoover.

52. Ibid.

53. Stone, Perilous Times, 249.

54. Ibid.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid., 249–50.

57. Gary Sheffield, “The Fall of France,” BBC, March 30, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/fall_france_01.shtml.

58. Ibid.

59. Ibid.

60. Ibid.

61. Stone, Perilous Times, 251.

62. Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Address to Congress, May 16, 1940, https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/WorldWar2/fdr16.htm; Stone, Perilous Times, 251; Remarks of Rep. Clifton A. Woodrum (D-VA), Rep. John Taber (R-NY), and Rep. Robert Rich (R-PA), 86 Cong. Rec. 9019–21 (1940) (discussing approving these so-called emergency defense bills).

63. H.R. 5138, 86 Cong. Rec. 9029–31, 9036 (1940) (codified at 18 U.S.C. § 2385) (introducing and passing the compromise Smith Act).

64. Stone, Perilous Times, 251.

65. The Smith Act, 54 Stat. 670, 670–71 (1940), emphases added.

66. The Smith Act, 54 Stat. 670, 671 at title I, §3 (1940) (criminalizing attempts); ibid., §5 (providing for “imprison[ment] of not more than ten years”).

67. Walter Coffey, “Espionage, Sedition and Fascism in World War I,” WalterCoffey.com (blog), December 6, 2012, http://waltercoffey.wordpress.com/2012/12/06/espionage-sedition-and-fascism-in-world-war-i/.

68. John Locke, Two Treatises of Civil Government, ed. Thomas Hollis (London: A. Millar et al., 1764), bk. 2, ch. 2, §4; bk. 2, §§149, 155, 168, 207–10, 220–31, 240–43 (1690), discussing rightful rebellion, http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=222.

69. Remarks of Rep. Howard W. Smith, 84 Cong. Rec. 10452 (1939), emphasis added.

70. The Smith Act, 54 Stat. 670, 671–72, at title II, §20.

71. The Smith Act, 54 Stat. 670, 673–75, at title III, §§30–32, 36.

72. “[The Justice Department] arranged for registration to take place at post offices, rather than at FBI or INS offices, thereby easing the sense of foreboding.” Stone, Perilous Times, 284.

73. Remarks of Rep. Vito Marcantonio (L-NY), 86 Cong. Rec. 9034 (1940).

74. 86 Cong. Rec. 9036 (1940).

75. Remarks of Rep. Hatton Sumners (D-TX), 86 Cong. Rec. 9037 (1940).

76. Stone, Perilous Times, 252.

77. “During the present war the Supreme Court up to the date of writing this book had reversed convictions or judgments in five major civil liberties cases . . . entirely on the insufficiency of the evidence, and in no case on a point of law. They know of many appeals in civil liberties cases during this war on points of law which were either lost in the Appellate courts or denied review by the Supreme Court.” Maximilian St.-George and Lawrence Dennis, A Trial on Trial: The Great Sedition Trial of 1944 (Washington, DC: National Civil Rights Committee, 1946), 20.

78. Stone, Perilous Times, 252.

79. Ibid., 253.

80. Ibid.

81. Ibid., 253–54.

82. Ibid., 258.

83. Ibid., 258–59.

84. Ibid., 259.

85. Ibid., 263 n*.

86. United States v. Pelley, 132 F.2d 170 (7th Cir. 1942).

87. Ibid.; Stone, Perilous Times, 264, discussing Pelley’s lawyers.

88. United States v. Pelley, 132 F.2d 170, 177 (7th Cir. 1942).

89. Edward S. Miller, Bankrupting the Enemy: The U.S. Financial Siege of Japan Before Pearl Harbor (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2007); Stone, Perilous Times, 268–69; “Pelley’s accusations about the administration’s foreign policy, like his charges about the magnitude of American losses at Pearl Harbor, were not ‘false’ in any objectively verifiable sense.” Ibid., 269, 263, n.†; Smedley Butler arguing in 1935 that American naval aggression in waters near Japan would eventually lead to conditions degenerating into war, “War Is a Racket,” Archive.org, https://archive.org/details/WarIsARacket.

90. Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co., 497 U.S. 1, 2 (1990) (citing cases).

91. Ibid.

92. John Stuart Mill, On Liberty, 2nd ed. (Boston: Ticknor and Fields, 1863), 36.

93. Stone, Perilous Times, 266 n*.

94. 318 U.S. 801 (1943); Stone, Perilous Times, 266.

95. Stone, Perilous Times, 266.

96. St.-George and Dennis, A Trial on Trial, 16.

97. Stone, Perilous Times, 273.

98. St.-George and Dennis, A Trial on Trial, 92–93.

99. Ibid., 16, 114–21.

100. Frederick R. Barkley, “Sedition Trial Holds Drama,” New York Times, July 23, 1944.

101. Frederick R. Barkley, “Sedition Trial Even Now Is ‘Only’ in Its First Stage,” New York Times, October 29, 1944.

102. St.-George and Dennis, A Trial on Trial, 35–44.

103. Ibid., 34–45.

104. Stone, Perilous Times, 274.

105. St.-George and Dennis, A Trial on Trial, 16.

106. Ibid.; “Sedition Case Ends on Mistrial Order,” New York Times, December 8, 1944.

107. Frederick R. Barkley, “Sedition Trial’s Wrangles Come to an Abrupt Close,” New York Times, December 10, 1944.

108. “Mass Trial,” Washington Post, July 16, 1944; “Courtroom Farce,” Washington Post, July 28, 1944; St.-George and Dennis, A Trial on Trial, 431–34; Richard W. Steele, Free Speech in the Good War (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), 224.

109. St.-George and Dennis, A Trial on Trial, 433.

110. Ibid., 403.

111. 18 U.S.C. §2385 (2012), codifying the Smith Act, 54 Stat. 670, as amended.

112. US Civilian Production Administration, Industrial Mobilization for War: History of the War Production Board and Predecessor Agencies 1940–1945, vol. 1 (New York: Greenwood, 1969), 453 (hereinafter cited as US CPA); David Novick, Melvin Anshen, and William Charles Truppner, Wartime Production Controls (New York: Columbia University Press, 1949), 163–69.

113. Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45 (1905) (Peckham, J.).

114. Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45, 52 (1905) (Peckham, J.).

115. Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45, 52–53 (1905) (Peckham, J.) (citation omitted).

116. Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45, 75 (1905) (Holmes, J., dissenting) (citation omitted).

117. Ibid.

118. U.S. Const. art. 1, §10, cl. 1.

119. U.S. Const. amend. XIII.

120. Geoffrey R. Stone, Louis M. Seidman, Cass R. Sunstein, Pamela S. Karlan, and Mark V. Tushnet, Constitutional Law, 6th ed. (New York: Aspen Publishers, 2009), 754.

121. Rosemary D. Marcuss and Richard E. Kane, “U.S. National Income and Product Statistics,” Bureau of Economic Analysis, February 2007, 34.

122. Murray N. Rothbard, America’s Great Depression, 5th ed., (Auburn, AL: Mires Institute, 2000), 262.

123. Geoffrey R. Stone, Louis M. Seidman, Cass R. Sunstein, Pamela S. Karlan, and Mark V. Tushnet, Constitutional Law, 6th ed. (New York: Aspen Publishers, 2009), 753–754.

124. Gregory A. Caldeira, “Public Opinion and the U.S. Supreme Court: FDR’s Court-Packing Plan,” American Political Science Review 81 (1987): 1139, 1140–41.

125. H. Doc. No. 142, 81 Cong. Rec. 877, 893–896 (1937) (reporting a letter from FDR to Congress unveiling the plan); ibid., at S. 1378, 883, “to increase the number of justices on the Supreme Court”; ibid., at H. Rept. No. 711, p. 5369 (an “advers[e]” report).

126. Marian C. McKenna, Franklin Roosevelt and the Great Constitutional War: The Court-Packing Crisis of 1937 (New York: Fordham University Press, 2002), 303–14; Caldeira, “Public Opinion and the U.S. Supreme Court: FDR’s Court-Packing Plan,” 1139, 1146–47.

127. West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish, 300 U.S. 379 (1937) (Hughes, J.).

128. United States v. Carolene Products Company, 304 U.S. 144, 152 & n4 (1938).

129. Pub. L. 328, 55 Stat. 795, 795 (1941) (declaring war on the “Imperial Government of Japan”); Pub. L. 331, 55 Stat. 796, 796 (1941) (declaring war on the “Government of Germany”).

130. Ibid.

131. First War Powers Act, 1941, Pub. L. 354, 55 Stat. 838 (1941).

132. First War Powers Act, 1941, Pub. L. 354, 55 Stat. 838, at title I, §1 (1941).

133. First War Powers Act, 1941, Pub. L. 354, 55 Stat. 838–89, at title II, §201 (1941).

134. First War Powers Act, 1941, Pub. L. 354, 55 Stat. 838–39, at title III, §§301–2 (1941).

135. First War Powers Act, 1941, Pub. L. 354, 55 Stat. 839–40, at title III, §§301–3 (1941).

136. First War Powers Act, 1941, Pub. L. 354, 55 Stat. 839–40, at title III, §303 (1941).

137. Second War Powers Act, 1942, Pub. L. 507, 56 Stat. 176 (1942).

138. Second War Powers Act, 1942, Pub. L. 507, 56 Stat. 176–77, at title I, §§101–3 (1942).

139. Second War Powers Act, 1942, Pub. L. 507, 56 Stat. 177, at title II, §201 (1942).

140. Office of Federal Register, “Code of Federal Regulations: The President,” 1957, 634-635, support the proposition.

141. Second War Powers Act, 1942, Pub. L. 507, 56 Stat. 178–79, at title III, §301 (1942).

142. Second War Powers Act, 1942, Pub. L. 507, 56 Stat. 179, at title III, §301 (1942).

143. Second War Powers Act, 1942, Pub. L. 507, 56 Stat. 179, at title VI, §601 (1942).

144. Donald M. Nelson, Arsenal of Democracy: The Story of American War Production (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1946), 12–13.

145. US CPA, 15.

146. Ibid., 14–15.

147. Ibid., 40.

148. Ibid., 14.

149. Ibid., 201.

150. Nathan Miller, War at Sea: A Naval History of World War II (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 295; Michael Gannon, Operation Drumbeat (New York: Harper Perennial, 1991), 296.

151. US CPA, 14.

152. Ibid.

153. Gordon Corrigan, The Second World War: A Military History (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2010), 81; US CPA, 14.

154. US CPA, 14.

155. Ibid.

156. Nelson, Arsenal of Democracy, 7.

157. US CPA, xiii.

158. Ibid., 6–7, 11.

159. Ibid., 8.

160. Ibid., 9.

161. Ibid., 11.

162. Ibid., 17.

163. Ibid., 18–19.

164. Ibid., 22–23.

165. 54 Stat. 599 (June 26, 1940); 54 Stat. 867 (September 9, 1940); 54 Stat. 964 (October 8, 1940); US CPA, 1 n27.

166. US CPA, 32–33.

167. Ibid., 30, xiii.

168. Exec. Order 8248, 4 Fed. Reg. 3864 (1939); US CPA, 18.

169. US CPA, 89.

170. Exec. Order 8629, 6 Fed. Reg. 191 (1941); US CPA, 94. The final death was in spring 1941 when its budget was reallocated to the Office for Emergency Management (OEM); Ibid., 95.

171. US CPA, 89, xiii.

172. Nelson, Arsenal of Democracy, 5.

173. US CPA, 95.

174. Ibid., 96.

175. Ibid., 108, 181–82, 195–97.

176. Exec. Order 8875, 6 Fed. Reg. 4483 (1941); US CPA, 108, 110.

177. US CPA, 102, 177; Special Combined Commission on Nonfood Consumption Levels, The Impact of the War on Civilian Consumption in the United Kingdom, United States, and Canada (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1945) (hereinafter cited as Special Combined Commission), 1, 3, 27–28.

178. US CPA, 165.

179. Ibid., 165–66.

180. Ibid., 175.

181. Ibid., iii.

182. Ibid.

183. Ibid., 547.

184. Ibid., xiii–xiv.

185. Robert B. Stinnett, Day of Deceit: The Truth About FDR and Pearl Harbor (New York: Freedom Press, 1999); Miller, Bankrupting the Enemy.

186. Interview by Douglas Cirignano with Robert B. Stinnett, author of Day of Deceit: The Truth About FDR and Pearl Harbor, March 11, 2002, http://www.independent.org/newsroom/article.asp?id=408.

187. Lt. Cmdr. Arthur McCollum, “Memorandum for the Director: Estimate of the Situation in the Pacific and Recommendations for Action by the United States,” 1940, WhatReallyHappened.com (blog) (hereinafter McCollum Memo), http://whatreallyhappened.com/WRHARTICLES/McCollum/index.html.

188. Interview by Douglas Cirignano with Robert B. Stinnett.

189. Commissioner Dudley Wright Knox, “Comment Attached to McCollum Memorandum,” WhatReallyHappened.com (blog), 1940, http://whatreallyhappened.com/WRHARTICLES/McCollum/index.html.

190. Interview by Douglas Cirignano with Robert B. Stinnett.

191. McCollum Memo, ¶10.

192. Ibid., ¶9; Miller, Bankrupting the Enemy.

193. McCollum Memo, ¶9.

194. McCollum Memo, ¶10.

195. Exec. Order 9024, 7 Fed. Reg. 329 (1942); Exec. Order 9040, 7 Fed. Reg. 527 (1942); US CPA, 207–8.

196. US CPA, xiv; Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 U.S. 579 (1952) (Jackson, J., concurring).

197. “[T]he Chairman of the War Production Board, with the advice and assistance of the members of the Board, shall perform the additional functions and duties, and exercise the additional powers, authority and discretion conferred upon the President of the United States by Title III of the Second War Powers Act 1942.” Exec. Order 9125, 7 Fed. Reg. 2719 (1942); Nelson, Arsenal of Democracy, xi; compare US CPA, 212.

198. US CPA, 204; ibid., 547.

199. Ibid., 307.

200. Ibid., 309–10.

201. Ibid., 314–15.

202. Special Combined Commission, 12.

203. Ibid., 13–14.

204. Exec. Order 9301, 8 Fed. Reg. 1825 (1943); US CPA, 703–4.

205. US CPA, 557–58.

Chapter 7

1. Proclamation No. 2561, 7 Fed. Reg. 5101 (1942).

2. U.S. Const. art. III, §3.

3. Randal John Meyer, “The Twin Perils of the al-Aulaqi Case: The Treason Clause and the Equal Protection Clause,” Brooklyn Law Review 79, no. 1 (2013): 287.

4. Eike Frenzel, “Operation Pastorius: Hitler’s Unfulfilled Dream of a New York in Flames,” Der Spiegel, September 16, 2010, http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/operation-pastorius-hitler-s-unfulfilled-dream-of-a-new-york-in-flames-a-716753.html; Federal Bureau of Investigation, “George John Dasch and the Nazi Saboteurs” (hereinafter cited as FBI, “George John Dasch”), http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/nazi-saboteurs/george-john-dasch-and-the-nazi-saboteurs.

5. Ibid.

6. FBI, “George John Dasch.”

7. Ex parte Quirin, 317 U.S. 1, 21 (1942) (Stone, C.J.) (per curiam); Frenzel, “Operation Pastorius”; FBI, “George John Dasch.”

8. Ex parte Quirin, 317 U.S. 1, 21 (1942) (Stone, C.J.) (per curiam); Frenzel, “Operation Pastorius”; FBI, “George John Dasch.”

9. Frenzel, “Operation Pastorius”; FBI, “George John Dasch.”

10. Frenzel, “Operation Pastorius”; FBI, “George John Dasch.”

11. Frenzel, “Operation Pastorius”; FBI, “George John Dasch.”

12. Ex parte Quirin, 317 U.S. 1, 21 (1942) (Stone, C.J.) (per curiam); FBI, “George John Dasch.”

13. Ex parte Quirin, 317 U.S. 1, 21 (1942) (Stone, C.J.) (per curiam); FBI, “George John Dasch.”

14. Frenzel, “Operation Pastorius.”

15. Ibid.

16. Ibid.

17. Frenzel, “Operation Pastorius”; FBI, “George John Dasch.”

18. Frenzel, “Operation Pastorius.”

19. Ibid.

20. Frenzel, “Operation Pastorius”; FBI, “George John Dasch.”

21. Frenzel, “Operation Pastorius.”

22. Ibid.

23. Frenzel, “Operation Pastorius”; FBI, “George John Dasch.”

24. Harvey Ardman, “World War II: German Saboteurs Invade America in 1942,” HistoryNet, June 12, 2006, http://www.historynet.com/world-war-ii-german-saboteurs-invade-america-in-1942.htm.

25. Haupt v. United States, 330 U.S. 631, 633–34 (1947) (Jackson, J.).

26. Cramer v. United States, 325 U.S. 1, 3–5 (1945) (Jackson, J.).

27. Frenzel, “Operation Pastorius”; FBI, “George John Dasch.”

28. Frenzel, “Operation Pastorius.”

29. FBI, “George John Dasch.”

30. Frenzel, “Operation Pastorius.”

31. FBI, “George John Dasch.”

32. 1–18 Stenographic Transcript of Proceedings before the Military Commission to Try Persons Charged with Offenses Against the Law of War and the Articles of War, Washington DC, July 8 to July 31, 1942 (Samaha et al. eds., 2004), http://www.soc.umn.edu/~samaha/nazi_saboteurs/indexnazi.htm; Proclamation No. 2561, 7 Fed. Reg. 5101 (1942).

33. FBI, “George John Dasch.”

34. Ibid.

35. Ex parte Quirin, 47 F. Supp. 431 (D.D.C. 1942), aff’d 317 U.S. 1 (1942).

36. Ibid.

37. Ex parte Quirin, 63 S. Ct. 1 (1942).

38. 1 Stenographic Transcript of Proceedings before the Military Commission to Try Persons Charged with Offenses Against the Law of War and the Articles of War, Washington DC, July 8, 1942, (Samaha et al. eds., 2004), 11 http://www.soc.umn.edu/~samaha/nazi_saboteurs/nazi01.htm.

