Content Area: Early Europe and Colonial Americas, 200–1750 C.E.

13

Gothic Art in Italy

TIME PERIOD: 1250–1400

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING: The culture, beliefs, and physical settings of a region play an important role in the creation, subject matter, and siting of works of art.

Learning Objective: Discuss how the culture, beliefs, or physical setting can influence the making of a work of art. (For example: Giotto, Lamentation)

Essential Knowledge:

■Gothic art is a part of the medieval artistic tradition.

■In the Gothic period, royal courts emphasized the study of theology, music, and writing.

■Gothic art avoids naturalism and emphasizes stylistic variety. Text is often incorporated into artwork from this period.

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING: Cultural interaction through war, trade, and travel could influence art and art making.

Learning Objective: Discuss how works of art are influenced by cultural interaction.

Essential Knowledge:

■There is an active exchange of artistic ideas throughout the Middle Ages.

■There is a great influence of Roman, Early Medieval, and Islamic art on Gothic art.

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING: Art and art making can be influenced by a variety of concerns including audience, function, and patron.

Learning Objective: Discuss how art can be influenced by audience, function, and/or patron. (For example: The Arena or Scrovegni Chapel)

Essential Knowledge:

■Works of art were often displayed in religious or court settings.

■Surviving architecture is mostly religious.

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING: Art history is best understood through an evolving tradition of theories and interpretations.

Learning Objective: Discuss how works of art have had an evolving interpretation based on visual analysis and interdisciplinary evidence.

Essential Knowledge:

■The study of art history is shaped by changing analyses based on scholarship, theories, context, and written records.

■Contextual information comes from written records that are religious or civic.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Italy did not exist as a unified entity the way it does today. The peninsula was divided into a spectrum of city-states, some quite small, ruled by an assortment of princes, prelates, and the occasional republic, like Venice. Citizens identified themselves as Sienese or Florentines, not as Italians. The varied topography and differences in the local dialects of the Italian language often made the distinction from one state to another even more profound. Sometimes, as in the case of modern Sicilian, the linguistic differences are enough to be classified as a separate language.

Few things seem more complicated to the modern viewer than Italian medieval politics, characterized as it is by routinely shifting allegiances that break into splinter groups and reform into new alliances. Those who lost power were either killed or driven from their city. Sometimes they regrouped and returned for revenge. Add to this military interventions from outside forces, such as the Holy Roman Empire or France, and medieval Italy becomes a complicated network of splintering associations.

With such instability it is a wonder that any works of art were completed, but this behavior does explain why many pieces come down to us in fragmentary condition, and why artists who were favored by one monarch may not have completed a work when another ruler came to power.

Patronage and Artistic Life

Medieval artists worked within an elaborate network called the guild system, in which artwork was regulated as an industry like any other. Guilds were artist associations that determined, among other things, how long apprenticeships should take, how many apprentices an artist could have, and what the proper route would be for an artist trying to establish him- or herself on his or her own. However, female artists were rare, because apprentices lived with their teacher, creating a situation unthinkable for females.

After a successful internship, former apprentices entered the guild as mature artists and full members. The guild helped to regulate commissions as well as ensure that not too many people entered the field, a situation that would have driven down prices. The guild system remained in effect until replaced by the free-market approach that took hold in the eighteenth century.

Artistic patronage was particularly strong among preaching orders of friars, such as the Franciscans, the devoted followers of Saint Francis of Assisi, and the Dominicans, the faithful followers of Saint Dominic de Guzman. Coalescing early in the thirteenth century, both groups abstained from material concerns and committed themselves to helping the poor and the sick. Since the Dominicans stressed teaching, they were instrumental in commissioning narrative pulpits and altarpieces for their churches so that the faithful could learn important Christian tenets. The Franciscan mother church in Assisi has a program of frescoes unequaled in trecento art, in part devoted to the life of the charismatic Saint Francis.

