Money talks.
The most prominent message on money is often the denomination, or monetary value, but it is rarely the only message. Through images and text, governments use money to make both subtle and overt political and cultural statements about a nation’s identity, leadership, heritage, and values. The practice of attaching messages to money makes coins and notes valuable sources for learning about global cultures and history.
American money in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries contained a wide range of political messages relating to the young nation. Notes and coins depicted symbols and scenes that portrayed and reinforced democratic principles and national unity. Some concepts were expressed through imagery and classical allegory. The personification of Justice is portrayed on a fifty dollar interest-bearing note from 1863 as a woman holding scales. The idea of unity among the thirteen colonies is conveyed on a one-sixth dollar note from the Pennsylvania Colony through the depiction of thirteen interlocking rings. Other messages were more direct, such as the phrase “ ’Tis Death to Counterfeit,” which appeared on many colonial notes to notify users of the strict punishment for violating the law.
The inclusion of portraits of national icons on money can be traced back thousands of years to ancient political figures, such as the emperors of Rome. The widespread practice of depicting national leaders on money makes coins particularly robust sources for studying the succession of governments and the ways in which rulers communicated and demonstrated authority. American money has featured—and continues to feature—many of the nation’s founding fathers and leading political figures, such as George Washington, James Madison, and Abraham Lincoln. Their portraits invoke a feeling of stability and continuity, reminding people of the nation’s strong leadership through times of crisis and discord.
National icons and political messages are often portrayed alongside cultural messages, which can reflect or even help shape a community’s identity. For example, the inclusion of multiple languages on money can convey existing linguistic diversity, such as the seventeen languages on Indian rupee notes, or can spread the acceptance of a new language or script. Religious messages on money can highlight a widely held belief, introduce a new religious doctrine, or, as with the American motto “In God we trust,” connect the fate of the nation to the will of the divine. The use of imagery of historic sites, such as the pyramids of Egypt, can be employed by governments to promote their ideas about national heritage, identity, and tradition.
In addition to the messages that appear on money, monetary objects created for special circumstances convey information about their times and places simply through their creation and use. For example, the introduction of separate currencies for persecuted people, such as notes issued to Jewish people in Nazi concentration camps and Jewish ghettos during the Holocaust, reveal not only a little-understood aspect of the history of that genocide but also the ways in which money can be used as a social and political device of oppression. Special currencies have also been created during times of economic difficulty; hard-times tokens produced in the 1830s reflect coin shortages in America; food stamps are a sign of hardship and hunger as well as the U.S. government’s response to poverty.
By attaching messages to money, governments have revealed much about the ways in which leaders saw themselves, how they wanted their citizens and subjects to see them, and how they treated the people whose lives and well-being relied on the money they issued.
During the Revolutionary period, American money often contained messages about unity. The image of thirteen interlocking rings on continental notes was intended to illustrate the solidarity of the thirteen colonies against the British Crown (Figure 65). In the 1780s, the new national motto, “E Pluribus Unum”—or “out of many, one”—began to appear on American coins (Figure 66).
Figure 65.
One-sixth dollar note, Pennsylvania Colony, 1776. Donated by the Stack family.
Figure 66.
One cent coin, New Jersey Colony, 1786. Donated by J. G. Bruff.
Some Continental currency of the Revolutionary period contained graphic illustrations inspired by the American colonies fighting and defeating Great Britain. One example is South Carolina Colony’s seventy dollar note from 1779 (Figure 67), in which America is depicted as an eagle eating the liver of the Greek god Prometheus, who represents a chained Great Britain.1 The eagle has become a prominent symbol of national strength on American money (Figure 68).
Figure 67.
Seventy dollar note, South Carolina Colony, 1779.
Figure 68.
Five thousand dollar proof legal tender note, United States, 1878.
Political ideals and values, such as liberty and justice, have often been depicted on American money as allegorical figures. On the interest-bearing note of 1863, Justice is shown holding her scales (Figure 69). A strong Liberty with her sword and shield appears on the right side of the fifty dollar note from 1880 (Figure 70). Liberty has also appeared on many U.S. coins.
Figure 69.
Fifty dollar interest-bearing note, United States, 1863. Donated by the Stack family.
Figure 70.
Fifty dollar legal tender note, United States, 1880. Donated by U.S. Department of the Treasury.
Currency issued by governments is protected by law. Historically, money has conveyed messages to people about the consequences of counterfeiting it. Many American colonial notes from the 1770s (Figure 71) plainly state the punishment for falsely imitating the legal tender at the time, with phrases like “’Tis Death to Counterfeit.”
Figure 71.
Thirty shilling note, New Jersey Colony, 1776.
Counterfeiting money is illegal. It threatens an economy because it may prompt people to question if their money is genuine and if it will be accepted as payment. Governments also seek to prevent counterfeiting because it threatens their authority to manufacture money and to determine what can be used as legal tender. The presence of counterfeits may indicate that people lack confidence in a government or respect for its authority (Figure 72).
Figure 72.
Counterfeit twenty dollar legal tender note, United States, circa 1862. Donated by The Chase Manhattan Bank.