39. 18 Stenographic Transcript of Proceedings before the Military Commission to Try Persons Charged with Offenses Against the Law of War and the Articles of War, Washington DC, August 1, 1942, (Samaha et al. eds., 2004), http://www.soc.umn.edu/~samaha/nazi_saboteurs/nazi018.htm; FBI, “George John Dasch.”

40. FBI, “George John Dasch.”

41. Ex parte Quirin, 317 U.S. 1, 63 S. Ct. 2 (1942).

42. Haupt v. United States, 330 U.S. 631 (1947) (Jackson, J.); Cramer v. United States, 325 U.S. 1 (1945) (Jackson, J.); Ex parte Quirin, 317 U.S. 1 (1942).

43. Hague Conventions of 1907, ch. II, art. 30.

44. U.S. Const. art. I, §9, cl. 3.

45. Calder v. Bull, 3 (Dall.) U.S. 386, 390 (1798) (Chase, J.).

46. 1 Stenographic Transcript of Proceedings before the Military Commission to Try Persons Charged with Offenses Against the Law of War and the Articles of War, Washington DC, July 8, 1942, (Samaha et al. eds., 2004), 10–11, http://www.soc.umn.edu/~samaha/nazi_saboteurs/nazi01.htm.

47. Fed. R. Evid. 403.

48. Ex parte Quirin, 317 U.S. 1, 20–22 (1942).

49. Meyer, “Twin Perils.”

50. Ex parte Quirin, 317 U.S. 1, 37–38 (1942).

51. Ex parte Quirin, 317 U.S. 1, 45 (1942) (quotations and citations omitted) (quoting Ex parte Milligan, 71 U.S. (4 Wall.) 2, 118, 121, 122, 131 (1866)).

52. Ex parte Quirin, 317 U.S. 1, 45 (1942) (quotations and citations omitted).

53. Ex parte Milligan, 71 U.S. (4 Wall.) 2, 118 (1866), emphasis added.

54. Duncan v. Kahanamoku, 327 U.S. 304 (1946) (Black, J.).

55. Duncan v. Kahanamoku, 327 U.S. 304, 307–11 (1946) (Black, J.).

56. Duncan v. Kahanamoku, 327 U.S. 304, 324 (1946) (Black, J.).

57. Duncan v. Kahanamoku, 327 U.S. 304, 313–14 & n8, 322 (1946) (Black, J.).

58. See generally Duncan v. Kahanamoku, 327 U.S. 304 (1946) (Black, J.).

59. Ex parte Milligan, 71 U.S. (4 Wall.) 2, 120–21 (Davis, J.) (1866).

60. Geoffrey R. Stone, Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime, From the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terrorism (New York: W. W. Norton, 2004), 287, 291.

61. Ibid., 285.

62. Ibid., 286.

63. Ibid.

64. Ibid.

65. Exec. Order 9066, 7 Fed. Reg. 1407 (1942); Stone, Perilous Times, 289.

66. Stone, Perilous Times, 290–91.

67. Ibid., 291–92.

68. Ibid., 293–94.

69. Ibid., 292.

70. Ibid., 292–93.

71. Ibid., 292.

72. Ibid.

73. Ibid., 294.

74. Exec. Order 9066, 7 Fed. Reg. 1407 (1942).

75. Stone, Perilous Times, 295.

76. Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81, 86 (1943) (Stone, C.J.).

77. Public Proclamation No. 1, 7 Fed. Reg. 2320 (1942); Public Proclamation No. 2, 7 Fed. Reg. 2405 (1942); Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81, 86–87 (1943) (Stone, C.J.).

78. Exec. Order 9102, 7 Fed. Reg. 2165 (1942); Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81, 86–87 (1943) (Stone, C.J.).

79. Public Proclamation No. 3, 7 Fed. Reg. 2543 (1942).

80. Civilian Exclusion Order No. 1, 7 Fed. Reg. 3725 (1942).

81. Public Proclamation No. 4, 7 Fed. Reg. 2601 (1942).

82. Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81, 88 (1943) (Stone, C.J.).

83. Civil Liberties Public Education Fund, “Chronology of the Japanese American Internment,” http://www.momomedia.com/CLPEF/chrono.html.

84. Leslie T. Hatamiya, Righting a Wrong: Japanese Americans and the Passage of the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993), 25.

85. U.S. National Archives, “Brief Overview of the World War II Enemy Alien Control Program,” http://www.archives.gov/research/immigration/enemy-aliens-overview.html; Stone, Perilous Times, 285–86.

86. Stone, Perilous Times, 287.

87. Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81, 83 (1943) (Stone, C.J.).

88. Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81, 84 (1943) (Stone, C.J.).

89. Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81, 100 (1943) (Stone, C.J.). The case was also decided on anti-delegation grounds.

90. Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81, 101–02 (1943) (Stone, C.J.), emphasis added.

91. Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944) (Black, J.).

92. Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214, 215–16 (1944) (Black, J.).

93. Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214, 216 (1944) (Black, J.).

94. Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214, 224 (1944) (Black, J.).

95. Ibid.

96. Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214, 219–20 (1944) (Black, J.).

97. Eugene V. Rostow, “The Japanese American Cases—A Disaster,” Yale Law Journal 54, no. 3 (1945): 489–90.

98. Ibid.

99. “42nd Regimental Combat Team,” Go for Broke National Education Center, http://goforbroke.org/history/history_historical_veterans_442nd.asp.

100. Ibid.

101. Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214, 233 (1944) (Murphy, J., dissenting).

102. Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214, 240 (1944) (Murphy, J., dissenting).

103. War Powers Act (repeal), Pub. L. 89–554, 80 Stat. 651, §8(a) (1966). Some portions relating to troop mail had been repealed earlier.

104. Stone, Perilous Times, 302–3.

105. Ex parte Endo, 323 U.S. 283, 218–19 (1944) (Douglas, J.).

106. Japanese American Evacuation Claims Act, Pub. L. No. 80–886, 62 Stat. 1231 (1948).

107. Stone, Perilous Times, 303.

108. Civil Liberties Act, Pub. L. 100–383, 102 Stat. 903–16 (1988); ibid., title I, §105(a) (1); ibid., §1(6).

109. Hatamiya, Righting a Wrong, xxiii.

Chapter 8

1. National Security Act, Pub. L. 80–253, 61 Stat. 495 (July 26, 1947).

2. National Security Council Intelligence Directive No. 9 (1952), http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB24/nsa02b.pdf; National Security Agency, NSA/CSS Manual 22-1 (Ft. Meade, MD: NSA, 1986), 7.

3. Michael R. Belknap, “Cold War in the Courtroom: The Foley Square Communist Trial,” American Political Trials (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1994), 207, 209.

4. Ibid., 209.

5. Ibid., 208–10.

6. Ibid., 209.

7. Ibid.

8. Belknap, “Cold War in the Courtroom,” 201.

9. Ibid., 210; J. Edgar Hoover, Masters of Deceit: The Story of Communism in America and How to Fight It (New York: Pocket Books, 1958), 5.

10. Exec. Order 9835, 12 Fed. Reg. 1935 (Mar. 21, 1947).

11. Christopher P. Latimer, Civil Liberties and the State: A Documentary and Reference Guide (Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2011), 113.

12. James L. Stokesbury, A Short History of the Korean War (New York: Harper Perennial, 1990), 27.

13. Ibid., 14; Kathryn Weathersby, “ ‘Should We Fear This?’: Stalin and the Danger of War with America,” working paper no. 39, Scholars Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center (Washington, DC, 2002), 9–11, http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/ACFAEF.pdf. Also, Donggil Kim and William Stueck, “Did Stalin Lure the U.S. into the Korean War?,” Wilson Center, June 2008, 1.

14. S.C. Res 83, U.N. Doc. S/RES/84 (June 27, 1950).

15. McCarran Internal Security Act, Pub. L. 81–831, 64 Stat. 987 (1950).

16. McCarran Internal Security Act, 64 Stat. 987 at title I, at 987–1019.

17. McCarran Internal Security Act, 64 Stat. 987 at title II, at 1019-1031.

18. McCarran Internal Security Act, 64 Stat. 987 at title I, §5, at 992–93.

19. McCarran Internal Security Act, 64 Stat. 987 at title I, §6, at 993.

20. McCarran Internal Security Act, 64 Stat. 987 at title I, §§7–8, at 993–95.

21. McCarran Internal Security Act, 64 Stat. 987 at title I, §10, at 996.

22. McCarran Internal Security Act, 64 Stat. 987 at title I, §§12–13, at 997–1001.

23. McCarran Internal Security Act, 64 Stat. 987 at title I, §14, at 1001–02.

24. McCarran Internal Security Act, 64 Stat. 987 at title I, §15, at 1002–03.

25. McCarran Internal Security Act, 64 Stat. at title I, §4, at 991–92.

26. McCarran Internal Security Act, 64 Stat. at title II, §102, at 1021.

27. McCarran Internal Security Act, 64 Stat. at title II, §§103–04 at 1021–23; Remarks of Sen. Patrick A. McCarran (D-NV), 96 Cong. Rec. 14577–78.

28. McCarran Internal Security Act, 64 Stat. at title II, §§112, at 1029–30.

29. McCarran Internal Security Act, 64 Stat. at title II, §§ 105–11, at 1023–29.

30. H. Res. 826, 96 Cong. Rec. 13721–70, calling the question; H.R. 9490, 96 Cong. Rec. 13721–70, debating and passing the act. Arguments for the merits were made in debating whether to call the question and on the question itself. It is most convenient to consider the debates on H. Res. 826 and H.R. 9490 consolidated.

31. Remarks of Rep. Clarence J. Brown (R-OH), 96 Cong. Rec. 13724; Remarks of Rep. James W. Wadsworth Jr. (R-NY), 96 Cong. Rec. 13721–22.

32. Remarks of Rep. Clarence J. Brown (R-OH), 96 Cong. Rec. 13724.

33. Remarks of Rep. Emanuel Celler (D-NY), 96 Cong. Rec. 13722.

34. Ibid.

35. Ibid.

36. Ibid.

37. Remarks of Rep. Vito Marcantonio (L-NY), 96 Cong. Rec. 13275.

38. Ibid.

39. Remarks of Rep. Clarence J. Brown (R-OH), 96 Cong. Rec. 13724.

40. Ibid.

41. Remarks of Rep. Emanuel Celler (D-NY), 96 Cong. Rec. 13725.

42. Remarks of Rep. John E. Rankin (D-MS), 96 Cong. Rec. 13725.

43. Remarks of Rep. John E. Rankin (D-MS), 96 Cong. Rec. 13725–27.

44. Remarks of Rep. John E. Rankin (D-MS), 96 Cong. Rec. 13727.

45. Remarks of Rep. Usher L. Burdick (R-ND), 96 Cong. Rec. 13768, 13769.

46. H.R. 9490, 96 Cong. Rec. 13721, 13769–70.

47. S. 4037, 96 Cong. Rec. 14575, 14575–628.

48. See Remarks of Sen. Patrick A. McCarran (D-NV), 96 Cong. Rec. 14575–628; ibid., Remarks of Sen. Scott W. Lucas (R-IL); ibid., Remarks of Sen. Karl E. Mundt (R-SD).

49. Remarks of Sen. Homer S. Ferguson (R-MI), 96 Cong. Rec. 14585–86.

50. S. 4037, H.R. 9490, 96 Cong. Rec. 14575, 14628.

51. Harry S. Truman, Internal Security Act of 1950 Veto Message from the President of the United States (September 22, 1950), in 96 Cong. Rec. 15629–32.

52. Remarks of Rep. John E. Rankin (D-MS), 96 Cong. Rec. 15632.

53. 96 Cong. Rec. 15632–33.

54. H.R. 9490, 96 Cong. Rec. 15668–726.

55. “Let This Be Our Last Mass Trial,” Saturday Evening Post, January 6, 1945, cited in Maximilian St.-George and Lawrence Dennis, A Trial on Trial: The Great Sedition Trial of 1944 (Washington, DC: National Civil Rights Committee, 1946), 403.

56. The Smith Act, 54 Stat. 670, 670–71 at title I §§1–3 (1940), which criminalized attempts; ibid., §5, providing for “imprison[ment] of not more than ten years.”

57. The Smith Act, 54 Stat. 670, 670–71 at title I §§1–3 (1940); Michael R. Belknap, “Cold War in the Courtroom: The Foley Square Trial,” in American Political Trials (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1994), 208–9.

58. Belknap, “Cold War in the Courtroom,” 210.

59. Ibid., 210–11.

60. Ibid., 211.

61. Ibid.

62. Ibid.; “Indicted Reds Get Wallace Support: Communists Are Held Victims of Truman-Bipartisan Move to Remain in Power,” New York Times, July 22, 1948, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F20615F73F59157A93C0AB178CD85F4C8485F9.

63. Belknap, “Cold War in the Courtroom,” 212.

64. Ibid.

65. “1948 Presidential General Election Data—National,” U.S. Election Atlas, 2012, http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/data.php?year=1948&datatype=national&def=1&f=0&off=0&elect=0.

66. Belknap, “Cold War in the Courtroom,” 207–8, 211–12.

67. Ibid., 212; Jack Alexander, “The Ordeal of Judge Medina,” Saturday Evening Post, August 12, 1950, 84; Felix Frankfurter to Learned Hand, April 24, 1951, in Papers of Felix Frankfurter, General Correspondence, 1878–1965 (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1998), microformed, reel 39, box 64.

68. Belknap, “Cold War in the Courtroom,” 212.

69. Ibid., 220.

70. Ibid., 212.

71. Ibid., 220.

72. Ibid., 214.

73. Ibid., 214–15.

74. Ibid., 214.

75. Fed. R. Evid. 401, 403 (2013).

76. Belknap, “Cold War in the Courtroom,” 220.

77. Ibid., 219.

78. Ibid., 220.

79. Ibid.

80. Ibid.

81. Ibid.

82. Ibid., 221.

83. Ibid.

84. Ibid.

85. Ibid.

86. Ibid.; George D. Wilkinson, “Letter to the Editor of the Times: Communist Threat Not Ended,” New York Times, October 19, 1949, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=FB0815F83F5F177B93CBA8178BD95F4D8485F9.

87. United States v. Dennis (hereinafter cited as Dennis I), 183 F.2d 201, 206–07 (2d Cir. 1950), aff’d Dennis v. United States, 341 U.S. 494 (1951).

88. American Communications Ass’n, C.I.O. v. Douds, 339 U.S. 382, §IV, at 394–400 (1950), discussing applications of and giving dicta about the “clear and present danger” test; Dennis I, 183 F.2d at 207–12, discussing applications of and giving dicta about the “clear and present danger” test.

89. Belknap, “Cold War in the Courtroom,” 222–23.

90. Dennis I, 183 F.2d at 212–213.

91. Dennis I, 183 F.2d at 234.

92. Dennis I, 183 F.2d at 212.

93. Dennis I, 183 F.2d at 214.

94. Ibid.

95. Ibid.

96. Dennis I, 183 F.2d at 215–16.

97. Ibid.

98. Dennis I, 183 F.2d at 216.

99. Ibid.

100. Belknap, “Cold War in the Courtroom,” 223.

101. “ ‘Home by Christmas’ Oct. 1950–Jan. 1951,” BBC News, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/asia_pac/03/the_korean_war/html/home_by_christmas.stm.

102. Dennis v. United States (hereinafter cited as Dennis II), 341 U.S. 494 (1951); “[A] [25] November attack by the Chinese sent the overextended American troops into the longest retreat in U.S. military history.” Jesse Greenspan, “8 Things You Should Know About the Korean War,” History.com, July 26, 2013, http://www.history.com/news/8-things-you-should-know-about-the-korean-war.

103. Dennis II, 341 U.S. at 498.

104. Dennis II, 341 U.S. at 501.

105. Ibid.

106. Dennis II, 341 U.S. at 502.

107. Dennis II, 341 U.S. at 503.

108. Dennis II, 341 U.S. at 507.

109. Dennis II, 341 U.S. at 510; Belknap, “Cold War in the Courtroom,” 223–24.

110. Dennis II, 341 U.S. at 509.

111. Dennis II, 341 U.S. at 511.

112. Ibid.

113. Dennis II, 341 U.S. at 495.

114. Dennis II, 341 U.S. at 579 (Black, J., dissenting).

115. Belknap, “Cold War in the Courtroom,” 224–25.

116. Belknap, “Cold War in the Courtroom,” 225.

117. Ibid.

118. Yates v. United States (hereinafter cited as Yates), 354 U.S. 298 (1957).

119. Yates, 354 U.S. at 301–302 n1.

120. Belknap, “Cold War in the Courtroom,” 226.

121. Yates, 354 U.S. at 320.

122. Ibid.

123. Yates, 354 U.S. 178 (1957).

124. Watkins vs. United States (hereinafter cited as Watkins), 354 U.S. at 182–83.

125. Watkins, 354 U.S. at 181–82, 185.

126. Watkins, 354 U.S. at 208.

127. Watkins, 354 U.S. at 209.

128. Watkins, 354 U.S. at 215.

129. John J. Patrick et al., The Oxford Guide to the United States Government (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 723.

130. Ibid.

131. “Inquiry Reform Seen Inevitable,” New York Times, June 19, 1957.

132. William Shakespeare, Merchant of Venice, New Folger’s ed. (New York: Washington Square Press, 1992), act 2, scene 7, line 65.

133. United States v. O’Brien, 391 U.S. 367 (1968); Scales v. United States, 367 U.S. 203 (1961).

134. Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 U.S. at 589 (1952).

135. William H. Harbaugh, “The Steel Seizure Reconsidered,” review of Truman and the Steel Seizure Case: The Limits of Presidential Power, Maeva Marcus, Yale Law Journal 87, no. 6 (1978): 1272.

136. Edward S. Corwin, “Comment: The Steel Seizure Case: A Judicial Brick Without Straw,” Columbia Law Review 53, no. 1 (1953): 55.