Italian citizens had a strong devotional attachment to their local church, sometimes being buried inside. Families commissioned artists to decorate private chapels, occasionally with members of the family serving as models in a religious scene. If a family could not afford a whole chapel, they perhaps could sponsor a sculpture or an altarpiece. Analogously, rulers, church leaders, and civic-minded institutions led by laypersons commissioned works for public display, using them to legitimize their reign or express their public generosity.

The modern approach to art, as a business run by professionals, has its origins in the Late Gothic period. Contracts between artists and patrons were drawn up, bookkeeping records of transactions between the two were maintained, and artists self-consciously and confidently began signing works more regularly. Artists’ signatures indicate their rising status—a radical break from the general anonymity in which earlier medieval artists had toiled—and a self-conscious need publicly to associate their names with works of art of which they were particularly proud.

ITALIAN GOTHIC PAINTING

The trend in Gothic sculpture is to liberate works from the wall, allowing them to occupy space independent of their architectural framework. Concurrently, Italian painting of the Late Gothic period is characterized by large scale panels that stand on their own.

Wall paintings in the Middle Ages emphasize the flatness of the wall surface, encouraging artists to produce compositions that are frontal and linear. Late Gothic artists prefer to shade figures convincingly and reach for a three-dimensional reality.

At first, artists accepted Byzantine formulas for pictorial representation, referred to as the maniera greca or Italo-Byzantine. Subsequent Florentine painters, however, particularly under the guidance of Giotto and his followers, began to move away from this tradition and toward a different concept of reality that substantiated masses and anchored figures to ground lines. Through expressive faces and meaningful gestures, emotions become more palpable and dynamic. Florentine painting dares to experiment with compositional arrangements, moving the focus away from the center of the painting.

Unknown architect, Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel, c. 1303, brick, Padua, Italy (Figure 13.1a)

Figure 13.1a: Unknown architect, Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel, c. 1303, brick, Padua, Italy

Context

■The Arena Chapel was built by an unknown architect over an ancient Roman arena—hence the name.

■It is also called the Scrovegni Chapel after the name of the patron, Enrico Scrovegni.

■It was built to expiate the sin of usury through which Scrovegni’s father amassed a fortune; shows the rise of patronage from the European business class.

■Some narrative scenes illustrate biblical episodes of ill-gotten gains.

■The life of Christ appears on one side of the chapel, the life of Mary on the other.

Content Area Early Europe and Colonial Americas, Image 63

■Cross-Cultural Comparisons for Essay Question 1: Fresco Interiors

–Pentheus Room (Figure 6.13)

–Sistine Chapel (Figure 16.2a)

–Tomb of the Triclinium (Figure 5.3)

Giotto, Last Judgment from the Arena Chapel, 1305, fresco, Padua, Italy (Figure 13.1b)

Figure 13.1b: Giotto, Last Judgment from the Arena Chapel, 1305, fresco, Padua, Italy

Content

■Christ as judge, coming at the end of the world.

■Heavenly powers are arranged in an organized chorus; heads aligned in a row.

■Twelve apostles are arranged symmetrically around Christ.

■Cross at bottom center divides the saved from the damned.

■On the side of the saved is Enrico Scrovegni in his role as donor presenting a model of the church to angels.

■At right is the devil, who eats and excretes sinners.

■Those guilty of usury or money-related sins like prostitution are particularly noted.

Content Area Early Europe and Colonial Americas, Image 63

Giotto, Lamentation from the Arena Chapel, 1305, fresco, Padua, Italy (Figure 13.1c)

Figure 13.1c: Giotto, Lamentation from the Arena Chapel, 1305, fresco, Padua, Italy

Form

■Shallow stage; figures occupy a palpable space pushed forward toward the picture plane.

■Diagonal cliff formation points to main action daringly placed in lower left-hand corner.

■Modeling indicates direction of light; light falls from above right.

■Figures seen from the back isolate the main action.