The American colonies faced a persistent problem of coin shortages due in part to Great Britain’s restrictions on the importation of coins. Colonists relied on any currency they could find, which included a wide range of coins from Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, and Spain (Figures 73a–73b).2 The most common coin was the silver eight real, also known as a Spanish piece of eight. The Spanish minted these coins from silver mined in their colonies in the Americas. Pieces of eight were not only widespread in the Americas but also circulated in Europe, Asia, and Africa, making the coin the world’s first global currency.3 Colonists also cut pieces from these and other coins to make smaller denominations (Figure 74). The use of foreign coins reflects some of the economic and political challenges colonists faced prior to the Revolutionary War and highlights how economic hardship and global interactions helped stimulate political movements for independence.
Figure 73a.
Eight real coin, Bolivia, 1681. Donated by the Stack family.
Figure 73b.
Eight real coin, Mexico, 1762.
Figure 74.
Portion of a real coin, Curacao, 1819–1825.
Shortages of coins in colonial America motivated colonists to mint and print their own money. In 1652, the Massachusetts Colony produced the first colonial American coins, and in 1690, it issued the first colonial paper money (Figures 75–77). Colonists’ creation of currencies demonstrated their increasing autonomy from Great Britain.
Figure 75.
New England shilling coin, Massachusetts Colony, 1652. Donated by Emery May Holden Norweb.
Figure 76.
Pine tree shilling coin, Massachusetts Colony, 1667–1674. Donated by Emery May Holden Norweb.
Figure 77.
Altered twenty shilling note, Massachusetts Colony, 1690–1691.
At the beginning of the Civil War the U.S. government issued federal notes, often called greenbacks, to finance its war efforts (Figures 78 and 79). The government of the Confederate States of America also issued its own paper money depicting Confederate leadership and scenes from life in the South, including images of slavery (Figure 80). The difference in political messages on the notes reflects the division between the northern and southern regions of the United States during the Civil War.
Figure 78.
Five dollar demand note, United States, 1861. Donated by Roland S. Wilson.
Figure 79.
Five dollar demand note, United States, 1861. Donated by Roland S. Wilson.
Figure 80.
Ten dollar note, Confederate States of America, 1861. Donated by Woodbury S. Ober.
The depiction of the first U.S. president, George Washington, on money has changed dramatically over the last two centuries. In early appearances, Washington was depicted crowned with a laurel wreath, like the emperors of ancient Rome, and in a toga like a mythological god (Figures 81–83). Over time, his look became less regal, increasingly reflecting the democratic role of the presidency (Figure 84).
Figure 81.
Sestertius coin, Roman Empire, 98–117 CE.
Figure 82.
One cent coin, United States, 1783.
Figure 83.
Three dollar note, United States, nineteenth century. Donated by Richard S. Schlein.
Figure 84.
One dollar silver certificate, United States, 1923.
James Madison was the fourth U.S. president and is often referred to as the “Father of the Constitution” because of his role in writing America’s founding documents. His portrait has been featured on the 5,000 dollar denominations of multiple series of U.S. notes (Figure 85). His signature is visible on a personal check he wrote in 1813 (Figure 86).
Figure 85.
Five thousand dollar Federal Reserve note, United States, 1928. Donated by U.S. Department of the Treasury.
Figure 86.
A personal check of James Madison for 69.70 dollars, United States, 1813.
President Abraham Lincoln was the first historic figure to be depicted on a circulating coin issued by the U.S. Mint. The decision to include him on the 1909 cent designed by Victor D. Brenner reflects his position as a symbol of national unity and stability (Figures 87 and 88). Lincoln has also been featured on U.S. paper money (Figure 89).
Figure 87.
One cent coin, United States, 1909. Donated by Frederic A. Delano.
Figure 88.
Abraham Lincoln plaque by Victor D. Brenner, United States, circa 1907. Donated by U.S. Department of the Treasury.
Figure 89.
Five hundred dollar gold certificate, United States, 1922. Donated by U.S. Department of the Treasury.
The languages used on money convey a message about the community for which the currency is intended. Among the earliest bilingual coins are the Indo-Greek drachms from about 160 BCE in modern Afghanistan and Pakistan. They feature both Greek and the Kharoshthi script, used to write an Indian language (Figure 90). This reflects the ethnic and cultural diversity in the region. Many modern notes feature multiple languages and more than one script, such as the 500 ruble note from the Republic of Azerbaijan, which has Latin, Cyrillic, and Arabic script (Figure 91).
Figure 90.
Drachm coin, Bactria, circa 160 BCE. Donated by Raymond and Meryem Hebert.
Figure 91.
Five hundred ruble note, Republic of Azerbaijan, 1920. Donated by The Chase Manhattan Bank.
The United States took over Puerto Rico during the Spanish–American War in 1898. The peso cent sketch (Figure 92) drawn by U.S. Mint engraver Charles E. Barber indicates that the United States may have considered issuing a peso coin worth sixty cents in 1899 for the “Isla de Puerto Rico.” The coin was never issued, but the sketch is a reminder of the long history of multilingualism in America and the significance of the choice of language on money.