137. Ibid., 53.

138. Ibid., 55.

139. Ibid.

140. Defense Production Act, Pub. L. 81–774 (1950).

141. Labor Management Relations Act, 29 U.S.C. § 401–531.

142. Selective Service Act, 62 Stat. 604 (1948).

143. Corwin, “The Steel Seizure Case,” 53.

144. Ibid., 56.

145. Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 U.S. 579, at 589 (1952).

146. Corwin, “The Steel Seizure Case,” 57.

147. “The opinions of judges, no less than executives and publicists, often suffer the infirmity of confusing the issue of a power’s validity with the cause it is invoked to promote, of confounding the permanent executive office with its temporary occupant. The tendency is strong to emphasize transient results upon policies—such as wages or stabilization—and lose sight of enduring consequences upon the balanced power structure of our Republic.” Arthur H. Garrison, “National Security and Presidential Power: Judicial Deference and Establishing Boundaries in World War Two and the Korean War,” Cumberland Law Review 39, no. 3 (2009): 672.

148. Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 U.S. 579, 636–39 (1952) (Jackson, J., concurring).

149. Tara L. Branum, “President or King? The Use and Abuse of Executive Orders in Modern-Day America,” Journal of Legislation 28 (2002): 71n356.

150. Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 U.S. 579, 589 (1952) (Jackson, J., concurring).

151. Branum, “President or King,” 71n356.

152. Ibid., 72.

153. Ibid.

154. Chamber of Commerce v. Reich, 74 F.3d 1322 (1996); Building & Construction Trades Department v. Allbaugh, 295 F.3d 28 (2002).

155. Branum, “President or King,” 41, 47.

156. Chamber of Commerce v. Reich, 74 F.3d 1322 (1996).

157. Branum, “President or King,” 71 n365; see Chamber of Commerce v. Reich, 74 F.3d 1322 (1996), the “later statute displaces the first only when the statute ‘expressly contradict(s) the original act’ or if such a construction ‘is absolutely necessary . . . in order that (the) words (of a later statute) shall have meaning at all.”

158. Building & Construction Trades Department v. Allbaugh, 295 F.3d 28 (2002).

159. Branum, “President or King,” 74.

160. Reid v. Covert, 351 U.S. 487 (1956) (plurality opinion).

161. Vincent J. Samar, “The Treaty Power and the Supremacy Clause: Rethinking Reid v. Covert in a Global Context,” Ohio Northern University Law Review 36, no. 1 (2010).

162. Jules Lobel, “Separation of Powers, Individual Rights, and the Constitution Abroad,” Iowa Law Review 98, no. 4 (2013): 1639.

163. Ibid.

164. Reid v. Covert, 354 U.S. 1, 16.

165. Reid v. Covert, 351 U.S. 487.

166. Reid v. Covert, 351 U.S. 1; “The majority did not find it necessary to pass on the constitutional provision governing the power of Congress to make rules governing the Armed Forces.” Roger J. Miner, “The Last Civilian Court-Martial and Its Aftermath,” Ohio State Law Journal 67, no. 2 (2006): 414.

167. Reid v. Covert, 351 U.S. 1.

168. Anthony F. Renzo, “Making a Burlesque of the Constitution: Military Trials of Civilians in the War Against Terrorism,” Vermont Law Review 31, no. 2 (2009): 460–62; Miner, “The Last Civilian Court-Martial and Its Aftermath,” 401.

169. Samar, “The Treaty Power and the Supremacy Clause.”

170. Reid v. Covert, 354 U.S. at 5–6 (Black, J.).

Chapter 9

1. Michael R. Belknap, “The Warren Court and the Vietnam War: The Limits of Legal Liberalism,” Georgia Law Review 33, no. 1 (1998): 72.

2. See ibid., discussing Secretary Dean Acheson’s recommendation to President Truman that the United States support France in its struggle against nationalist rebels in Indochina. Acheson considered this necessary to contain the threat of communism.

3. Belknap, “The Warren Court and the Vietnam War,” 72.

4. “Lyndon Johnson envisioned a “Great Society [that] entailed social and economic reform at home, and globalism abroad to preserve capitalism and to fight poverty and injustice.” Ibid., 72–73.

5. Ibid., 73.

6. Scales, 367 U.S. at 228–29; ibid., 224–30, discussing the First and Fifth Amendment implications.

7. “Clemency for Scales,” New York Times, December 28, 1962, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=FA0C14FA3C581A7B93CAAB1789D95F468685F9.

8. Ibid.

9. “The Court on Communism,” New York Times, June 7, 1961, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F60810FE395F147A93C5A9178DD85F458685F9.

10. Many sources discussed this episode. See Robert J. Hanyok, “Skunks, Bogies, Silent Hounds, and the Flying Fish: The Gulf of Tonkin Mystery, 2–4 August 1964,” Cryptologic Quarterly 19-20, 200-01, at 2–3, 16; Elisabeth Bumiller, “Records Show Doubt on ’64 Vietnam Crisis,” New York Times, July 14, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/15/world/asia/15vietnam.html?_r=1&; Scott Shane, “Vietnam War Intelligence ‘Deliberately Skewed,’ Secret Study Says,” New York Times, December 2, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/02/politics/02tonkin.html.

11. “Vietnam War: Allied Troop Levels 1960–73,” American War Library, December 6, 2008, http://www.americanwarlibrary.com/vietnam/vwatl.htm.

12. Albertson v. Subversive Activities Control Board, 383 U.S. 70, 77 (1965).

13. United States v. Robel (hereinafter cited as Robel), 389 U.S. 258 (1967).

14. Robel, 389 U.S. at 260.

15. Ibid.

16. Robel, 389 U.S. at 260–61.

17. Robel, 389 U.S. at 259–61. Also, David J. Dionisi, American Hiroshima (Trafford Publishing, 2005), 64.

18. Robel, 389 U.S. at 261–62.

19. Ibid.

20. Robel, 389 U.S. at 262.

21. Robel, 389 U.S. at 263–64 (citations omitted), emphasis added.

22. Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214, 219–20 (1944).

23. United States v. O’Brien, 391 U.S. 367 (1968).

24. James M. McGoldrick Jr., “United States v. O’Brien Revisited: Of Burning Things, Waving Things, and G-Strings,” University of Memphis Law Review 36, no. 4 (2006): 903–4.

25. 50 U.S.C. §462(b)(6) (1966), knowing violation of any Selective Service regulation constitutes a violation of the Act.

26. Act of Aug. 30, 1965, Pub. L. No. 89–152, amending 50 U.S.C. App. §462(b)(3)(1964)(codified at 50 U.S.C. App. §462(b)(3)(Supp. I, 1966)).

27. “The Court assumed that O’Brien’s conduct qualified as speech, but said that, when speech was combined with conduct, “a sufficiently important governmental interest in regulating the non-speech element [could] justify incidental limitations on First Amendment freedoms.” McGoldrick, “United States v. O’Brien Revisited,” 905.

28. United States v. O’Brien, 391 U.S. at 383 (Warren, C.J.).

29. McGoldrick, “United States v. O’Brien Revisited,” 904.

30. Brandenburg v. Ohio (hereinafter cited as Brandenburg), 395 U.S. 444 (1969) (per curiam).

31. Brandenburg, 395 U.S. at 447–48.

32. Brandenburg, 395 U.S. at 444–45.

33. Ibid.

34. Brandenburg, 395 U.S. at 446.

35. Brandenburg, 395 U.S. at 447–48, 449.

36. Brandenburg, 395 U.S. at 448.

37. Stone, Perilous Times, 459.

38. Ibid., 460.

39. Ibid.

40. Ibid., 461.

41. Ibid., 462.

42. Memorandum from Alexander Butterfield, Deputy Assistant to the President, to Richard Nixon, President of the United States, 1969, “Game Plan for Post-Speech Activities—Second Post-Speech Up-dating . . . Covers Period Nov. 10–Dec. 31,” in Bruce Oudes, From: The President: Richard Nixon’s Secret Files (New York: Harper and Row, 1989), 65–69, reprinted.

43. James Madison, Federalist No. 51, Library of Congress, http://thomas.loc.gov/home/histdox/fed_51.html.

44. Protesters gathered to “convey the message that if the government did not end the war, it would face ‘social chaos.’ ” Stone, Perilous Times, 470.

45. “The Biggest Bust,” Newsweek, May 17, 1971, 24.

46. Garrett M. Graff, The Threat Matrix: The FBI at War in the Age of Global Terror (New York: Little, Brown, 2011), 63.

47. “In some instances the FBI’s actions were clearly authorized; in others, Hoover disobeyed direct orders to terminate his activities.” Stone, Perilous Times, 488; see also 487.

48. “[T]he anti-war, free-love student movements that sprang up in the shadow of Vietnam.” Graff, Threat Matrix, 63.

49. Five were domestic operations, and two focused on foreign intelligence. Graff, Threat Matrix, 63.

50. Ibid.

51. David Cunningham, “State versus Social Movement,” States, Parties, and Social Movements, ed. Jack A. Goldstone (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 48, 56–60; David Cunningham and John Noakes, “The Effects of Covert Forms of Social Control on Social Movements,” Sociology of Crime, Law and Deviance: Surveillance and Governance: Crime Control and Beyond, ed. Mathieu Deflem, vol. 10 (Bingley, UK: Emerald Group, 2008), 184–85.

52. Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, bk. 2, §I.C.7.

53. Five were domestic operations, and two focused on foreign intelligence. Graff, Threat Matrix, 63.

54. Stone, Perilous Times, 490.

55. “What Is the FBI Up To?” Washington Post, March 25, 1971.

56. Stone, Perilous Times, 497.

57. Anthony Lewis cited in Inside the Pentagon Papers, ed. John Prados and Margaret Pratt Porter (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004), 2–3.

58. “He later explained that his [the secretary’s] objective in ordering the report was to bequeath to scholars the raw material from which they could reexamine the events of the time.” Stone, Perilous Times, 490.

59. David Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest (New York: Random House, 1972), 408–14.

60. Stone, Perilous Times, 500.

61. Senator Gravel ed., The Pentagon Papers: The Defense Department History of United States Decisionmaking on Vietnam (Boston: Beacon, 1971), xi–xii.

62. Stone, Perilous Times, 502.

63. “Were the papers for real? Was it worth the effort to review thousands of pages of material that might have nothing new in them? Was it ‘right’ for the Times to publish material that had been ‘stolen’ from the government?” Stone, Perilous Times, 503.

64. United States v. New York Times Co., 328 F. Supp 324, 325 (SDNY 1971).

65. Louis Henkin, “The Right to Know and the Duty to Withhold: The Case of the Pentagon Papers,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 120, no. 2 (1971): 273.

66. Ibid.

67. Louis D. Brandeis, “What Publicity Can Do,” Harper’s Weekly, December 20, 1913, http://3197d6d14b5f19f2f440-5e13d29c4c016cf96cbbfd197c579b45.r81.cf1 .rackcdn.com/collection/papers/1910/1913_12_20_What_Publicity_Ca.pdf.

68. Ibid., 10.

69. Daniel Ellsberg, Secrets: A Memoir of Vietnam and the Pentagon Papers (New York: Penguin, 2002), 400–401, emphasis added.

70. Stone, Perilous Times, 508.

71. New York Times Co. v. United States, 403 U.S. 713 (1971).

72. “The First Amendment protected the press so that it could bare the secrets of government and inform the people.” New York Times Co. v. United States, 403 U.S. 713 (1971) (Black, J.).

73. New York Times Co. v. United States, 403 U.S. 713.

74. “Trials: Practicing on Ellsberg,” Time, May 7, 1973, http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,907160,00.html.

75. Stone, Perilous Times, 515n362.

76. “The Watergate Story: Timeline,” Washington Post, April 24, 2007, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/watergate/timeline.html.

77. Ibid.

78. Non-Detention Act, Pub. L. 92–128, 85 Stat. 347 (1971) (codified at 18 U.S.C. §4001(a)).

79. Non-Detention Act, 85 Stat. at 347.

80. U.S. National Archives, “Statistical Information about Fatal Casualties of the Vietnam War, Military Records,” http://www.archives.gov/research/military/vietnam-war/casualty-statistics.html.

81. “[W]as the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which authorized the use of military force in Southeast Asia, sufficient to constitute a declaration of war for the Vietnam War?” Erwin Chemerinsky, Constitutional Law: Principles and Policies, 4th ed. (New York: Aspen Publishers, 2011), 382.

82. War Powers Resolution of 1973, 50 U.S.C. 1541–1548 (2012); “Although it is called ‘The War Powers Resolution,’ it is a properly adopted federal statute,” Chemerinsky, Constitutional Law, 291n22, 382.

83. “Comment: Congressional Control of Presidential Warmaking Under the War Powers Act,” 1218.

84. War Powers Resolution, 50 U.S.C. §1544(c).

85. Chemerinsky, Constitutional Law, 291.

86. War Powers Resolution, 50 U.S.C. §1544(b); Chemerinsky, Constitutional Law, 291.

87. War Powers Resolution, 50 U.S.C. §1544(b).

88. Morrison v. Olson 487 U.S. 654 (1988).

89. “The Act, taken as a whole, does not violate the principle of separation of powers by unduly interfering with the Executive Branch’s role. This case does not involve an attempt by Congress to increase its own powers at the expense of the Executive Branch.” Morrison v. Olson 487 U.S. 654 (1988).

90. Saikrishna Prakash, “Unleashing the Dogs of War: What the Constitution Means by ‘Declare War,’ ” Cornell Law Review 93, no. 1 (2007): 51; “Comment: Congressional Control of Presidential Warmaking Under the War Powers Act.”

91. U.S. Const. arts. I, II.

92. Bill Moyers, “The Church Committee and FISA,” PBS.org, October 26, 2007, http://www.pbs.org/moyers/journal/10262007/profile2.html.

93. Ibid.

94. “Since Franklin Roosevelt, Presidents had asserted their ‘inherent authority’ to authorize wiretaps and other surveillance for national security purposes.” Peter P. Swire, “The System of Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Law,” Working Paper no. 18, Public Law and Legal Theory Series, Center for Law, Policy and Social Science (Ohio State University Moritz College of Law, 2007), 3.

95. Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978, 50 U.S.C. §§1801–11.

96. Swire, “The System of Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Law,” 3.

97. A “United States person” is anyone who is a citizen, a lawfully admitted permanent alien resident, or a corporation incorporated in the United States. Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978, 50 U.S.C. §1801(a)(1)-(3).

98. Rick Perlstein, “The NSA Doppleganger,” Nation (blog), June 7, 2013, http://www.thenation.com/blog/174722/nsa-doppelganger#; see Swire, “The System of Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Law.”

99. Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978, 50 U.S.C. §1801.

Chapter 10

1. 1920–28, Redline Agreement.

2. Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement of 1944; Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power (2012), 384.

3. Saeed Kamali Dehghan and Richard Norton-Taylor, “CIA Admits Role in 1953 Iranian Coup,” Guardian (UK), August 19, 2013, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/aug/19/cia-admits-role-1953-iranian-coup.

4. Alexander L. George and Richard Smoke, Deterrence in American Foreign Policy: Theory and Practice (New York: Columbia University Press, 1974), 313n8.

5. “The Iranian Hostage Crisis,” PBS.org, 2002, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/carter-hostage-crisis/.

6. The Soviets began to send the Soviet Army into Afghanistan in 1979 and pursued occupying the country to install themselves in a key Asian location. “The Soviet Occupation of Afghanistan,” PBS.org, October 10, 2006, http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/asia/july-dec06/soviet_10-10.html.

7. Michael Moran, “Bin Laden Comes Home to Roost: His CIA Ties Are Only the Beginning of a Woeful Story,” NBC News, August 24, 1998, http://www.nbcnews.com/id/3340101/#.UtGFQZTk9cR.

8. Richard Miniter, Losing Bin Laden: How Bill Clinton’s Failures Unleashed Global Terror (Washington, DC: Regnery, 2003), 9.

9. Ibid., 9–10.

10. Ibid.

11. Andy Newman and Daryl Khan, “Brooklyn Mosque Becomes Terror Icon, but Federal Case Is Unclear,” New York Times, March 9, 2003, http://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/09/nyregion/brooklyn-mosque-becomes-terror-icon-but-federal-case-is-unclear.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm.

12. David G. Fivecoat, “Leaving the Graveyard: The Soviet Union’s Withdrawal from Afghanistan,” US Army Strategic Studies Institute, Summer 2012, 46–47, http://strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/parameters/Articles/2012summer/Fivecoat.pdf.

13. “Afghanistan and the Soviet Withdrawal, 1989: 20 Years Later,” George Washington University National Security Archive, February 15, 2009, http://www2 .gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB272/.

14. Bill Moyers, “Brief History of al Qaeda,” PBS.org, July 27, 2007, https://www.pbs.org/moyers/journal/07272007/alqaeda.html.

15. Ibid.

16. U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, “The First Gulf War,” http://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/short-history/firstgulf.

17. “A Chronology: The House of Saud,” PBS Frontline, August 1, 2005, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/saud/cron/.

18. “Origins of the Bin Laden Family,” PBS Frontline, April 1999, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/who/family.html.

19. U.S. Const. art. II, §1, cl. 8.

20. Miniter, Losing Bin Laden, xvi–xviii, 4; Byron York, “The Facts About Clinton and Terrorism,” National Review Online, September 11, 2006, http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/218683/facts-about-clinton-and-terrorism/byron-york.

21. Dick Morris, Behind the Oval Office: Winning the Presidency in the Nineties, 1st ed. (New York: Random House, 1997), 308; ibid., 305–8; York, “The Facts About Clinton and Terrorism.”

22. Compare Miniter, Losing Bin Laden, xvi–xviii, 4, and York, “The Facts About Clinton and Terrorism,” against Richard Sale, Clinton’s Secret Wars: The Evolution of a Commander in Chief (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2009), 308–9, providing a more lukewarm, albeit still critical view of Clinton’s response to terrorism.