Content

■Lamentation shows scenes of Jesus’s followers mourning his death. Usually the scene contains Mary, Saint John, and Mary Magdalene.

■Saint John throws his hands back—recalling his iconographical symbol as an eagle; Mary Magdalene cradles Jesus’s feet; Mary holds Jesus’s head.

■At left is the Old Testament scene of Jonah being swallowed by the whale and returning to life, a parallel with the New Testament scene of Christ dying and rising from the dead.

■Range of emotions: heavy sadness, quiet resignation, flaming outbursts, despair.

■Sadness of scene emphasized by grieving angels.

■Leafless tree echoes the theme of death in the painting; also represents the tree of the knowledge of good and evil in the Garden of Eden, which dies after Adam and Eve are expelled; a dead tree also symbolizes the wood of the cross Jesus was crucified on.

■Christians believe Jesus sacrificed himself, in part, to expiate the expulsion from the ­Garden of Eden.

Content Area Early Europe and Colonial Americas, Image 63

Web Source http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/arth213/arenachapel.html

■Cross-Cultural Comparisons for Essay Question 1: Pathos

–Seated boxer (Figure 4.10)

–Kollwitz, Memorial Sheet for Karl Liebknecht (Figure 22.4)

–Abakanowicz, Androgyn III (Figure 29.7)

VOCABULARY

Lamentation: scenes that show Jesus’s followers mourning his death. Usually the scene contains Mary, Saint John, and Mary Magdalene (Figure 13.1c)

Last Judgment: in Christianity, the judgment before God at the end of the world (Figure 13.1b)

Maniera greca: (Italian for “Greek manner”) a style of painting based on Byzantine models that was popular in Italy in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries

Tempera: a type of paint employing egg yolk as the binding medium that is noted for its quick drying rate and flat opaque colors

Trecento: the 1300s, or fourteenth century, in Italian art

SUMMARY

It is not degrading to trecento artists to say that Late Gothic art in Italy is a bridge period between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Italian artists were inspired by Roman works, broke away from Byzantine traditions, and established strong schools of painting in the trecento. Florentine artists like Giotto concentrate on mass and solidity, often using shading to create the suggestion of three dimensions.

PRACTICE EXERCISES

Multiple-Choice

Questions 1 and 2 refer to the image below.

1.Among the innovations seen in this work is the artist’s

(A)combination of fresco, tempera, and oil paint, which allowed for greater detail

(B)affinity for human emotions in Christian subject matter

(C)ability to paint works in a series

(D)referencing of Old and New Testament scenes side by side

2.The scene in the back of the Arena Chapel over the main door is the same scene depicted in

(A)the tympanum of the Church of Sainte-Foy, Conques

(B)the Great Portal, west façade, Chartres

(C)the Golden Haggadah

(D)Blanche of Castile and Louis IX of France in a moralized Bible

3.The artistic revival known as the Renaissance began with painters like Giotto and was stimulated in part by the

(A)use of stained glass, which had fallen into disuse

(B)building of Gothic cathedrals

(C)preaching of the Franciscans

(D)discovery of the ancient city of Pompeii

4.The fresco technique can be characterized by

(A)use of rich colors, containing warm and vibrant hues

(B)a permanence that will last as long as the wall surface remains untouched

(C)a glowing iridescence that makes the surface resemble shimmering mosaics

(D)a rapid technique without the use of preliminary drawings or preparatory studies

5.Enrico Scrovegni, the patron of the Arena Chapel, had the building built and decorated to

(A)expiate the sin of usury, which his family had committed

(B)honor the memory of Saint Francis of Assisi

(C)commemorate the Virgin of Guadalupe

(D)house the tombs of his family and his descendants

Long Essay

Practice Question 1: Comparison

Suggested Time: 35 minutes

The illustration below is the Lamentation by Giotto from the Arena Chapel, dated around 1305.

Identify the scene in the margin on the left.

