Introducing pronouns
Introducing pronounsDefinition
See page 6.
Forms
Like nouns, English pronouns have gender, number, and case, but further distinctions can be made. They also show person.
PERSON English distinguishes three persons. First person is the one who is speaking (I, me, we, us). Second person is the one being spoken to (you). Third person is the one being spoken about (he, him, she, her, it, they, them). Both pronouns and verbs are listed according to person.
GENDER Some, but not all, pronouns can be distinguished by gender. I can refer to either a man or a woman. She, however, is always feminine, he always masculine, and it, even if it refers to an animal, is always neuter.
NUMBER Each of the three persons may be either singular or plural.
CASE Pronouns show more cases than nouns: the subjective (for example, I and she), the possessive (for example, my/mine and her/hers), and the objective (me and her). These are discussed below, under Uses.
Uses
Personal pronouns have the same functions as nouns.
1. Subject
She is here.
2. Direct object
I like them.
3. Indirect object
I am giving him the book.
4. Object of a preposition
The question is hard for me.
5. Complement
It is she who is speaking.
Types
There are several types of pronouns.
1. Personal (page 22)
2. Possessive (page 26)
3. Reflexive/reciprocal (page 28)
4. Disjunctive (page 30)
5. Relative (page 32)
6. Demonstrative (page 36)
7. Interrogative (page 38)
Introducing pronounsDefinitions, forms, and uses are the same for French and English pronouns. However, there are three important differences to be aware of.
1. In French, the personal pronoun for you has two forms in the singular—the familiar (tu) and the formal (vous). The plural form is always vous.
Tu is used to address the following.
A member of your family
Yourself
A close friend
A fellow student or colleague
A child (under age 13)
An inferior (sometimes as an insult)
An animal
God
Vous is used for everyone else. Be careful: Unless the case is clear (for example, a dog or a small child), use vous and allow the French person to suggest using tu. A complication is that this use is largely a personal preference; some people never use tu except for family members, children, and animals.
2. On (the equivalent of the English pronoun one) is listed with personal pronouns because it is used very frequently in French—much more so than one in American English, which tends to use you or they for an indefinite subject (for example, It’s true, you know or They say that...).
On may replace any personal pronoun to avoid being too personal. Circumstances indicate what is being referred to.
On est invité à… is more modest than “We got an invitation to...”.
However, regardless of the pronoun replaced, on always takes a third-person singular verb.
3. There is no neuter gender in French: Il replaces masculine things as well as people, and elle replaces feminine ones. In the third-person plural, ils is used both for groups of masculine people or things and for mixed groups; elles is used only for all-feminine groups.
Personal pronouns
He sees me, and I see you.
You found them.
Personal pronounsIn French, a subject pronoun must always be of the same gender and number as the noun that it replaces.
Note the lowercase j of je in the first-person singular.
Il me voit, et je vous vois.
Vous les avez trouvés.
The final letter/vowel of a singular form elides (is dropped) before a vowel or silent h.
Il m’aime.
Elle l’ adore.
For the third person, choosing the correct pronoun is easy if you remember that the pronoun is the same as the definite article; in the following example, the definite article and pronoun are le.
POSITION Except in affirmative commands, an object pronoun in French is placed directly before the conjugated verb or infinitive of which it is the object.
The object pronoun is also placed directly before the verb in a question or a negative sentence.
The only exception is in affirmative commands.
In negative commands, the pronoun is placed before the verb.
For more information about pronouns with commands, see page 109.
Personal pronouns (continued)
They send the letter to us.
He writes her a letter.
I bought a dress for her.
I got them a ticket.
After a preposition, English uses the same form of the pronoun as for direct objects.
Be careful with compound pronoun subjects or objects. These remain in the same case as that for a single subject or object.
I am French. She and I are French.
This is between us. This is between you and me.
Give it to them. Give it to him and her.
WORD ORDER When there are two pronoun objects in English, the direct object comes before the indirect object.
He shows it to them.
When a noun and a pronoun are used together, word order can vary.
Personal pronouns (continued)In French, the indirect object is often used where English would use a preposition plus object.
Indirect object pronouns are placed before the verb, just as direct object pronouns are.
Most prepositions require the disjunctive pronouns in French (see page 31). However, two pronouns replace both a preposition and its object.
En replaces de plus a noun.
Y replaces à plus a noun or any place preposition plus a noun.
Je pense souvent à mon lycée.
Le billet est dans mon sac.
WORD ORDER Some French verbs often have more than one pronoun object.
The order of pronouns before a verb is determined as follows.
1. Remember “1-2-3.” A first-person pronoun comes before a second-person pronoun, and a second-person pronoun comes before a third-person pronoun.
2. If there are two third-person objects, the direct object comes before the indirect object.
3. Y and en always come last, and in that order.
QUICK CHECK
Remember that me, te, le, la become m’, t’, l’ before a vowel or silent h.
Possessive pronounsDefinition
A possessive pronoun replaces a possessive adjective (or a noun in the possessive) plus a noun.
Forms
Possessive pronouns have person and number; in the third-person singular, they also have gender. They do not have case, that is, they have the same form no matter what function they perform in a sentence.
If you know the person, gender, and number of the possessor (Mary in the example below), there is only one choice for the pronoun (in this example, hers).
You have your book; where is Mary’s book (her book)?
To avoid repeating book, it is replaced along with the possessive noun or adjective in front of it. Since Mary’s (or her) is third-person singular feminine, hers is the correct pronoun.