23. See generally Osama bin Laden et al., “Al-Qaeda’s Second Fatwa,” PBS Newshour, 1998, http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/military/jan-june98/fatwa_1998.html; Osama Bin Laden, “Declaration of War Against the Americans Occupying the Land of Two Holy Places,” 1996 (hereinafter cited as Bin Laden 1996), http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/military/july-dec96/fatwa_1996.html.

24. Laurie Mylroie, Study of Revenge: The First World Trade Center Attack and Saddam Hussein’s War Against America (La Vergne, TN: AEI Press, 2001), 45.

25. Sale, Clinton’s Secret Wars, 282, 288; Verbatim Transcript of Combatant Status Review Tribunal Hearing for ISN 10024 (2007), 18, http://intelfiles.egoplex.com/ksm-transcript.pdf. A deeper investigation would have revealed strong “ties to al-Qaeda,” as a later New York Times report would. Craig Pyes et al., “One Man and a Global Web of Violence,” New York Times, January 14, 2001, http://www.nytimes.com/2001/01/14/world/one-man-and-a-global-web-of-violence.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm; York, “The Facts About Clinton and Terrorism.”

26. York, “The Facts About Clinton and Terrorism.”

27. United States v. Rahman, 189 F.3d 88, 111 (2d Cir. 1999) (per curiam), cert. denied, 528 U.S. 1094 (2000).

28. Sale, Clinton’s Secret Wars, 282, 288.

29. United States v. Rahman, 189 F.3d 88, 111 (2d Cir. 1999) (per curiam), cert. denied, 528 U.S. 1094 (2000); Nosair is an Egyptian-born U.S. citizen, Steven Emerson, “Osama Bin Laden’s Special Operations Man,” Journal of Counterterrorism and Security International, September 1, 1998, http://www.investigativeproject.org/187/osama-bin-ladens-special-operations-man.

30. United States v. Rahman, 189 F.3d 88, 149–161 (2d Cir. 1999) (per curiam), cert. denied, 528 U.S. 1094 (2000); accord United States v. Augustin, 661 F.3d 1105 (11th Cir. 2011), cert. denied, 132 S. Ct. 2444 (2012); United States v. Awadallah, 349 F.3d 42, 59 (2d Cir. 2003), cert. denied, Awadallah v. United Stated, 543 U.S. 1056 (2005); United States v. Rodriguez, 803 F.2d 318 (7th Cir. 1986), cert. denied, 480 U.S. 908 (1987); Randal John Meyer, “The Twin Perils of the al-Aulaqi Case: The Treason Clause and the Equal Protection Clause,” Brooklyn Law Review 79, no. 1 (2013): 230 n10, 265–69, discussing the circuit court’s conclusions about the treason defense asserted by citizens and collecting cases.

31. United States v. Rahman, 189 F.3d 88, 112 (2d Cir. 1999) (per curiam), cert. denied, 528 U.S. 1094 (2000).

32. United States v. Rahman, 189 F.3d 88, 113 (2d Cir. 1999) (per curiam) (citing Ex parte Quirin, 317 U.S. 1, 37–8 (1942)), cert. denied, 528 U.S. 1094 (2000).

33. Presidential Decision Directive 39: U.S. Policy on Counterterrorism (20631), at 4, (June 21, 1995), http://www.clintonlibrary.gov/_previous/Documents/2010%20FOIA/Presidential%20Directives/PDD-39.pdf; Sale, Clinton’s Secret Wars, 288.

34. Sale, Clinton’s Secret Wars, 288.

35. Compare Bill Roggio, “Former Taliban Defense Minister Dies in Pakistani Custody,” Long War Journal, February 13, 2012, http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2012/02/former_taliban_defen.php; Daniel Eisenberg, “Secrets of Brigade 055,” Time, October 28, 2001, http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,181591,00.html.

36. Eisenberg, “Secrets of Brigade 055.”

37. Roggio, “Former Taliban Defense Minister Dies in Pakistani Custody.”

38. Jay S. Bybee, Memorandum for Alberto R. Gonzales . . . and William J. Haynes II . . . Re: Application of Treaties and Laws to al Qaeda and Taliban Detainees (2002), 19.

39. Ibid.

40. Bin Laden 1996.

41. Sale, Clinton’s Secret Wars, 229.

42. York, “The Facts About Clinton and Terrorism.”

43. Ibid.

44. Ibid.; Elsa Walsh, “Louis Freeh’s Last Case,” New Yorker, May 14, 2001, http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2001/05/14/010514fa_fact_walsh?currentPage=all.

45. Sale, Clinton’s Secret Wars, 233–34; Walsh, “Louis Freeh’s Last Case.”

46. Sale, Clinton’s Secret Wars, 233, 236; Walsh, “Louis Freeh’s Last Case.”

47. Sale, Clinton’s Secret Wars, 235.

48. York, “The Facts About Clinton and Terrorism.”

49. Louis Freeh, My FBI (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2005), 31–32; York, “The Facts About Clinton and Terrorism”; Walsh, “Louis Freeh’s Last Case.”

50. York, “The Facts About Clinton and Terrorism”; Walsh, “Louis Freeh’s Last Case.”

51. Sale, Clinton’s Secret Wars, 295; Henry Munson, “Lifting the Veil,” Harvard International Review, May 6, 2006, http://hir.harvard.edu/religion/lifting-the-veil?page=0,1.

52. York, “The Facts About Clinton and Terrorism.”

53. Sale, Clinton’s Secret Wars, 298–300.

54. York, “The Facts About Clinton and Terrorism”; Miniter, Losing Bin Laden, 182.

55. Sale, Clinton’s Secret Wars, 300, stating that Clinton pressed military action despite “[his] problem.”

56. Ibid., 300–302; Miniter, Losing Bin Laden, 182–86; York, “The Facts About Clinton and Terrorism.”

57. Miniter, Losing Bin Laden, 183.

58. Ibid., 183–85.

59. Sale, Clinton’s Secret Wars, 301; York, “The Facts About Clinton and Terrorism.”

60. John F. Harris, “President Freezes Bin Laden’s Assets,” Washington Post, August 23, 1998, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/eafricabombing/stories/strikes082398.htm.

61. Sale, Clinton’s Secret Wars, 306.

62. Oriana Zill, “The U.S. Embassy Bombings Trial—A Summary,” PBS Frontline, April 1999, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/bombings/bombings.html.

63. In re Terrorist Bombings of U.S. Embassies in East Africa, 552 F.3d 157 (2d Cir. 2008), aff’g United States v. Bin Laden, 126 F. Supp. 2d 264 (S.D.N.Y. 2000), cert denied, 558 U.S.1137 (2010).

64. Miniter, Losing Bin Laden, 216–17; York, “The Facts About Clinton and Terrorism.”

65. Miniter, Losing Bin Laden, 217–18.

66. Ibid., 221.

67. Cited in York, “The Facts About Clinton and Terrorism.”

68. York, “The Facts About Clinton and Terrorism.”

69. Miniter, Losing Bin Laden, 219–21; York, “The Facts About Clinton and Terrorism.”

70. Bob Woodward, Bush at War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002), 39.

71. Jane Mayer, The Dark Side: The Inside Story of How the War on Terror Turned into a War on American Ideals (New York: Anchor Books, 2009), 6.

72. Sidney Blumenthal, “Bush’s Brand New Enemy Is the Truth,” Guardian (UK), March 25, 2004, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/mar/25/usa.september11.

73. Charles Perrow, “The Disaster After 9/11: The Department of Homeland Security and the Intelligence Reorganization,” Journal of Homeland Security Affairs 2, no. 1 (2006), http://www.hsaj.org/?fullarticle=2.1.3.

74. Ralph Lopez, “Bush-Cheney Began Illegal NSA Spying Before 9/11, Says Telcom CEO,” Digital Journal, June 17, 2013, http://digitaljournal.com/article/352455#ixzz2b0vepcjB. The former Qwest CEO Joseph Nacchio was indicted and convicted for nineteen counts of securities fraud when he refused to cooperate with the Bush administration. This is discussed later on in this book.

Chapter 11

1. Carolee Walker, “Five-Year 9/11 Remembrance Honors Victims from 90 Countries: Nations United Will Win War on Terror, Officials Say,” America.gov, September 11, 2006, http://iipdigital.usembassy.gov/st/english/article/2006/09/20060911141954bcreklaw0.9791071.html#axzz32aNJP4At.

2. Jess Bravin, The Terror Courts: Rough Justice At Guantanamo Bay (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013), 218.

3. Jane Mayer, The Dark Side: The Inside Story of How the War on Terror Turned into a War on American Ideals (New York: Anchor Books, 2009), 6, 11.

4. See chapter 10, discussing the Clinton administration.

5. Jeremy Scahill, Dirty Wars: The World Is a Battlefield (New York: Nation Books, 2013), 15–16.

6. U.S. Department of State, Document 9: Cable, Deputy Secretary Armitage-Mamoud Phone Call—September 18, 2001, 4, 1–42 (hereinafter cited as State Department Document 9), http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB358a/doc09.pdf.

7. For a description of the imperial presidency, see generally Steven G. Calabresi and Christopher S. Yoo, The Unitary Executive: Presidential Power from Washington to Bush (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 2008); Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Imperial Presidency (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1973); Steven G. Calabresi and Christopher S. Yoo, “The Unitary Executive During the First Half-Century,” Case Western Reserve Law Review 47, no. 4 (1997); John C. Yoo, “The Continuation of Politics by Other Means: The Original Understanding of War Powers,” California Law Review 84, no. 2 (1996), http://www.bard.edu/civicengagement/usfp/resources/index.php?action=getfile&id=3029367.

8. State Department Document 9.

9. Authorization for Use of Military Force (hereinafter cited as AUMF I), Pub. L. 107–40, 115 Stat. 224–25 (2001).

10. AUMF I, 115 Stat. 224–25.

11. “The Taliban Clerics’ Statements on Bin Laden,” Guardian (UK), September 20, 2001, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/sep/20/afghanistan.september115.

12. “President Bush Addresses the Nation,” Washington Post, September 20, 2001, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/specials/attacked/transcripts/bushaddress_092001.html.

13. John F. Burns, “A Nation Challenged: The Taliban; Clerics Answer ‘No, No, No!’ and Invoke Fates of Past Foes,” New York Times, September 22, 2001, http://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/22/world/nation-challenged-taliban-clerics-answer-no-no-no-invoke-fates-past-foes.html.

14. Burns, “A Nation Challenged.”

15. “Taliban ‘Will Try Bin Laden if US Provides Evidence,’ ” Guardian (UK), October 5, 2001, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/oct/05/afghanistan.terrorism.

16. Dudley Althaus, “Pakistan Satisfied with U.S. Evidence Against Bin Laden,” Cape Cod Times, October 5, 2001, http://www.capecodonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20011005/NEWS01/310059920&cid=sitesearch.

17. Mayer, Dark Side, 15.

18. Defs. Ex. 941, “Substitution for the Testimony of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed,” United States v. Zacarias Moussaoui, No. 01-455-A (E.D. Va., July 31, 2006), perm. app. denied, 591 F.3d 263 (4th Cir. 2010).

19. Nic Robertson and Kelly Wallace, “U.S. Rejects Taliban Offer to Try Bin Laden,” CNN, October 7, 2001, http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/10/07/ret.us.taliban/.

20. Ibid.

21. “Bush Rejects Taliban Offer to Hand Bin Laden Over,” Guardian (UK), October 14, 2001, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/oct/14/afghanistan.terrorism5.

22. Ibid.

23. Rory McCarthy, “New Offer on Bin Laden,” Guardian (UK), October 16, 2001, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/oct/17/afghanistan.terrorism11.

24. Ibid.

25. Associated Press, “The War in Afghanistan: A Timeline,” CBS News, December 1, 2009, http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-501704_162-5850224.html.

26. “The CIA and Special Forces campaign in Afghanistan was, in the beginning, a rout.” Scahill, Dirty Wars, 15; Azam Ahmed, “As Afghan Pullout Nears, Civilian Casualties Rise,” New York Times, July 31, 2013; Associated Press, “The War in Afghanistan.”

27. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 447–49, 451, describing bin Laden being shot while unarmed and without ammunition.

28. Azam Ahmed and Habib Zahori, “Despite West’s Efforts, Afghan Youths Cling to Traditional Ways,” New York Times, July 31, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/01/world/asia/despite-wests-efforts-afghan-youths-cling-to-traditional-ways.html.

29. Contra, e.g., United States v. Gurrola-Garcia, 547 F.2d 1075, 1079 (9th Cir. 1976) (“the principle that Congress may delegate broad authority to the President in foreign affairs is clearly controlling law today”); Mottola v. Nixon, 464 F.2d 178, 179, 184 (9th Cir. 1972) (directing the district court to dismiss a complaint where the petitioners “allege that the Executive has acted unconstitutionally in committing American combat forces to Cambodia since Congress has not declared war against Cambodia under Article I, Section 8(11) of the United States Constitution.”), rev’g 318 F. Supp. 538 (N.D. Ca. 1970).

30. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 14.

31. Ibid., 14–15.

32. Ibid., 28.

33. Ibid., 28–29.

34. Ibid., 15, 81–84.

35. Ibid., 29.

36. Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 2002, Pub. L. 107–243, 116 Stat. 1498–1502 (October 16, 2002); H. J. Res. 114, 148 Cong. Rec. 18962 (October 2, 2002).

37. H. J. Res. 114, 148 Cong. Rec. 20277, 22490 (October 10–11, 2002).

38. U.N. SCOR, 58th Sess., 4707th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/PV.4707 (Feb 14. 2003); “Hans Blix’s Briefing to the Security Council,” February 14, 2003, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/feb/14/iraq.unitednations1; “President Bush Addresses the Nation,” White House.gov, March 19, 2003, http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/03/20030319-17.html.

39. “Iraq War: 190,000 lives, $2.2 Trillion,” Brown University Watson Inst. for International Studies, March 14, 2013, http://news.brown.edu/pressreleases/2013/03/warcosts; David Brown, “Study Claims Iraq’s ‘Excess’ Death Toll Has Reached 655,000,” Washington Post, October 11, 2006, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/10/AR2006101001442_2.html; Associated Press, “Last U.S. Troops Leave Iraq, Ending War,” USA Today, December 18, 2011, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/story/2011-12-17/iraq-us-troops/52032854/1?csp=ip.

40. Ralph Lopez, “Bush-Cheney Began Illegal NSA Spying Before 9/11, Says Telcom CEO,” Digital Journal, June 17, 2013, http://digitaljournal.com/article/352455#ixzz2b0vepcjB; Shane Harris, “NSA Sought Data Before 9/11,” National Journal, November 2, 2007, http://news.nationaljournal.com/articles/071102nj1.htm; Shane Harris and Tim Naftali, “Tinker, Tailor, Miner, Spy: Why the NSA’s Snooping Is Unprecedented in Scale and Scope,” Slate, January 3, 2006, http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/politics/2006/01/tinker_tailor_miner_spy.html.

41. National Security Agency, Office of the Inspector General, “Review of the President’s Surveillance Program,” March 24, 2009 (hereinafter cited as NSA OIG Report 2009), 3, http://www.theguardian.com/world/interactive/2013/jun/27/nsa-inspector-general-report-document-data-collection.

42. Ibid., 3.

43. Ibid., 4; Garrett M. Graff, The Threat Matrix: The FBI at War in the Age of Global Terror (New York: Little, Brown, 2011), 483.

44. Ibid.

45. Graff, Threat Matrix, 483–84.

46. Ibid., 483.

47. Ibid.

48. NSA OIG Report 2009, 7; Graff, Threat Matrix, 483.

49. NSA OIG Report 2009, 7; Graff, Threat Matrix, 483–84.

50. Graff, Threat Matrix, 484.

51. Ibid.

52. NSA OIG Report 2009, 7–8.

53. “Timeline of NSA Domestic Spying,” Electronic Frontier Foundation (hereinafter cited as EFF, “Timeline”), https://www.eff.org/nsa-spying/timeline.

54. Harris and Naftali, “Tinker, Tailor, Miner, Spy.”

55. NSA OIG Report 2009, 11.

56. EFF, “Timeline.”

57. Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001, Pub. L. 107–56, 115 Stat. 272 (2001) (codified at scattered sections of 8, 18, 22, 31, 42, 49, and 50 U.S.C.). Including private law sessions, the PATRIOT Act is codified at and touches upon fifteen titles of the U.S.C.A. See P. L.107–56, Table 2, Statutes at Large, U.S.C.A. (2013).

58. “USA Patriot Act,” Electronic Privacy Information Center (hereinafter cited as EPIC, “PATRIOT Act”), http://epic.org/privacy/terrorism/usapatriot/.

59. EPIC, “PATRIOT Act.”

60. See notes 32 and 33 and accompanying text, discussing the 1937 congressional rejection of an attempt to create a special HUAC and the 1938 creation of one when war hysteria neared; see chapter 8, discussing the 1950 Congress.

61. PATRIOT Act, title VIII, §805, 115 Stat. at 377–78.

62. PATRIOT Act, §201, 115 Stat. at 278.

63. EPIC, “PATRIOT Act.”

64. See note 57.

65. PATRIOT Act, §206, 115 Stat. at 282.

66. EPIC, “PATRIOT Act.”

67. U.S. Const. amend IV.

68. “The ‘generic’ roving wiretap orders raise significant constitutional issues, as they do not comport with the Fourth Amendment’s requirement that any search warrant ‘particularly describe the place to be searched.’ ” EPIC, “PATRIOT Act.”

