Part B

Language, Learning and Education

Part B, the central part of the book, is also central to the practice of applied linguistics in that the topics we address here include many of the most important and most studied aspects of the discipline. In Chapter 6, we tackle the key problem of literacy; a collection of learned behaviours which underpin how we judge the ability of (ourselves and) others to perform any task involving reading or writing, and yet which often remain a largely unrecognized element of the task. In this chapter, we hope to show how the written forms of language, and associated practices developed by readers and writers, are not static or universal, but rather highly diverse and shaped to fit particular purposes and uses in different contexts. Chapter 7, on language and education, considers language in one of its most studied and controversial domains, that of formal schooling. We probably all have strong opinions about which language(s) are suitable for the purposes of education and how they ought and ought not to be used in schools. As applied linguists, however, it is our role to show how notions of ‘standard varieties’, ‘norms’ and ‘correctness’ are socially constructed, and may bring both benefit and harm when used to judge the language of individuals and groups.

Chapter 8, on bilingual and multilingual education, examines the problem of schooling in multiple languages, a pressing and equally controversial, yet poorly understood, issue in many communities around the world. In Chapter 9 we investigate the area of applied linguistics which has received the most attention from both scholars and practitioners to date, additional language education. In keeping with our intention to map areas which have only recently come to be regarded as squarely within the field of applied linguistics, and unlike other introductory texts, we devote only one chapter to the rapidly evolving (but instantly and extensively mapped) concerns of this area.

All the chapters in Part B deal with the important issue of variation within (and between) languages, and to attitudes to these varieties. Chapter 6, for example, looks at how multiple forms of reading and writing have evolved over time and are manifested within contemporary societies and individuals. Chapter 7 explores controversies over which languages and varieties of language are suitable for use in schools, as well as how socially sanctioned varieties may differ from the varieties used in pupils’ homes. Chapter 8 shows how the choice and balance of languages in bilingual education settings arise from often hidden ideas about an additional language as a resource, a right and/or a problem. The question of which variety of an additional language to teach has, until recently, been overlooked, with learners encouraged to believe (by materials publishing companies, standardized tests, private language schools and national governments) in monolithic correct versions and ‘one-size-fits-all’ targets. Chapter 9 addresses some of these issues and how language teachers can raise their students’ awareness of them.

Closely connected to the issue of variation within and between languages are problems of (lack of) freedom and (in)equality. Taken collectively, the topics addressed in Part B highlight how language policies and practices in education can benefit but also harm student speakers and writers. Education practitioners are often encouraged by their training to see their role as enforcing (with students as subjects) one, or a limited range of, language variety(ies), rather than exploring them (with students as co-researchers). This always raises the danger that, by ignoring or repressing the literacies and language varieties that students bring to class (or that they may need in future), the range of linguistic expression they are able to deploy is narrowed rather than expanded. Similarly, where only prestigious languages, varieties of a language or literacy practices are promoted, the prestige of students who already have these languages/varieties/practices is reinforced and the gap between ‘approved’ and ‘not approved’ becomes wider.

The chapters in Part B raise many of the concerns of critical applied linguistics. All of the topics here challenge us to think very carefully about the connections between why (and how) language is learned (especially in educational institutions), and the social, economic and political contexts of language use (and assessment). As applied linguists we are faced with the responsibility of going further than thinking, towards taking action to encourage and facilitate the thinking of our students and the policy-makers who guide (and control?) our decisions about teaching and assessing languages.

We are aware, despite a strong emphasis of the social aspects of language learning in Part B, that the complex problems faced by applied linguists can be solved only through attention to the cognitive and sociocultural dimensions of language. As a result, in line with our practice in the rest of the book, we stress the transdisciplinary nature of applied linguistic practice, as applied linguists in one field rely on knowledge and tools developed in other fields. Similarly, while professionals and scholars in bilingual and additional language education have long recognized the necessary centrality of language in their work, this part of the book aims to show the importance of language for education in general, and for judgements about the educational achievements of individuals and groups.

In each chapter, we:

   present some of the main problems faced by applied linguists and language practitioners in educational contexts;

   identify and explain key concepts and terms;

   exemplify and explain solutions proposed by applied linguists;

   describe the roles currently, and potentially, played by applied linguists.

At the end of each chapter, we provide activities to encourage you to think about applied linguistics learning and practice in your own contexts and those you may be preparing to work in: at home, in class, in professional contexts; locally, regionally, internationally and virtually. These activities invite you to reflect on, and apply, the concepts presented by identifying similar problems and proposing possible solutions. For updated examples, additional and interactive activities, and further reading related to Part B, check the companion website.