Using at least two specific examples, discuss how the secondary scene adds to or completes the meaning of the main scene in this work.

Select and completely identify another work of art that shows a secondary scene that represents a reflection on the main scene in a work of art. You may choose a work listed below or any other work of your choice.

Using at least two specific examples, discuss how the secondary scene adds to or completes the meaning of the principal scene in your chosen work.

Discuss how each scene functions in the original context of each work.

Campin and workshop, Annunciation Triptych

Grünewald, Isenheim altarpiece

ANSWER KEY

1.B

2.A

3.C

4.B

5.A

ANSWERS EXPLAINED

Multiple-Choice

1.(B) Giotto’s innovations include painting figures with profoundly human expressions.

2.(A) Both the Arena Chapel and the tympanum of Sainte-Foy have scenes of the Last Judgment.

3.(C) Franciscan preaching was an important element in the revival of Renaissance art.

4.(B) Frescoes are water-based paints that are more muted than rich, warm, or iridescent. Artists used many preparatory sketches and preliminary drawings to create these carefully designed works. The fresco will generally last as long as the wall it is attached to lasts.

5.(A) Enrico Scrovegni had the chapel built, in part, to expiate the sin of usury. His father amassed a considerable fortune at this practice, and Scrovegni felt the need to atone.

Long Essay Rubric

Task	Point Value	Key Points in a Good Response
Identify the scene in the margin on the left.	1	The scene on the left is of Jonah and the Whale, from the Book of Jonah in the Old Testament.
Using at least two specific examples, discuss how the secondary scene adds to or completes the meaning of the principal scene in this work.	2	Answers could include: ■Jonah is swallowed by a whale, but later comes out of the whale’s belly and is reborn. ■Jesus died on the cross but rose from the dead three days later—a New Testament reflection on the Old Testament story. ■In a sense they are both reborn; hence the parallel of the Old and New Testament scenes.
Select and completely identify another work of art that shows a secondary scene that represents a ­reflection on the main scene in a work of art.	1	Answers could include: ■Campin (or workshop), Annunciation Triptych, 1425–1428, oil on wood. ■Grünewald, Isenheim altarpiece, 1512–1516, oil on panel.
Using at least two specific ­examples, discuss how the ­secondary scene adds to or ­completes the meaning of the ­principal scene in your chosen work.	2	For the Annunciation Triptych, answers could include: ■In the left panel, the donors, middle-class people, kneel before the holy scene; a door leads directly into the main room. ■In the left scene, the enclosed garden and the rose bush are symbols of Mary. ■The right panel depicts Joseph at work in his carpentry shop; he is often shown removed from the main scene because he is Mary’s husband, but not Jesus’s father. ■Symbols in the right scene include, among other things, a mousetrap, which symbolizes capturing the devil. For the Isenheim altarpiece, answers could include: ■The altarpiece was placed in a hospital for the treatment of ergotism, the effects of which are visible in Christ’s body, including amputation of an arm, symbolized by the opening of the altarpiece which cuts his arm. ■Amputation of Christ’s legs in the predella scene indicates another amputation. ■A disease called Saint Anthony’s fire was treated at this hospital. It explains why Saint Anthony is placed on the right panel of the first view. ■Saint Sebastian, on the left panel, is a martyr who died because of wounds.
Discuss how each scene functions in the original context of each work.	2	For the Lamentation, answers could include: ■Part of the Arena Chapel. Each main scene is an episode from the life of Christ and Mary. Each main scene is flanked by a coordinating scene from the Old Testament. For the Annunciation altarpiece, answers could ­include: ■This is a devotional work that is meant for private worship, hence the more intimate scale. The depiction of the donors in the wings indicates, among other things, their piety and devotion to Christianity. For the Isenheim altarpiece, answers could include: ■Placement of this painting, with its scenes of suffering, in a hospital would open up a direct dialogue between Christ and the patient. ■Ultimately, the painting seeks to reassure people that there is a better life awaiting them.