69. EPIC, “PATRIOT Act.”

70. Ibid.

71. PATRIOT Act, §206, 115 Stat. at 282; EPIC, “PATRIOT Act.”

72. PATRIOT Act, §210, 115 Stat. at 283; EPIC, “PATRIOT Act.”

73. PATRIOT Act, §§204, 209, 115 Stat. at 281, 283; EPIC, “PATRIOT Act.”

74. PATRIOT Act, §213, 115 Stat. at 285–86, emphasis added.

75. PATRIOT Act, §213, 115 Stat. at 285–86.

76. PATRIOT Act, §214, 115 Stat. at 286–87; EPIC, “PATRIOT Act.”

77. PATRIOT Act, §216, 115 Stat. at 290.

78. EPIC, “PATRIOT Act”; see PATRIOT Act, §215, 115 Stat. at 287–88 (codified at 50 U.S.C. §1861).

79. PATRIOT Act, §218, 115 Stat. at 291.

80. PATRIOT ACT, title. V, §505, 115 Stat. 272, 365 (2001) (codified at 18 U.S.C. § 2709 (2013)); Doe v. Ashcroft, 334 F. Supp. 2d 471, 483 & n40 (S.D.N.Y. 2004), vacated by Doe v. Gonzalez, 449 F.3d 415 (2d Cir. 2006).

81. Encyclopedia Britannica Online, s.v. “Writ of Assistance,” http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/39372/writ-of-assistance.

82. PATRIOT Act, title VIII, §805, 115 Stat. at 377–78 (codified at 18 U.S.C. §2339A).

83. PATRIOT Act, 18 U.S.C. §2339A (2012).

84. Ibid.

85. Ibid.

86. PATRIOT Sunsets Extension Act of 2011, Pub. L. 112–14, 126 Stat. 216 (May 26, 2011) (codified at 50 U.S.C. §§1805, 1861, 1862), extending the PATRIOT Act to June 1, 2015.

87. John Markoff, “Pentagon Plans a Computer System That Would Peek at Personal Data of Americans,” New York Times, November 9, 2002, http://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/09/politics/09COMP.html.

88. William Safire, “You Are a Suspect,” New York Times, November 14, 2002, http://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/14/opinion/you-are-a-suspect.html.

89. Markoff, “Pentagon Plans a Computer System.”

90. Ibid. Many of these speeches are available on the Internet. See, e.g., John Poindexter, Director, Information Awareness Office, Remarks (DARPATech 2002 Conference, Anaheim, CA, August 2, 2002), http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/dod/poindexter.html.

91. Mark Williams, “The Total Information Awareness Project Lives On,” MIT Technology Review, April 26, 2006, http://www.technologyreview.com/news/405707/the-total-information-awareness-project-lives-on/.

92. Safire, “You Are a Suspect.”

93. Williams, “The Total Information Awareness Project Lives On,” emphasis in original.

94. Hendrik Hertzberg, “Too Much Information,” New Yorker, December 9, 2002, http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2002/12/09/021209ta_talk_hertzberg.

95. Graff, Threat Matrix, 484.

96. Ibid., 485.

97. Ibid.

98. Ibid., 484. This particular abuse of executive power is discussed further in this chapter.

99. Ibid., 485.

100. Ibid.

101. Ibid., 486.

102. Ibid.

103. Ibid.

104. Ibid., 486–89, 492–93.

105. Ibid., 489.

106. Ibid., 484–88.

107. Ibid., 487–88.

108. Ibid.

109. Ibid., 488.

110. Ibid.

111. Ibid.

112. Ibid., 489.

113. Ibid., 490.

114. Ibid., 489.

115. Ibid., 490.

116. Ibid., 490–92.

117. Ibid., 490, 492–93.

118. Ibid., 492.

119. Ibid.

120. Ibid.

121. Ibid.

122. Ibid.

123. Ibid., 492–93.

124. Ibid., 493.

125. James Risen and Eric Lichtblau, “Bush Secretly Lifted Some Limits on Spying in U.S. After 9/11, Officials Say,” New York Times, December 15, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/15/politics/15cnd-program.html?pagewanted=1&_r=0&ei=5088&en=46373698e4101aca&ex=1292302800&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss.

126. Scott Shane, “Former Phone Chief Says Spy Agency Sought Surveillance Help Before 9/11,” New York Times, October 14, 2007, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/14/business/14qwest.html?pagewanted=print&_r=0.

127. Section 5 CIPA Submission on Behalf of Defendant (Redacted), United States v. Nacchio, No. 05-CR-00545, 2006 WL 3292818, at *8 (D. Colo. November 13, 2006).

128. Section 5 CIPA Submission on Behalf of Defendant (Redacted), United States v. Nacchio, No. 05-CR-00545, 2006 WL 3292818, at *8–9 (D. Colo. November 13, 2006).

129. Section 5 CIPA Submission on Behalf of Defendant (Redacted), United States v. Nacchio, No. 05-CR-00545, 2006 WL 3292818, at *1–2, 8–9 (D. Colo. November 13, 2006).

130. Katherine Thompson, “Ex-Qwest CEO Claims Spy Effort Began Before 9/11,” Newser, October 13, 2007, http://www.newser.com/story/9419/ex-qwest-ceo-claims-spy-effort-began-before-911.html; Shane, “Former Phone Chief Says Spy Agency Sought Surveillance Help Before 9/11.”

131. “Nacchio was convicted of illegal insider trading in 2007 for selling $52 million in Qwest stock in 2001 on the basis of nonpublic information about the Denver company’s deteriorating finances. He has contended that he had a bright outlook on the company at the time of the stock sales.” Andy Vuong, “Former Qwest CEO Joe Nacchio Completes His Prison Sentence,” Denver Post, September 21, 2013, http://blogs.denverpost.com/techknowbytes/2013/09/21/former-qwest-ceo-joe-nacchio-completes-his-prison-sentence/11484/.

132. Ibid.

133. Ibid.

134. American Academy of Religion v. Chertoff (hereinafter cited as American Academy of Religion I), 463 F. Supp. 2d 400 (S.D.N.Y. 2006) (Crotty, J.), ordering the government to issue a final ruling on Tariq Ramadan’s visa; Susan Herman, Taking Liberties: The War on Terror and the Erosion of American Democracy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 9.

135. American Academy of Religion I, 463 F. Supp. 2d 404; accord American Academy of Religion (hereinafter cited as American Academy of Religion II), No. 06 CV 588, 2007 WL 4527504, at *1 (S.D.N.Y. December 20, 2007) (Crotty, J.).

136. American Academy of Religion I, 463 F. Supp. 2d 404.

137. American Academy of Religion I, 463 F. Supp. 2d 404–05.

138. American Academy of Religion I, 463 F. Supp. 2d 406.

139. American Academy of Religion I, 463 F. Supp. 2d 406 & n10.

140. American Academy of Religion I, 463 F. Supp. 2d 406–08.

141. American Academy of Religion I, 463 F. Supp. 2d 408 (quoting Govt’s Mem. Opp’n Mot’n Prelim. Inj. 7–8).

142. American Academy of Religion I, 463 F. Supp. 2d 407.

143. American Academy of Religion I, 463 F. Supp. 2d 407 (quoting Decl. of Christopher K. Derrick, Apr. 24, 2006 5.).

144. American Academy of Religion I, 463 F. Supp. 2d 422–23.

145. American Academy of Religion I, 463 F. Supp. 2d 422.

146. American Academy of Religion II, No. 06 CV 588, 2007 WL 4527504 (S.D.N.Y. December 20, 2007) (Crotty, J.)

147. American Academy of Religion II, 2007 WL 4527504, at *1.

148. Ibid.

149. American Academy of Religion II, 2007 WL 4527504, at *15.

150. American Academy of Religion v. Napolitano (hereinafter cited as American Academy of Religion III), 573 F.3d 115, 137–38 (2d Cir. 2009) (Newman, J.).

151. American Academy of Religion III, 573 F.3d at 137–38.

152. Ibid.

153. Herman, Taking Liberties, 9.

154. Humanitarian Law Project et al. v. Ashcroft, 309 F. Supp. 2d 1185 (C.D. Cal. 2004), rev’d Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project, 561 U.S. 1, 130 S. Ct. 2705 (2010); Sean Moulton, “Court Rules Portion of Patriot Act Illegal,” Center for Effective Government, February 9, 2004, http://www.foreffectivegovorg/node/1834.

155. Humanitarian Law Project et al. v. Ashcroft, 309 F. Supp. 2d at 1204.

156. Humanitarian Law Project et al. v. Ashcroft, 309 F. Supp. 2d at 1188 (citing 62 Fed. Reg. 52, 649–51).

157. Humanitarian Law Project et al. v. Ashcroft, 309 F. Supp. 2d at 1188.

158. Ibid.

159. Humanitarian Law Project et al. v. Ashcroft, 309 F. Supp. 2d at 1188–89.

160. Humanitarian Law Project et al. v. Ashcroft, 309 F. Supp. 2d at 1190, 1193.

161. Humanitarian Law Project et al. v. Ashcroft, 309 F. Supp. 2d at 1198–99 (alterations in original) (quotations and citations omitted).

162. Humanitarian Law Project et al. v. Ashcroft, 309 F. Supp. 2d at 1200–01 (alterations in original) (quotations and citations omitted).

163. Doe v. Ashcroft (hereinafter cited as Doe I), 334 F. Supp. 2d 471, 526 (S.D.N.Y. 2004), vacated by Doe v. Gonzalez, 449 F.3d 415 (2d Cir. 2006).

164. Doe I, 334 F. Supp. 2d at 499.

165. Doe I, 334 F. Supp. 2d at 522.

166. Doe v. Gonzales (hereinafter cited as Doe II), 386 F. Supp. 2d 66 (D. Conn. 2005).

167. Doe II, 386 F. Supp. 2d at 83.

168. Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004, Pub. L. No. 108–458, 118 Stat. 3638 (December 17, 2004).

169. USA Patriot Improvement and Reauthorization Act of 2005, Pub. L. No. 109-177, 120 Stat. 192 (March 9, 2006).

170. Doe v. Gonzales (hereinafter cited as Doe III), 449 F.3d 415 (2d Cir. 2006), vacating as moot and remanding Doe I, 334 F. Supp. 2d 471 (S.D.N.Y. 2004).

171. Doe v. Gonzales (hereinafter cited as Doe IV), 500 F. Supp. 2d 379, 389 (S.D.N.Y. 2007), reversed in part by John Doe, Inc. v. Mukasey, 549 F.3d 861 (2d Cir. 2008).

172. Doe IV, 500 F. Supp. 2d at 389, 425.

173. John Doe, Inc. v. Mukasey (hereinafter cited as Doe V), 549 F.3d 861 (2d Cir. 2008).

174. Doe V, 549 F.3d at 885.

175. Mayfield v. United States (hereinafter cited as Mayfield I), 504 F. Supp. 2d 1023 (D. Oregon 2007), vacated and superseded 599 F.3d 964 (9th Cir. 2010), cert. denied 131 S. Ct. 503.

176. Mayfield I, 504 F. Supp. 2d at 1027.

177. Mayfield I, 504 F. Supp. 2d at 1026–27.

178. Mayfield I, 504 F. Supp. 2d at 1027–28.

179. Mayfield I, 504 F. Supp. 2d at 1028.

180. Ibid.

181. Mayfield I, 504 F. Supp. 2d at 1029.

182. Mayfield I, 504 F. Supp. 2d at 1028 (citation omitted).

183. Mayfield I, 504 F. Supp. 2d at 1029.

184. Ibid.

185. Ibid.

186. Ibid.

187. Ibid.

188. Mayfield I, 504 F. Supp. 2d at 1042–43, concluding that “that 50 U.S.C. §§1804 and 1823, as amended by the Patriot Act, are unconstitutional because they violate the Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution.”

189. Mayfield I, 504 F. Supp. 2d at 1036.

190. See 50 U.S.C. §§1804, 1823 (2012); Mayfield I, 504 F. Supp. at 1042–43.

191. Mayfield I, 504 F. Supp. 2d at 1042.

192. Mayfield v. United States (hereinafter cited as Mayfield II), 599 F.3d 964 (9th Cir. 2010), vacating and superseding 588 F.3d 1252 (9th Cir. 2009), cert. denied 131 S. Ct. 503 (2010).

193. Mayfield II, 599 F.3d at 966.

194. Exec. Order No. 12,958, 60 C.F.R. 19826 (1995), revoked by Exec. Order No. 13,292, 68 Fed. Reg. 15315 (2003).

195. John Podesta, Speech (National Press Club, October 22, 2002), http://web.archive.org/web/20060311232421/http://www.freedomofinfo.org/foi/podesta_transcript.pdf., emphasis in original.

196. Ibid.

197. Ibid.

198. Ibid.

199. Ibid.

200. Stinnett; see Edward S. Miller, Bankrupting the Enemy (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2007); Interview by Douglas Cirignano with Robert B. Stinnett, author of Day of Deceit: The Truth About FDR and Pearl Harbor, March 11, 2002, http://www.independent.org/newsroom/article.asp?id=408.

201. Interview by Douglas Cirignano.

202. Ibid.

203. Risen and Lichtblau, “Bush Secretly Lifted Some Limits on Spying in U.S. After 9/11, Officials Say.”

204. Exec. Order No. 13292, 68 Fed. Reg. 15315 (2003), revoked by Exec. Order No. 13526, 75 Fed. Reg. 13526 (2006).

205. General Order No. 38, Ohio Central History, http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/w/General_Order_No._38. But see Kevin R. Kosar, Security Classification Policy and Procedure: E.O. 12958, as Amended (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service, December 31, 2009), 5. Kosar’s report erroneously puts the date at 1869. This is an inconsequential difference in the historical narrative but should be indicated.

206. Exec. Order No. 8381, 5 Fed. Reg. 1147 (1940); Kosar, Security Classification Policy and Procedure.

207. Kosar, Security Classification Policy and Procedure, 5.

208. Ibid.

209. Ibid., 6.

210. Ibid., 10.

211. See chapter 5.

212. Donald M. Rumsfeld, DoD News Briefing—Secretary Rumsfeld and Gen. Myers at the Pentagon, February 12, 2002, www.defense.gov/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=2636.

213. “Q: You ever done it unilaterally? The Vice President: I don’t want to get into that. There is an executive order that specifies who has classification authority, and obviously focuses first and foremost on the President, but also includes the Vice President.” See “Interview of the Vice President by Brit Hume, Fox News,” at the vice president’s Ceremonial Office, Eisenhower Executive Office Building, February 15, 2006, http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/02/print/20060215-3.html.

214. Great Film Projects Co., “Yellow Journalism,” in the series “Crucible of Empire: The Spanish-American War,” PBS, 1999, http://www.pbs.org/crucible/frames/_journalism.html.

215. Risen and Lichtblau, “Bush Secretly Lifted Some Limits on Spying in U.S. After 9/11, Officials Say.”

216. Ibid.

217. Graff, Threat Matrix, 484–94, 493n.

218. Risen and Lichtblau, “Bush Secretly Lifted Some Limits on Spying in U.S. After 9/11, Officials Say.”

219. Ibid.

220. Eric Lichtblau, “The Education of a 9/11 Reporter: The Inside Drama Behind the Times’ Warrantless Wiretapping Story,” Slate, March 26, 2008, http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/politics/2008/03/the_education_of_a_911_reporter.html.

221. Most of these cases and events were just discussed, supra. The Supreme Court cases are discussed infra, chapter 12. For examples of other disadvantageous court decisions, see, e.g., Hepting v. AT&T Corp., No. C-06-672 VRW, 2006 WL 1581965 (N.D. Cal. June 6, 2006), ordering the government to give out documents despite the assertion of the States Secrets privilege; Dan Eggen and Dafna Linzer, “Judge Rules Against Wiretaps,” Washington Post, August 18, 2006, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2006/08/17/AR2006081700650.html; Byron York discussed the Cheney order in “The Little-Noticed Order That Gave Dick Cheney New Power,” National Review, February 16, 2006, http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/216820/little-noticed-order-gave-dick-cheney-new-power/byron-york.

222. Benjamin R. Farley, “Drones and Democracy: Missing Out on Accountability?” South Texas Law Review 54, no. 2 (2013): 396–401, describing the contours of “political accountability” and the effect of the vote on accountable leaders.

223. Offices of Inspectors General, “Unclassified Report on the President’s Surveillance Program,” Report No. 2009-0013-AS, V, at 30–31 July 10, 2009 (hereinafter cited as OIGs Unclass Report), www.fas.org/irp/eprint/psp.pdf.

224. OIGs Unclass Report, 30.

225. FISA Amendments Act of 2008, Pub. L. 110–261, 122 Stat. 2436 (2008); Protect America Act of 2007, Pub. L. 110–55, 121 Stat. 552 (2007).

226. Protect America Act of 2007, 121 Stat. at 552–53; “ACLU Fact Sheet on the ‘Police America Act,’ ” ACLU, August 7, 2007, https://www.aclu.org/national-security/aclu-fact-sheet-%E2%80%9Cpolice-america-act.

227. Protect America Act of 2007, 121 Stat. at 552–53.

228. Protect America Act of 2007, 121 Stat. at 555.

229. FISA Amendments Act of 2008, 122 Stat. at 2437.

230. FISA Amendments Act of 2008, title VII, §702 122 Stat. at 2441.

231. FISA Amendments Act of 2008, 122 Stat. title VII, §702, at 2438–2448.

232. Margot Kaminski, “PRISM’s Legal Basis: How We Got Here, and What We Can Do to Get Back,” Atlantic, June 7, 2013, http://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/06/prisms-legal-basis-how-we-got-here-and-what-we-can-do-to-get-back/276667/; Timothy B. Lee, “How Congress Unknowingly Legalized PRISM in 2007,” Washington Post WonkBlog (blog), June 6, 2013, http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/06/06/how-congress-unknowingly-legalized-prism-in-2007/.

233. “The American Civil Liberties Union filed a landmark lawsuit today. . . . The FISA Amendments Act of 2008, passed by Congress on Wednesday and signed by President Bush today, not only legalizes the secret warrantless surveillance program the president approved in late 2001, it gives the government new spying powers, including the power to conduct dragnet surveillance of Americans’ international communications.” ACLU, “ACLU Sues Over Unconstitutional Dragnet Wiretapping Law,” July 10, 2008, https://www.aclu.org/national-security/aclu-sues-over-unconstitutional-dragnet-wiretapping-law, referring to Clapper v. Amnesty Int’l.