Figure 92.
Peso cent sketch, United States, 1899. Donated by the Stack family.
Money has often been used to carry religious messages. The United States first included “In God We Trust” on circulating coins in 1864 (Figure 93). The inclusion of religious messages was also widespread in the Islamic world. From the seventh to the nineteenth century, many Islamic coins stated versions of the Profession of Faith—“There is no God but God alone”—and religious verses from the Quran (Figures 94 and 95).
Figure 93.
One dollar coin, United States, 1921. Donated by Jeff Garrett.
Figure 94.
Dinar coin, Umayyad dynasty–ruled Middle East, 713–714 CE.
Figure 95.
Dirhem coin, Damascus (Syria), 698–699 CE. Donated by Raymond and Meryem Hebert.
The word money is derived from the Roman goddess Juno Moneta. She did not represent money to ancient Romans; rather, her name meant “she who warns.”4 She became associated with money because coins were minted in her temple in Rome. Over time, moneta came to be used to refer to places where coins were made and eventually to money itself. Juno Moneta is depicted on this Roman denarius coin from the first century BCE (Figure 96).
Figure 96.
Denarius coin, Roman Republic, 46 BCE. Donated by The Chase Manhattan Bank.
Many nations use money to reflect and define their cultural heritage. Notes from Egypt, for example, feature the pyramids, hieroglyphics, and ancient sculpture. Similarly, Chinese notes depict the Great Wall of China, and colonial notes for the British Mandate for Palestine are decorated with monuments of the Old City of Jerusalem (Figure 97).
Figure 97.
Five hundred mil note, British Mandate for Palestine, 1927. Donated by Catherine Bullowa.
During the Holocaust, Nazi officials created notes for use by Jewish people in concentration camps and ghettos. Jewish people were forced to exchange national currencies for camp and ghetto money, which had limited or no value inside specific places of Nazi imprisonment and served as a device to deceive, isolate, denationalize, and steal from Jewish people.5 Many ghetto and concentration camp currencies feature Jewish symbols, such as the Star of David, and some bear signatures of Jewish leaders of specific communities to associate the currency with the people who were forced to use it. The use and circulation of these currencies varied by location; the notes issued for the Łódz´ ghetto in Poland (Figure 98) could be used to make limited purchases inside the ghetto, whereas the notes created for the Theresienstadt ghetto (Figure 99) in Czechoslovakia supported a Nazi propaganda campaign intended to make the ghetto appear humane to international visitors and organizations, such as the Red Cross.6 Survivors of Theresienstadt recall that they relied on special coupons, rather than these notes, to obtain essential items, such as food and clothing.
Figure 98.
Fifty pfennig note, Łódz´ ghetto and labor camp in Poland, 1940. Donated by the Stack family.
Figure 99.
One hundred kronen note, Theresienstadt ghetto and concentration camp in Czechoslovakia, 1943.
Emergency currencies have often been issued during wartime. After the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941, the United States withdrew its regular notes from Hawaii and issued notes printed with the island’s name to protect the national currency in case Hawaii fell to Japanese invasion (Figure 100). Armies also issued currencies specifically for prisoners of war (Figure 101).
Figure 100.
Five dollar “Hawaii” Federal Reserve note, United States, circa 1942. Donated by Mrs. F. C. C. Boyd.
Figure 101.
Fifty centime coupon, France, 1914–1919.
The currencies in Figures 102 and 103 were issued by Allied governments during and immediately after the Second World War. The lira and mark notes are called Allied Military Currencies and were used by both military officials and civilians in newly occupied areas to protect Allied national currencies from inflation. The British government also issued Armed Forces Special Vouchers in an attempt to prevent military goods from being sold on the postwar black market.
Figure 102.
One lira Allied Military note, Italy, 1943. Donated by Mr. and Mrs. Mortimer L. Neinken.
Figure 103.
One thousand mark Allied Military note, Germany, 1944.
During the 1830s and the early 1840s, the United States faced economic decline and a shortage of coins. Copper tokens, called hard-times tokens, were issued privately and used as money. Some contain satirical images, such as a tortoise carrying a safe with the word “Treasury” on it (Figure 104).7
Figure 104.
Hard-times token, United States, 1837. Donated by Mendel L. Peterson.
Food stamps are issued by the U.S. government to low-income families and individuals and are accepted by most grocery stores as money for food purchases. The United States first began issuing food stamps in 1939 to help struggling families during the Great Depression. Since then, the government has also developed special programs for mothers and babies in need (Figure 105).
Figure 105.
Food certificate, United States, circa 1970. Donated by U.S. Department of Agriculture.
In the late seventeenth century, Russian Emperor Peter I instituted a tax on beards because he regarded them as in poor taste when compared with modern fashions in Europe. Any man who wanted to keep his beard was forced to pay a tax and carry a token (Figure 106). The token depicts a beard and mustache.
Figure 106.
Beard token, Russia, 1705. Donated by Willis H. du Pont.