Chapter 12

1. Richard Sale, Clinton’s Secret Wars: The Evolution of a Commander in Chief (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2009), 290.

2. Ibid.

3. Presidential Decision Directive 39: U.S. Policy on Counterterrorism (20631), at 4, (June 21, 1995), http://www.clintonlibrary.gov/_previous/Documents/2010%20FOIA/Presidential%20Directives/PDD-39.pdf; Jeremy Scahill, Dirty Wars: The World Is a Battlefield (New York: Nation Books, 2013), 26; Sale, Clinton’s Secret Wars, 288, 290.

4. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 27.

5. Sale, Clinton’s Secret Wars, 291.

6. Ibid., 292.

7. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 26, 28; Jess Bravin, The Terror Courts: Rough Justice at Guantanamo Bay (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013), 409–10n26, compare 230.

8. Foreign Affairs Reform and Restructuring Act of 1998, Pub. L. 105–277, 112 Stat. 2681–822–23, at §2242(a) (1998).

9. 144 Cong. Rec. 27404–05.

10. “It would also bring to surface how little regard the Bush White House had for anything vaguely resembling a law enforcement approach to the perpetrators of 9/11.” Scahill, Dirty Wars, 27–28, 29.

11. Ibid., 29.

12. Ibid.

13. Ibid.

14. Presidential Decision Directive 39: U.S. Policy on Counterterrorism (20631), at 1, (June 21, 1995), http://www.clintonlibrary.gov/_previous/Documents/2010%20FOIA/Presidential%20Directives/PDD-39.pdf.

15. Bravin, Terror Courts, 22, 25.

16. Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137 (1803) (Marshall, C.J.).

17. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 25.

18. Bravin, Terror Courts, 161.

19. Standards of Conduct for Interrogation under 18 U.S.C. §§2340–2340A.

20. 18 U.S.C. §§2340–2340A (2012) (the Torture Statute).

21. U.S. Const. amend. VIII.

22. 18 U.S.C. §2340(1) (2012).

23. 18 U.S.C. §2340(2) (2012).

24. Ibid.

25. “Magna Charta in 1215 had in fact outlawed torture, except by royal torture warrant.” “§2.9 Humanitarianism,” National CV of Britain, http://www.thenationalcv.org.uk/humanity.html.

26. Jay S. Bybee, Memorandum for Alberto R. Gonzales, Counsel to the President, Re: Standards of Conduct for Interrogation Under 18 U.S.C. §§2340–2340A (August 1, 2002) (hereinafter cited as Bybee Memo I), 1, emphasis added.

27. Ibid., 2, 31–39.

28. Pub. L. 102–256, 106 Stat. 73–74, (March 12, 1992), codified at 28 U.S.C § 1350); Bybee Memo I, 1, 22–27.

29. Bybee Memo I, 22; Elise Keppler, Shirley Jean, and J. Paxton Marshall, “First Prosecution in the United States for Torture Committed Abroad: The Trial of Charles ‘Chuckie’ Taylor, Jr.,” Human Rights Brief, Human Rights Watch, 2008, 18, http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/related_material/HRB_Chuckie_Taylor.pdf.

30. Bybee Memo I, 5.

31. Ibid., 5–6.

32. Ibid.

33. Ibid., 7–8.

34. Ibid., 7–8, 10–11.

35. Ibid., 24.

36. Ibid., 27–31.

37. Ibid., 47–50.

38. Ibid., 47–48.

39. William Saletan, “Rape Rooms: A Chronology,” Slate, May 5, 2004, http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/ballot_box/2004/05/rape_rooms_a_chronology.html (quoting President Bush).

40. Bybee Memo I, 39–46.

41. Jay S. Bybee, Memorandum for John Rizzo, Acting General Counsel of the Central Intelligence Agency Re: Interrogation of al Qaeda Operative, August 1, 2002 (hereinafter cited as Bybee Memo II), 1, 2.

42. Bybee Memo II, 3.

43. John Yoo to Alberto Gonzales, Attorney General, August 1, 2002, (on file with the Department of Justice), (hereinafter cited as Yoo Letter), http://www.justice.gov/olc/docs/memo-gonzales-aug1.pdf.

44. Ibid.

45. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 26.

46. “Mauritania Criminalizes Slavery,” CarnegieEndowment.org, September 18, 2007, http://carnegieendowment.org/2008/08/18/mauritania-criminalizes-slavery/6dcj.

47. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 58–59.

48. Ibid., 59.

49. Ibid.

50. Ibid., 81–82, 85, 93–101.

51. Ibid., 81–84, 93.

52. Ibid., 28–29, 85.

53. Ibid., 86, 91.

54. Ibid., 86–91; Bravin, Terror Courts, 85–87, 316.

55. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 86.

56. Ibid.

57. Ibid., 86–91.

58. Ibid., 89.

59. Ibid., 85.

60. Amrit Singh, Globalizing Torture: CIA Detention and Extraordinary Rendition New York: Open Society Foundations, 2013, 6, 9, 30–31, http://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/sites/default/files/globalizing-torture-20120205.pdf.

61. Ibid.

62. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 89–90; Bravin, Terror Courts, 101.

63. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 85.

64. Ibid., 90.

65. Ibid.

66. Ibid.

67. Ibid.

68. Ibid.

69. Ibid., 87.

70. Ibid., 85–86, 91, 146.

71. Ibid., 147, 152.

72. Bravin, Terror Courts, 101–2.

73. Ibid., 101; Vernon Loeb, “Planned Jan. 2000 Attacks Failed or Were Thwarted; Plot Targeted U.S., Jordan, American Warship, Official Says,” Washington Post, December 24, 2000, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/08/02/AR2007080201174.html.

74. Bravin, Terror Courts, 102.

75. Ibid., 294–96.

76. Ibid., 101–3; Compare ibid., 101–2, detailing transfer treatment, with Scahill, Dirty Wars, 89–90, quoting Int’l Comm. of the Red Cross, “ICRC Report on the Treatment of Fourteen ‘High-Value Detainees’ in CIA Custody” (2007); see n62 and accompanying text.

77. President George W. Bush, Memorandum: Humane Treatment of Taliban and al Qaeda Detainees para. 2.a, cd, at 12 (2002) (denying rights), http://www.pegc.us/archive/White_House/bush_memo_20020207_ed.pdf; see Bravin, Terror Courts, 101–2, detailing FBI treatment.

78. Bravin, Terror Courts, 103.

79. Ibid., 104–5.

80. Gartrell v. Ashcroft, 191 F. Supp. 2d 23 (D.D.C. 2002), applying strict scrutiny to sincerely held religious beliefs under the Religious Freedom Restoration Act.

81. Bravin, Terror Courts, 257.

82. Ibid.

83. Ibid., 268.

84. Ibid., 268–69.

85. Ibid., 269.

86. Ibid., 155–56.

87. Tim Golden, “In U.S. Report, Brutal Details of 2 Afghan Inmates’ Deaths,” New York Times, May 20, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/20/international/asia/20abuse.html?ex=1274241600&en=4579c146cb14cfd6&ei=5088.

88. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 155.

89. For example, Scahill, Dirty Wars, 155.

90. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 152.

91. Mark Benjamin, “Taguba Denies He’s Seen Abuse Photos Suppressed by Obama,” Salon, May 30, 2009, http://www.salon.com/2009/05/30/taguba_2/; Seymour M. Hersh, “The General’s Report,” New Yorker, June 25, 2007, http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/06/25/070625fa_fact_hersh?printable=true.

92. “The Senate Armed Services Committee report on detainee abuse, made public in December 2008, traces the Abu Ghraib abuse in late 2003 to Rumsfeld’s December 2002 authorization and subsequent policies and plans.” Alliance for Justice, “Accountability for Torture: Torture Timeline,” www.afj.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/torture_timeline.pdf.

93. Bravin, Terror Courts, 403n7.

94. Seymour M. Hersh, “Torture at Abu Ghraib,” New Yorker, May 10, 2004, http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2004/05/10/040510fa_fact?currentPage=all.

95. Jeffrey Rosen, “Conscience of a Conservative,” New York Times, September 9, 2007, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/09/magazine/09rosen.html?_r=0&pagewanted=all.

96. Ibid.

97. Jack Goldsmith, The Terror Presidency: Law and Judgment Inside the Bush Administration (New York: W. W. Norton, 2007), 148–51.

98. Rosen, “Conscience of a Conservative.”

99. Ibid.

100. Goldsmith, Terror Presidency, 161; Rosen, “Conscience of a Conservative.”

101. US Department of Justice, “Legal Standards Applicable under 18 U.S.C. §§2340–2340A,” December 30, 2004, http://www.justice.gov/olc/18usc23402340a2.htm.

102. See generally Steven Bradbury, Memorandum for John Rizzo: Application of 18 U.S.C. §§2340–2340A to Certain Techniques That May Be Used in the Interrogation of a High Value al Qaeda Detainee (2005), 46, http://media.luxmedia.com/aclu/olc_05102005_bradbury46pg.pdf; ibid., 20; Steven Bradbury, Memorandum for John Rizzo: Application of United States Obligations Under Article 16 of the Convention Against Torture to Certain Techniques That May Be Used in the Interrogation of a High Value al Qaeda Detainee (2005), http://media.luxmedia.com/aclu/olc_05302005_bradbury.pdf.

103. Alliance for Justice, 2.

104. Ibid.; David S. Cloud, “Navy Officer Found Not Guilty in Death of an Iraqi Prisoner,” New York Times, May 28, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/28/national/28seal.html?pagewanted=print.

105. Detainee Treatment Act of 2005, Pub. L. 109–148, 119 Stat. 2739–44, at div. A, title X, §§1001–06 (2005).

106. Detainee Treatment Act of 2005, Pub. L. 109–148, 119 Stat. 2740–44, at div. A, title X, §1005 (2005).

107. Detainee Treatment Act of 2005, Pub. L. 109–148, 119 Stat. 2739, at div. A, title X, §1003 (2005).

108. Detainee Treatment Act of 2005, Pub. L. 109–148, 119 Stat. 2742, at div. A, title X, §1005(e)(1) (2005).

109. George W. Bush, “President’s Statement on Signing of H.R. 2863,” the White House, December 30, 2005, emphasis added, http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2005/12/print/20051230-8.html.

110. Rasul v. Bush, 542 U.S. 466 (2004) (Stevens, J.).

111. Bravin, Terror Courts, 167–69; Jane Mayer, The Dark Side: The Inside Story of How the War on Terror Turned into a War on American Ideals (New York: Anchor Books, 2009), 260.

112. Mayer, Dark Side, 260.

113. Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557 (2006) (Stevens, J.).

114. Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557, 631–32 (2006) (Stevens, J.).

115. Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, art. 3, August 12, 1949, 6 U.S.T. 3316, 75 U.N.T.S. 135.

116. Exec. Order 13,440, 72 Fed. Reg. 40707–09, 40707 (July 20, 2007), emphasis added.

117. Exec. Order 13,440, 72 Fed. Reg. 40707, 40708 (July 20, 2007).

118. Steven Bradbury, Memorandum for John Rizzo: Application of the War Crimes Act, the Detainee Treatment Act, and Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions to Certain Techniques That May Be Used by the CIA in the Interrogation of High Value al Qaeda Detainees (2007), 48–49 n34.

119. Alliance for Justice, 4.

Chapter 13

1. See Chapter 7, discussing and criticizing the Quirin case.

2. Duncan v. Kahanamoku, 327 U.S. 304 (1946); see Chapter 7, discussing how Duncan overruled Quirin.

3. Jess Bravin, The Terror Courts: Rough Justice At Guantanamo Bay (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013), 168.

4. Ibid., 21–23.

5. Ibid.

6. Department of Justice, Office of Legal Counsel, “Legality of the Use of Military Commissions to Try Terrorists,” Opinions of the Office of Legal Counsel, vol. 25 (2001): 1, emphasis added, http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/torturingdemocracy/documents/20011106.pdf.

7. Ibid., 14.

8. Bravin, Terror Courts, 41–42.

9. Federal Bureau of Investigation, “George John Dasch and the Nazi Saboteurs,” http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/nazi-saboteurs/george-john-dasch-and-the-nazi-saboteurs.

10. Bravin, Terror Courts, 35–39.

11. Ibid., 39.

12. Ibid., 38, 50–51.

13. Fed. R. Evid. 403 (2013).

14. Bravin, Terror Courts, 38.

15. Ibid., 43.

16. Ibid., 43–44.

17. See generally Military Order of November 13, 2001, Detention, Treatment, and Trial of Certain Non-Citizens in the War Against Terrorism, 66 Fed. Reg. 57,833–36 (November 16, 2001). See Military Order of November 13, 2001, Detention, Treatment, and Trial of Certain Non-Citizens in the War Against Terrorism, 66 Fed. Reg. 57,833, 57,835, at §4.c(4) (November 16, 2001).

18. Military Order of November 13, 2001, Detention, Treatment, and Trial of Certain Non-Citizens in the War Against Terrorism, 66 Fed. Reg. 57,833–36 (Nov. 16, 2001).

19. U.S. Department of Defense, Military Commission Order No. 1: Procedures for Trials by Military Commissions of Certain Non-United States Citizens in the War Against Terrorism (March 21, 2002); ibid., §5.B, at 6; Bravin, Terror Courts, 59–60.

20. President George W. Bush, Memorandum: Humane Treatment of Taliban and al Qaeda Detainees para. 2.a, cd, at 12 (2002) (denying rights), http://www.pegc.us/archive/White_House/bush_memo_20020207_ed.pdf.

21. Bravin, Terror Courts, 278.

22. Ibid., 65.

23. Patrick F. Philbin and John C. Yoo, Memorandum for William J. Haynes II: Possible Habeas Jurisdiction Over Aliens Held in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, (December 28, 2001) (hereinafter cited as Philbin and Yoo Memo), http://www.torturingdemocracy.org/documents/20011228.pdf.

24. Philbin and Yoo Memo; Bravin, Terror Courts, 75–76.

25. Bravin, Terror Courts, 77.

26. Ibid., 79.

27. Ibid., 93–94, 110–11, 156–61.

28. Convention Against Torture, Rochin v. California, 342 U.S. 165 (1952) (Frankfurter, J.).

29. Bravin, Terror Courts, 115–16.

30. Ibid., 116, 119–20, 134–35, 156–61.

31. Ibid., 119–20.

32. Ibid., 128.

33. Ibid., 128–130.

34. Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557, 598–613 (2006) (plurality opinion).

35. Bravin, Terror Courts, 129–30.

36. Ibid., 116, 119–20, 134–39, 156–61.

37. Associated Press, “Military Denies Rigging Guantanamo Trials,” Washington Post, August 2, 2005, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/01/AR2005080101488.html.

38. Bravin, Terror Courts, 138.

39. Jackie Northam, “Chief Guantanamo Prosecutor Departs,” NPR, April 22, 2004, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1846734.

40. Bravin, Terror Courts, 150–52.

41. Ibid., 167.

42. Rumsfeld v. Padilla, 542 U.S. 426 (2004) (Rehnquist, C.J.); Rasul v. Bush, 542 U.S. 466 (2004) (Stevens, J.); Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507 (2004) (Stevens, J.).

43. Bravin, Terror Courts, 167–69; Jane Mayer, The Dark Side: The Inside Story of How the War on Terror Turned into a War on American Ideals (New York: Anchor Books, 2009), 260.

44. Bravin, Terror Courts, 170–71.

45. Rumsfeld v. Padilla, 542 U.S. 426, 430 (2004) (Rehnquist, C.J.).

46. Rumsfeld v. Padilla, 542 U.S. 426, 430–31 (2004) (Rehnquist, C.J.).

47. Ibid.

48. Rumsfeld v. Padilla, 542 U.S. 426, 431 (2004) (Rehnquist, C.J.); Padilla ex rel. Newman v. Bush, 233 F. Supp. 2d 564, 571 (S.D.N.Y. 2002), aff’d sub. nom., Padilla ex rel. Newman v. Rumsfeld, 243 F. Supp. 2d 42 (S.D.N.Y. 2003).

49. Rumsfeld v. Padilla, 542 U.S. 426, 431 (2004) (Rehnquist, C.J.).

50. Rumsfeld v. Padilla, 542 U.S. 426, 432 (2004) (Rehnquist, C.J.).

51. Rumsfeld v. Padilla, 542 U.S. 426, 431 (2004) (Rehnquist, C.J.).

52. Rumsfeld v. Padilla, 542 U.S. 426, 432 (2004) (Rehnquist, C.J.); Padilla v. Yoo, 678 F.3d 748, 751 (9th Cir. 2012).

53. Padilla v. Yoo, 678 F.3d 748, 766–67 (9th Cir. 2012); see Padilla v. Yoo, 678 F.3d at 767n15, collecting cases and describing various torture cases ongoing.

54. Rumsfeld v. Padilla, 542 U.S. 426 (2004) (Rehnquist, C.J.) (citations omitted).

55. Ibid.

56. Rumsfeld v. Padilla, 542 U.S. 426, 442, 428 (2004) (Rehnquist, C.J.).

57. Rumsfeld v. Padilla, 542 U.S. 426, 430, 433–34 (2004) (Rehnquist, C.J.).

58. “Reaching the merits, the Court of Appeals held that the President lacks authority to detain Padilla militarily. The court concluded that neither the President’s Commander in Chief power nor the AUMF authorizes military detentions of American citizens captured on American soil. To the contrary, the Court of Appeals found in both our case law and in the Non-Detention Act, a strong presumption against domestic military detention of citizens absent explicit congressional authorization. Accordingly, the court granted the writ of habeas corpus and directed the Secretary to release Padilla from military custody within 30 days.” Rumsfeld v. Padilla, 542 U.S. 426, 434 (2004) (Rehnquist, C.J.)

59. Interview with Shafiq Rasul, Detainee #086, GWU Torturing Democracy Project, October 22, 2007, http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/torturingdemocracy/interviews/shafiq_rasul.html#interrogations.

60. Rasul v. Bush, 542 U.S. 466 (2004) (Stevens, J.).

61. Rasul v. Bush, 542 U.S. 466, 471–72 (2004) (Stevens, J.).

62. Rasul v. Bush, 542 U.S. 466, 471–72 (2004) (Stevens, J.) (quoting 215 F. Supp. 2d 55, 68 (D.D.C.2002)).

63. Rasul v. Bush, 542 U.S. 466, 473 (2004) (Stevens, J.).

64. Rasul v. Bush, 542 U.S. 466, 484–85 (2004) (Stevens, J.) (citations and parallel citation omitted), emphasis added.

65. Rasul v. Bush, 542 U.S. 466, 485 (2004) (Stevens, J.).

66. Rasul v. Bush, 542 U.S. 466, 489 (2004) (Scalia, Rehnquist & Thomas, C.J., J.J., dissenting).

67. Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507, 508 (2004).

68. Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507, 510, 511 (2004) (O’Connor, J.) (plurality op.).

69. Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507, 510 (2004) (O’Connor, J.) (plurality op.).

70. Ibid.

71. Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507, 511 (2004) (O’Connor, J.) (plurality op.).

72. Ibid.

73. Ibid.

74. Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507, 516–17 (2004) (O’Connor, J.) (plurality op.).

75. Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507, 528–35 (2004) (O’Connor, J.) (plurality op.).

76. Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507, 525–28 (2004) (O’Connor, J.) (plurality op.).

77. Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507, 533 (2004) (O’Connor, J.) (plurality op.).

78. Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. at 517.

79. Ibid.

80. Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. at 518.

81. Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. at 519.

82. Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507, 554 (2004) (Scalia & Stevens, J.J., dissenting).

83. Habeas Corpus Suspension Act, 12 Stat. 755–58 (1863).

84. Bravin, Terror Courts, 170–71.

85. Paul Wolfowitz, Memorandum for the Secretary of the Navy: Order Establishing Combatant Status Review Tribunals, July 7, 2004, http://www.defense.gov/news/Jul2004/d20040707review.pdf.

86. Ibid., 3, emphasis added.

87. Bravin, Terror Courts, 185.

88. Ibid., 185–90.

89. Ibid., 201, 205–13, 220.

90. Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 344 F. Supp. 2d 152 (D.D.C. 2004) (Robertson, J.); Bravin, Terror Courts, 219–20.

91. Bravin, Terror Courts, 223.

92. 415 F.3d 33 (D.C. Cir. 2005).

93. 546 U.S. 1002 (2005) (granting cert.).

94. Bravin, Terror Courts, 276–77.

95. U.S. Const. art. III.

96. Bravin, Terror Courts, 276.

97. Detainee Treatment Act of 2005, Pub. L. 109–148, 119 Stat. 2739–44, 2742, at div. A, title X, §1005(e)(1) (2005).

98. Detainee Treatment Act of 2005, Pub. L. 109–148, 119 Stat. 2739–44, 2742, at div. A, title X, §1005(e)(2), (3) (2005).

99. Nat’l Mut. Ins. Co. of Dist. of Col. v. Tidewater Transfer Co., 337 U.S. 582, 655 (1949) (Frankfurter & Reed, J.J., dissenting), emphasis in original.

100. Bravin, Terror Courts, 276.

101. Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557, (2006).

102. Associated Press, “Bin Laden’s Driver Outmanoeuvres Guantanamo Trials,” Sydney Morning Herald, November 9, 2004, http://www.smh.com.au/news/Global-Terrorism/Osamas-driver-outmanoeuvres-terror-trials/2004/11/09/1099781361307.html.

103. Bravin, Terror Courts, 278.

104. “Triple Suicide at Guantanamo Camp,” BBC News, June 11, 2006, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5068228.stm; “Guantanamo Suicides a ‘PR move’,” BBC News, June 11, 2006, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5069230.stm.

105. Bravin, Terror Courts, 281.

106. Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557 (2006).

107. Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557 (2006).

108. Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557, 560 (2006).

109. Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557, 613–17 (2006) (Stevens, J.).

110. Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557, 620 (2006) (Stevens, J.).

111. Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557, 623–24 (2006) (Stevens, J.).

112. Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557, 631–32 (2006) (Stevens, J.).

113. Bravin, Terror Courts, 306.

114. Ibid., 306–8.

115. Ibid., 308.

116. Ibid.

117. Ibid., 310.

118. Military Commissions Act of 2006, Pub. L. 109–366, 120 Stat. 2600–37 (2006).

119. Bravin, Terror Courts, 310–11.

120. Bravin, Terror Courts, 311.

121. Bravin, Terror Courts, 310.

122. Military Commissions Act of 2006, Pub. L. 109–366, 120 Stat. 2600–37, §3, at 2607 (2006).

123. Military Commissions Act of 2006, Pub. L. 109–366, 120 Stat. 2600–37, §3, at 2609 (2006).

124. Military Commissions Act of 2006, Pub. L. 109–366, 120 Stat. 2600–37, §7, at 2635–36 (2006).

125. Bravin, Terror Courts, 312.

126. Ibid., 285, 312.

127. Ibid., 312–14; “David Hicks: ‘Australian Taleban’,” BBC News, May 20, 2007, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3044386.stm.

128. Bravin, Terror Courts, 316–17; Michael Melia, “Ex-Gitmo Prosecutor Charges Pentagon Interference,” Star, April 29, 2008, http://www.thestar.com/news/world/2008/04/29/exgitmo_prosecutor_charges_pentagon_interference.html.

129. Andy Worthington, “Breaking: New Chief Prosecutor Tapped for Military Commissions at Guantanamo,” AlterNet.org, May 6, 2009, http://www.alternet.org/story/139842/breaking%3A_new_chief_prosecutor_tapped_for_military_commissions_at_guantanamo.

130. Boumediene v. Bush, 476 F.3d 981 (D.C. Cir. 2007).

131. Boumediene v. Bush, 549 U.S. 1328, vacated by 551 U.S. 1160 (2007).

132. Boumediene v. Bush, 551 U.S. 1160 (2007).

133. Boumediene v. Bush, 553 U.S. 723, 723 (2008) (Kennedy, J.), emphasis added.

134. Boumediene v. Bush, 553 U.S. 723, 738–39 (2008) (Kennedy, J.) (citations omitted).

135. Boumediene v. Bush, 553 U.S. 723, 770 (2008) (Kennedy, J.).

136. Boumediene v. Bush, 553 U.S. 723, 771 (2008) (Kennedy, J.).

137. Ibid.

138. Boumediene v. Bush, 553 U.S. 723, 792 (2008) (Kennedy, J.).

139. Bravin, Terror Courts, 380.

Chapter 14

1. “U.S. Officials Guilty of War Crimes for Using 9/11 as a False Justification for the Iraq War,” Washington’s Blog, October 24, 2012, http://www.washingtonsblog.com/2012/10/5-hours-after-the-911-attacks-donald-rumsfeld-said-my-interest-is-to-hit-saddam-he-also-said-go-massive-sweep-it-all-up-things-related-and-not-and-at-2.html; Lydia Saad, “Bush Presidency Closes with 34% Approval, 61% Disapproval,” Gallup, January 14, 2009, http://www.gallup.com/poll/113770/bush-presidency-closes-34-approval-61-disapproval.aspx.

2. The Who, “Won’t Get Fooled Again” (MCA Records, 1971).

3. Jacob Weisberg, The Bush Tragedy (New York: Random House, 2008).

4. Jeremy Scahill, Dirty Wars: The World Is a Battlefield (New York: Nation Books, 2013), 250.

5. Alison Smale, “Amid New Storm in U.S.-Europe Relationship, a Call for Talks on Spying,” New York Times, October 25, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/26/world/europe/fallout-over-american-spying-revelations.html?_r=0.

6. Bob Woodward, Obama’s Wars (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010).

7. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 513–21, “Epilogue: Perpetual War.”

8. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 118–29, 191–209, 219–29, 270–78, 294–302 393–97, 453, 487–494, discussing the U.S. history in Somalia; 48–60, 75–81, 130–134, 210–15, 230–44, 259–69, 314–24, 375–85, 398–402, 430–34, 460–69, 495–511, discussing the United States in Yemen and al-Aulaqi; 167–79, 215–18, 298–353, 403–29, 444–50, 458–59, discussing the United States in Pakistan; John Barry, “America’s Secret Libya War,” Daily Beast, August 30, 2011, http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2011/08/30/america-s-secret-libya-war-u-s-spent-1-billion-on-covert-ops-helping-nato.html.

9. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 124–27.

10. Ibid., 118–19.

11. Ibid., 119.

12. Ibid., 119, 121, 123.

13. Ibid., 120–21.

14. Ibid., 121–22.

15. Ibid., 121.

16. Ibid., 123–24.

17. For example, ibid., 127.

18. For example, ibid., 127–28.

19. Ibid., 128.

20. Ibid.

21. Ibid., 129.

22. Ibid., 121.

23. Ibid., 191.

24. Ibid., 192.

25. Ibid.

26. Ibid., 192–93.

27. Ibid., 193.

28. Ibid., 193–94.

29. Ibid., 193.

30. Ibid., 196.

31. Ibid., 200.

32. Ibid., 201.

33. Ibid., 202.

34. Ibid., 203.

35. Ibid.

36. Ibid., 203–4.

37. Ibid., 202.

38. Ibid., 208–9.

39. Ibid., 206–8.

40. Ibid., 208–9.

41. Ibid., 220.

42. Ibid., 219–21, 223–24.

43. Ibid., 224.

44. Ibid.

45. Ibid., 225.

46. Ibid.

47. Ibid., 225–26.

48. Ibid., 226–27.

49. Ibid., 226–28.

50. Ibid.

51. Ibid., 228.

52. Steven Lee Myers, “Putin’s Silence on Syria Suggests His Resignation Over Intervention,” New York Times, August 28, 2013, quoting Russian Foreign Minister Sergey V. Lavrov, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/29/world/middleeast/putin-on-syria.html.

53. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 270–73.

54. Ibid., 270–73, 276–77.

55. Ibid., 277.

56. Ibid., 393.

57. Ibid., 395.

58. Ibid., 453.

59. Ibid., 487–91.

60. Ibid., 493.

61. Ibid., 487.

62. Ibid., 493.

63. Ibid.

64. Ibid., 64–65, 210–11.

65. Ibid., 64.

66. Ibid., 65; Charlie Savage, “Secret U.S. Memo Made Legal Case to Kill a Citizen,” New York Times, October 8, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/09/world/middleeast/secret-us-memo-made-legal-case-to-kill-a-citizen.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0.

67. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 65–66.

68. Ibid., 66, 75–80.

69. Ibid., 130.

70. Ibid., 130–33.

71. Ibid., 132.

72. Ibid., 133.

73. Ibid., 210–14.

74. Ibid., 235–36, 243.

75. Ibid., 237.

76. Ibid., 254–55.

77. Ibid., 255.

78. Ibid., 261.

79. Ibid., 256–263.

80. Ibid., 304–8, 321.

81. Ibid., 306.

82. Ibid., 306–7; see the unpaginated photographic insert in the book.

83. Ibid., 310–11.

84. Ibid., 309–10.

85. Ibid., 311–13.

86. Ibid., 321–23.

87. Ibid., 350.

88. Ibid., 350–51.

89. Ibid., 356–63.

90. Ibid., 386–92.

91. Ibid., 398.

92. Ibid., 431–432, 464.

93. Ibid., 465.

94. Ibid., 466, 499.

95. “Obama: Israel Has ‘Every Right’ to Defend Itself from Gaza Missile Attacks,” NBC News.com, November 18, 2012. The president was then traveling in Asia; he delivered the speech while in Thailand.

96. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 168–69, 176–79.

97. Ibid., 168–69, 176–79.

98. Ibid., 168–69, 215–16.

99. Ibid., 168–69, 216.

100. Ibid., 168–169, 217.

101. Ibid., 168–69, 217–218.

102. Ibid., 168–169, 250.

103. Ibid., 251.

104. Ibid., 252.

105. Ibid., 418.

106. Ibid., 418–19.

107. Ibid., 420.

108. Ibid., 403, 406.

109. Ibid., 404.

110. Ibid., 405.

111. Ibid., 406–7.

112. Ibid., 404.

113. Ibid., 418–19.

114. Ibid., 419.

115. Ibid.

116. Ibid.

117. Ibid., 420, 423.

118. Ibid., 421.

119. Ibid.

120. Ibid., 423.

121. Ibid., 424.

122. Ibid., 424–25.

123. Ibid., 425; Declan Walsh and Ewen MacAskill, “American Who Sparked Diplomatic Crisis Over Lahore Shooting Was CIA Spy,” Guardian (UK), February 20, 2011, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/feb/20/us-raymond-davis-lahore-cia.

124. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 425; Glenn Greenwald, “The NYT’s Journalistic Obedience,” Salon, February 21, 2011, http://www.salon.com/2011/02/21/nyt_16/.

125. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 426.

126. Ibid., 425–27.

127. Ibid., 427.

128. Ibid., 427–28.

129. Ibid., 428.

130. Ibid.

131. Eric. S. Margolis, “The Gaddafi I Knew,” American Conservative, October 24, 2011, http://www.theamericanconservative.com/the-gaddafi-i-knew/.

132. Ronald Reagan, The President’s News Conference, Washington, DC, April 9, 1986, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=37105#axzz2iMbNB7st.

133. “Bush Speaks with Gaddafi in Historic Phone Call,” Washington Post, November 18, 2008, http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2008-11-18/world/36863733_1_saif-al-islam-gaddafi-libya-s-moammar-gaddafi-human-rights.

134. Mark Ensalaco, “The Great Debate: Our Disturbing Relationship with Gaddafi,” Reuters, August 23, 2011, http://blogs.reuters.com/great-debate/2011/08/23/our-disturbing-relationship-with-gaddafi/.

135. Human Rights Watch, Delivered into Enemy Hands, September 6, 2012, 2, http://www.hrw.org/reports/2012/09/05/delivered-enemy-hands.

136. US Department of State, “U.S. Embassy in Tripoli,” http://libya.usembassy.gov/; Scott Macleod, “Why Gaddafi’s Now a Good Guy,” Time, May 16, 2006, http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1194766,00.html.

137. “Bush Speaks with Gaddafi in Historic Phone Call.”

138. Manilo Dinucci, “McCain-Hillary in 2009: Libya Is ‘An Important Ally in the War on Terrorism,’ Gaddafi Is ‘a Peacemaker in Africa,’ ” Center for Research on Globalization, April 25, 2011, http://www.globalresearch.ca/mccain-hillary-in-2009-libya-is-an-important-ally-in-the-war-on-terrorism-gaddafi-is-a-peacemaker-in-africa.

139. Sec. Con. Res. 1973, U.N. S/RES/1973 (March 17, 2011); Alistair Macdonald, “Cameron Doesn’t Rule Out Military Force for Libya,” Wall Street Journal, March 1, 2011, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704615504576172383796304482.html.

140. Bruce Ackerman, “Legal Acrobatics, Illegal War,” New York Times, June 20, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/21/opinion/21Ackerman.html.

141. Ibid.

142. Ibid.

143. Ibid.

144. Ibid.

145. Ibid.

146. “Libya Crisis: Gaddafi Army ‘Not at Breaking Point,’ ” BBC News, March 31, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-12924807.

147. Barry, “America’s Secret Libya War.”

148. Ibid.

149. Michael S. Schmidt and Eric Schmitt, “U.S. Officials Say Libya Approved Commando Raids,” New York Times, October 9, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/09/world/africa/us-officials-say-libya-approved-commando-raids.html; Carlotta Gall and David D. Kirkpatrick, “Libya Condemns U.S. for Seizing Terror Suspect,” New York Times, October 7, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/07/world/africa/american-raids-in-africa.html; Benjamin Weiser and Eric Schmitt, “U.S. Said to Hold Qaeda Suspect on Navy Ship,” New York Times, October 7, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/07/world/africa/a-terrorism-suspect-long-known-to-prosecutors.html.

150. Paul Cruickshank et al., “Phone Call Links Benghazi Attack to al Qaeda Commander,” CNN, March 5, 2013, http://www.cnn.com/2013/03/05/world/africa/benghazi-al-qaeda.

151. Clifford Krauss, “In Libya, Unrest Brings Oil Industry to Standstill,” New York Times, September 12, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/13/world/africa/in-libya-unrest-brings-oil-industry-to-standstill.html.

152. Ibid.

153. Carl Herman, “US War Crimes: Torture and a Call for Truth and Reconciliation,” Examiner, August 21, 2009, http://www.examiner.com/article/us-war-crimes-torture-and-a-call-for-truth-and-reconciliation.

154. Exec. Order No. 13491, 74 Fed. Reg. 4893 (January 22, 2009).

155. Exec. Order No. 13491, 74 Fed. Reg. 4893, 4894 (January 22, 2009).

156. Human Rights Watch, “Delivered Into Enemy Hands,” 2.

157. Scott Horton, “The Black Hole of Bagram,” Harper’s, December 1, 2009, http://harpers.org/blog/2009/12/the-black-hole-of-bagram/.

158. Ibid.; Joshua Partlow and Julie Tate, “2 Afghans Allege Abuse at U.S. Site,” Washington Post, November 28, 2009, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/11/27/AR2009112703438.html.

159. Nat Hentoff, “Torture Under Obama,” Cato Institute, February 17, 2010, http://www.cato.org/publications/commentary/torture-under-obama.

160. Sarah Childress, “Six Reasons the ‘Dark Side’ Still Exists Under Obama,” PBS Frontline, April 22, 2013, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/criminal-justice/six-reasons-the-dark-side-still-exists-under-obama/; Dan Froomkin, “New Torture Report Blames Obama and the Media for Not Confronting the Truth,” Huffington Post, April 17, 2013, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/dan-froomkin/torture-report-obama-media_b_3099792.html; Hentoff, “Torture Under Obama.”

161. Barack Obama, Speech (Woodrow Wilson International Center, August 1, 2007), http://www.cfr.org/elections/obamas-speech-woodrow-wilson-center/p13974.

162. Bravin, Terror Courts, 355, 381.

163. Jason Leopold, “Former Guantanamo Chief Prosecutor: ‘A Pair of Testicles Fell Off the President After Election Day,’ ” Center for the Study of Human Rights in the Americas, November 13, 2011, http://humanrights.ucdavis.edu/projects/the-guantanamo-testimonials-project/testimonies/testimonies-of-prosecution-lawyers/former-guantanamo-chief-prosecutor-a-pair-of-testicles-fell-off-the-president-after-election-day.

164. Exec. Order No. 13,491, 74 Fed. Reg. 4893, 4894 (2009).

165. Exec. Order No. 13,492, 74 Fed. Reg. 4897 (2009).

166. Exec. Order No. 13,493, 74 Fed. Reg. 4901 (2009).

167. Bravin, Terror Courts, 355.

168. Ibid.

169. Jason Leopold, “A Campaign Promise Dies: Obama and Military Commissions,” Truthout, April 4, 2011, http://www.truth-out.org/news/item/285:a-campaign-promise-dies-obama-and-military-commissions.

170. Barack Obama, Statement on Military Commissions, the White House, May 15, 2009, http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/Statement-of-President-Barack-Obama-on-Military-Commissions/.

171. “Accused 9/11 Plotter Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Faces New York Trial,” CNN, November 13, 2009, http://edition.cnn.com/2009/CRIME/11/13/khalid.sheikh.mohammed/index.html.

172. Military Commissions Act of 2009, 123 Stat. 2574, div. A, title XVIII, §1802, at 2582 (2009); ACLU, “House Passes Changes to Guantánamo Military Commissions,” October 8, 2009, http://www.aclu.org/national-security/house-passes-changes-guantanamo-military-commissions.

173. Military Commissions Act of 2009, 123 Stat. 2574, div. A, title XVIII, §1802, at 2587 (2009).

174. ACLU, “House Passes Changes to Guantánamo Military Commissions.”

175. Bravin, Terror Courts, 363.

176. National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012, Pub. L 112–18, 125 Stat. 1297, div. A, title X, §1021, at 1562 (2009).

177. National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012, Pub. L 112–18, 125 Stat. 1297, div. A, title X, §1022, at 1563–64 (2009).

178. National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012, Pub. L 112–18, 125 Stat. 1297, div. A, title X, §1027, at 1566–67 (2009).

179. Geneve Mantri, “House Passes NDAA & White House Won’t Veto Indefinite Detention,” Amnesty International, December 15, 2011, http://blog.amnestyusa.org/us/house-passes-ndaa-white-house-wont-veto-indefinite-detention/.

180. Andy Worthington, “US Military Admits Only 2.5 Percent of All Prisoners Ever Held at Guantánamo Will Be Tried,” AndyWorthington.com (blog), June 18, 2013, http://www.andyworthington.co.uk/2013/06/18/us-military-admits-only-2-5-percent-of-all-prisoners-ever-held-at-guantanamo-will-be-tried/#sthash.xFKv1Quf.dpuf.

181. Jason Ryan, “In Reversal, Obama Orders Guantanamo Military Trial for 9/11 Mastermind Khalid Sheikh Mohammed,” ABC News, April 4, 2011, http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/911-mastermind-khalid-sheikh-mohammed-military-commission/story?id=13291750.

Chapter 15

1. Lloyd C. Gardner, Killing Machine: The American Presidency in the Age of Drone Warfare (New York, New Press, 2013), xii.

2. Ibid.

3. See ibid., xii, 128–29.

4. Exec. Order No. 12,333, 3 C.F.R. 1981 Comp. at 200, 46 Fed. Reg. 59941 (1981).

5. Gardner, Killing Machine, 129; Ian G. R. Shaw, “The Rise of the Predator Empire: Tracing the History of U.S. Drones,” Understanding Empire, 2013, http://understandingempire.wordpress.com/2-0-a-brief-history-of-u-s-drones/.

6. Gardner, Killing Machine, 129.

7. Ibid.

8. Ibid., 128–29.

9. Jeremy Scahill, Dirty Wars: The World Is a Battlefield (New York: Nation Books, 2013), 168–69, 251.

10. “Out of Sight, Out of Mind: Victims,” Pitch Interactive, July 3, 2013, http://drones.pitchinteractive.com/; Jack Serle and Chris Woods, “Six-Month Update: U.S. Covert Actions in Pakistan, Yemen, and Somalia,” Bureau of Investigative Journalism, July 1, 2013, http://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/2013/07/01/six-month-update-us-covert-actions-in-pakistan-yemen-and-somalia/.

11. Gardner, Killing Machine, xii.

12. Chris Woods, “ ‘Drones Causing Mass Trauma Among Civilians,’ Major Study Finds,” Bureau of Investigative Journalism, September 25, 2012, http://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/blog/2012/09/25 drones-causing-mass-trauma-among-civilians-major-study-finds/.

13. “Drones: Has the United States Committed War Crimes?” Week, November 8, 2013, 6.

14. Gardner, Killing Machine,132.

15. Ibid., ix.

16. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 32.

17. Ibid., 31–33.

18. Randal John Meyer, “The Twin Perils of the al-Aulaqi Case: The Treason Clause and the Equal Protection Clause,” Brooklyn Law Review 79, no. 1 (2013): 244; Scahill, Dirty Wars, 33–36.

19. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 41–42, 45.

20. Ibid., 37–38, 40–41; Meyer, “Twin Perils,” 244nn94–95.

21. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 37–38, 47.

22. Ibid., 67–74; Meyer, “Twin Perils,” 244–45.

23. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 67, 74; Meyer, “Twin Perils,” 244.

24. Designation of ANWAR AL-AULAQI Pursuant to Executive Order 13224 and the Global Terrorism Sanctions Regulations, 31 C.F.R. Part 594, 75 Fed. Reg. 43233-01 (2010).

25. Meyer, “Twin Perils,” 246n. 110.

26. Ibid., 246.

27. Mark Mazzetti, Eric Schmitt, and Robert F. Worth, “Two-Year Manhunt Led to Killing of Awlaki in Yemen,” New York Times, September 30, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/01/world/middleeast/anwar-al-awlaki-is-killed-in-yemen.html?pagewanted=all; see Scahill, Dirty Wars, 501–3.

28. Scahill, Dirty Wars, 289.

29. Ibid., 290–91, 375–76.

30. Ibid., 377–81.

31. Ibid., 496, 507.

32. Ibid., 496.

33. Ibid., 500.

34. Ibid., 501.

35. Ibid., 507.

36. Ibid.

37. Ibid.

38. Ibid., 507–9.

39. Scott Shane and Eric Schmitt, “One Drone Victim’s Trail from Raleigh to Pakistan,” New York Times, May 22, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/23/us/one-drone-victims-trail-from-raleigh-to-pakistan.html?_r=0.

40. Tara McKelvey, “Inside the Killing Machine,” Newsweek, February 13, 2011, http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2011/02/13/inside-the-killing-machine.html.

41. Meyer, “Twin Perils,” 280.

42. “Islamist Cleric Anwar al-Awlaki Killed in Yemen,” BBC News, September 30, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15121879.

43. New York Times Co. v. U.S. Dep’t of Justice, 915 F. Supp.2d 508 (S.D.N.Y. 2013) (McMahon, J.).

44. New York Times Co., 915 F. Supp.2d at 515–16.

45. New York Times Co., 915 F. Supp.2d at 535.

46. New York Times Co., 915 F. Supp.2d at 535–38.

47. See, e.g., ACLU v. CIA, 710 F.3d 422 (D.C. Cir. 2013) (Garland, C.J.).

48. Al-Aulaqi v. Obama, 727 F. Supp.2d 1, 46-47 (D.D.C. 2010), dismissing for lack of standing and giving dicta on the political question doctrine.

49. Al-Aulaqi, 727 F. Supp.2d at 40.

50. Al-Aulaqi, 727 F. Supp.2d at 52.

51. Ibid.

52. U.S. Const. amend V.

53. “[T]he federal right to jury trial attaches where an offense is punishable by as much as six months’ imprisonment. I think this follows both from the breadth of the language of the Sixth Amendment, which provides for a jury in ‘all criminal prosecutions,’ and the evidence of historical practice.” Baldwin v. New York, 399 U.S. 117, 119–20 (1970).

54. Meyer, “Twin Perils,” 244–45, discussing Anwar al-Aulaqi’s criminal history.

55. Ibid., 288–89, emphasis in original.

56. Eric Holder, Speech (Northwestern University School of Law, Chicago, IL, March 5, 2012), http://www.justice.gov/iso/opa/ag/speeches/2012/ag-speech-1203051.html.

57. FAA Modernization and Reform Act, Pub. L. 112–95, 126 Stat. 11 (2012) (codified at 40 U.S.C).

58. 126 Stat. title III.B, §332(a)(1), at 73.

59. Robert Molko, “The Drones Are Coming: Will the Fourth Amendment Stop Their Threat to Our Privacy?” Brooklyn Law Review 78, no. 4 (2013): 1283.

60. 126 Stat. title III.B, §333–34 at 75–76; Molko, “Drones Are Coming,” 1282.

61. Molko, “Drones Are Coming,” 1282n21.

62. Ibid., 1285.

63. Ibid.

64. Ibid., 1286.

65. Ibid., 1281.

66. Ibid., 1283; Mark Brunswick, “Spies in the Sky Signal New Age of Surveillance,” Star Tribune, July 22, 2012, http://www.startribune.com/local/163304886.html?refer=y).

67. Molko, “Drones Are Coming,” 1282.

68. Brunswick, “Spies in the Sky Signal New Age of Surveillance.”

69. Alexander Lane, “Obama’s Wiretapping Flip-Flop? Yes,” PolitiFact, July 14, 2008, http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/article/2008/jul/14/obamas-wiretapping-flip-flop-yes/.

70. PATRIOT Sunsets Extension Act of 2011, Pub. L. 112–14, 126 Stat. 216 (May 26, 2011) (codified at 50 U.S.C. §§1805, 1861, 1862) (extending the PATRIOT Act to June 1, 2015).

71. FISA Amendments Act Reauthorization Act of 2012, Pub. L. 112–238, 126 Stat. 1631 (2012).

72. James Risen and Laura Poitras, “N.S.A. Gathers Data on Social Connections of U.S. Citizens,” New York Times, September 28, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/29/us/nsa-examines-social-networks-of-us-citizens.html.

73. Michael Barone, “More Than All Past Presidents, Obama Uses 1917 Espionage Act to Go After Reporters,” Washington Examiner, May 25, 2013, http://washingtonexaminer.com/michael-barone-more-than-all-past-presidents-obama-uses-1917-espionage-act-to-go-after-reporters/article/2530340.

74. Kevin Gosztola, “Snowden Becomes Eighth Person to Be Charged with Violating the Espionage Act Under Obama,” FireDogLake.com (blog), June 21, 2013, http://dissenter.firedoglake.com/2013/06/21/snowden-becomes-eighth-person-to-be-indicted-for-espionage-by-the-obama-justice-department/.

75. Ryan Lizza, “How Prosecutors Fought to Keep Rosen’s Warrant Secret,” New Yorker, May 24, 2013, http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/newsdesk/2013/05/how-justice-fought-to-keep-rosens-warrant-secret.html.

76. Ann E. Marimow, “A Rare Peek into a Justice Department Leak Probe,” Washington Post, May 19, 2013, http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/a-rare-peek-into-a-justice-department-leak-probe/2013/05/19/0bc473de-be5e-11e2-97d4-a479289a31f9_story.html.

77. Ibid.

78. Michael Calderone, “AP CEO Says DOJ Seized Records for ‘Thousands and Thousands’ of Phone Calls: Staffer,” Huffington Post, May 29, 2013, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/05/29/ap-doj-records-phone-calls_n_3353978.html.

79. Dana Priest and William M. Arkin, “Top Secret America: A Hidden World, Growing Beyond Control,” Washington Post, 2010, http://projects.washingtonpost.com/top-secret-america/articles/a-hidden-world-growing-beyond-control/1/; Tom Gjelten, “The Effects of the Snowden Leaks Aren’t What He Intended,” NPR, September 20, 2013, http://www.npr.org/2013/09/20/224423159/the-effects-of-the-snowden-leaks-arent-what-he-intended.

80. Ewen MacAskill, “Edward Snowden: How the Spy Story of the Age Leaked Out,” Guardian (UK) June 11, 2013, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/11/edward-snowden-nsa-whistleblower-profile.

81. Andrew P. Napolitano, “Obama White House Spying on Half of America,” Fox News, June 6, 2013, http://www.foxnews.com/opinion/2013/06/06/why-is-our-government-spying-on-half-america/.

82. Timothy B. Lee, “Here’s Everything We Know About PRISM to Date,” Washington Post, June 12, 2013, http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/06/12/heres-everything-we-know-about-prism-to-date/.

83. Glenn Greenwald and Spencer Ackerman, “NSA Collected US Email Records in Bulk for More Than Two Years Under Obama,” Guardian (UK), June 27, 2013, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/27/nsa-data-mining-authorised-obama.

84. James Risen and Eric Lichtblau, “Bush Lets U.S. Spy on Callers Without Courts,” New York Times, December 16, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/16/politics/16program.html?pagewanted=all.

85. For example, Hepting v. AT&T Corp., No. C-06-672 VRW, 2006 WL 1581965 (N.D. Cal. June 6, 2006), ordering the government to give out documents despite their assertion of the States Secrets privilege; Dan Eggen and Dafna Linzer, “Judge Rules Against Wiretaps,” Washington Post, August 18, 2006, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/08/17/AR2006081700650.html.

86. Associated Press, “Timeline: Edward Snowden’s Journey,” Yahoo! News, August 1, 2013, http://news.yahoo.com/timeline-edward-snowdens-journey-150444823.html.

87. Ibid.

88. Lee, “Here’s Everything We Know About PRISM to Date.”

89. Ibid.

90. United States v. Snowden, Case No. 1:13 CR 265 (CMH) (E.D. Va. May 2013), http://apps.washingtonpost.com/g/documents/world/us-vs-edward-j-snowden-criminal-complaint/496/.

91. Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project, 561 U.S. ___, 130 S. Ct. 2705, 2719–22 (2010).

92. In re Nat’l Sec. Letter, C 11-02173 SI, 2013 WL 1095417, at *2 (N.D. Cal. Mar. 14, 2013).

93. Ibid.

94. Trevor Timm, “Hundreds of Pages of NSA Spying Documents to Be Released as Result of EFF Lawsuit,” Electronic Frontier Foundation, September 5, 2013, https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2013/09/hundreds-pages-nsa-spying-documents-be-released-result-eff-lawsuit.

95. Ibid.

96. Paul Elias, “Feds Plan to Release Details of Secret Spy Court,” Yahoo! News, September 10, 2013, http://news.yahoo.com/feds-plan-release-details-secret-spy-court-144030488.html.

97. Ibid.

98. Order, In re Application of the Federal Bureau of Investigation for an Order Requiring the Production of Tangible Things from [Redacted] (In re FBI Application for Production of Tangible Things from [Redacted] I), No. BR 06-05, at *2 (FISA Ct. May 24, 2006) (Howard, J.), https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/docket_06-05_1dec201_redacted.ex_-_ocr_0.pdf.

99. Ibid.

100. Supplemental Opinion, In re Production of Tangible Things from [Redacted], No. BR 08-13, at *1 (FISA Ct. Dec. 12, 2008) (Walton, J.), https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/4_february_2011_production_br10-82_final_redacted.ex_-_ocr_1.pdf.

101. In re Production of Tangible Things from [Redacted], No. BR 08-13 (FISA Ct. January 28, 2009) (order regarding preliminary notice of compliance incident dated January 15, 2009) (Walton, J.), https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/br_08-13_alert_list_order_1-28-09_final_redacted1.ex_-_ocr_0.pdf; Order, In re Production of Tangible Things from [Redacted], No. BR 08-13 (FISA Ct. March 2, 2009) (Walton, J.), https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/br_08-13_order_3-2-09_final_redacted.ex_-_ocr_1.pdf; Order, In re Application of the Federal Bureau of Investigation for an Order Requiring the Production of Tangible Things from [Redacted] (In re FBI Application for Production of Tangible Things from [Redacted] II), No. BR 09-06 (FISA Ct. June 22, 2009) (Walton, J.), https://www.eff.org/sites/default/files/filenode/br_09-06_order_and_supplemental_order_6-22-09_final_redacted.ex_-_ocr_0.pdf.

102. In re [CNR], at *16 n.14 (FISA Ct. Oct. 3, 2011) (Bates, J.), http://epic.org/privacy/terrorism/fisa/fisc.html#legal.

103. Andrew P. Napolitano, “Domestic Spying Is Dangerous to Freedom,” Fox News, August 8, 2013, http://www.foxnews.com/opinion/2013/08/08/domestic-spying-is-dangerous-to-freedom/.

104. Andrew P. Napolitano, “Liberty in Shambles,” Fox News, June 13, 2013, http://www.foxnews.com/opinion/2013/06/13/liberty-in-shambles/.

105. Andrew P. Napolitano, “The Truth Shall Keep Us Free—Edward Snowden Has Awakened a Giant,” Fox News, June 27, 2013, http://www.foxnews.com/opinion/2013/06/27/truth-shall-keep-us-free/.

106. Andrew P. Napolitano, “Spying and Lying,” Fox News, September 19, 2013, http://www.foxnews.com/opinion/2013/09/19/spying-and-lying/.

107. Andrew P. Napolitano, “Is the FISA Court Constitutional?” Fox News, September 26, 2013, http://www.foxnews.com/opinion/2013/09/26/is-fisa-court-constitutional/.

108. Ibid.

109. Ibid.

110. Alison Smale, “Amid New Storm in U.S.-Europe Relationship, a Call for Talks on Spying,” New York Times, October 25, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/26/world/europe/fallout-over-american-spying-revelations.html?_r=0.