You have your book; where is hers?
Personal pronouns (continued)In affirmative commands, the objects follow the verb. The direct object comes before the indirect object, regardless of person.
QUICK CHECK
ORDER FOR AFFIRMATIVE COMMANDS ONLY
Moi, toi, le, la become m’, t’, l’ before a vowel or silent h.
Possessive pronounsForms
In French, possessive pronouns have person and number as in English, but they also have gender changes for the singular forms. “Person” means the possessor, while gender and number are determined by what is owned.
Even though Marie is female, the possessive pronoun is masculine singular (son livre, le sien), because livre is masculine. Likewise, although Jean is male, chemises is feminine plural and therefore requires a feminine plural pronoun (ses chemises, les siennes).
Reflexive/reciprocal pronounsDefinition
Reflexive pronouns are pronoun objects or complements that refer to the same person(s) or thing(s) as another element in the sentence, usually the subject.
Forms
Uses
Reflexive pronouns are used as objects of verbs and prepositions.
Types
A reflexive pronoun is normally used only when the subject acts directly on himself/herself or does something for himself/herself directly.
Paul cut himself.
I told myself it didn’t matter.
Occasionally, reflexive pronouns are used idiomatically.
They always enjoy themselves.
For mutual or reciprocal action, each other or one another is used. This expression does not change form.
They congratulated each other.
You two saw each other last night.
Reflexive pronouns can function as direct or indirect object pronouns.
They saw each other.
We talked to each other yesterday.
In English, reflexive and reciprocal objects are often omitted.
We talked yesterday. (To each other is understood.)
Sometimes, a construction is used that requires no object.
Paul got hurt. (Hurt himself is understood.)
However, consider the following sentence.
We washed this morning.
If you have not heard the rest of the conversation, the meaning is ambiguous. The sentence may have either of the following meanings.
We washed ourselves (got washed).
We washed our clothes (did the laundry).
Reflexive/reciprocal pronounsForms
The forms of French reflexive/reciprocal pronouns are the same as the forms of the direct and indirect object pronouns, except for the third person.
Reflexive/reciprocal pronouns are placed in the same position in a sentence as object pronouns.
Uses
These pronouns are used as objects (either direct or indirect) of the verb (see page 14). They can be either reflexive or reciprocal, meaning either “self” or “each other.”
If the meaning is not clear, words can be added, especially l’un(e) (à) l’autre, les un(e)s les autres.
Ils se regardent les un(e)s les autres.
DIRECT OBJECT
Ils se parlent les un(e)s aux autres.
INDIRECT OBJECT
French uses many more reflexives than English, because transitive verbs must have objects in French. Contrast the following sentences.
Some French verbs are only reflexive. Even though the reflexive pronoun is used in French, it is not translated in English.
Following is the present tense of the reflexive verb s’arrêter.
Disjunctive pronounsDefinition
A disjunctive pronoun is not attached to a verb. (Disjunctive means “not joined.”) It is used alone or as an extra word to give special emphasis or to intensify an impression.
Forms and uses
The form of a disjunctive pronoun depends on its use.
1. Used alone, the disjunctive pronoun is in the subjective case (if required) in formal English, and in the objective case for informal use.
Who’s there? I. (formal; I am is understood)
Me. (informal)
2. As an intensifier, the reflexive pronoun is normally used.
I’ll do it myself!
He told me so himself.
3. Sometimes, we merely raise our voices for emphasis.
You do it!
Disjunctive pronounsForms
The disjunctive pronouns have special forms in French.
Uses
Disjunctive pronouns may be used
1. alone.
Qui est là? Moi!
2. as a complement after c’est.
C’est toi!
3. as an intensifier.
4. with même for emphasis.
5. after prepositions and conjunctions.
Après nous, le déluge. (Madame de Pompadour)
Paul est plus grand que toi.
6. in compound subjects.
Jean et moi, nous y allons.
7. in affirmative commands.
Donnez-moi votre billet.
Relative pronounsDefinition
Relative pronouns begin a relative clause. They refer to a noun, called the antecedent, and usually come directly after that noun.
Forms
Relative pronouns have the following forms in English.
The correct pronoun is determined by the following factors.
1. Whether the antecedent is a person or a thing
2. The function of the pronoun in the clause
3. For subjects and objects, whether the clause is restrictive or nonrestrictive
A restrictive clause defines the noun. That is used, and the clause is not set off by commas.
The book that you just read is world-renowned.
Without the clause, you would not know which book is meant. It is an essential definition.
A nonrestrictive clause describes the noun, rather than defines it. It is not necessary to form a complete sentence. Who, whom, or which is used, and the clause is set off by commas.
Madame Bovary, which the class is going to read, is very famous.
The relative clause could be eliminated, and the sentence would still make sense. It is a nonessential description.
Uses
Relative pronouns have several uses.
1. They introduce clauses that give additional information about the antecedent.
2. They allow you to join two short sentences to make your writing smoother and to avoid repetition.
Mrs. Dubois came yesterday. Mrs. Dubois is an expert pianist.
→ Mrs. Dubois, who is an expert pianist, came yesterday.
3. They can be subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, possessives, or objects of a preposition in the relative clause.
4. They are inflected only for case, not for person or number. Their form depends on their function in the clause.
The function of the antecedent in the main clause has no effect on the form of the relative pronoun.
Relative pronounsForms
Relative pronouns have the following forms in French.
Remember to use contractions with à and de, for example, duquel (see page 73).
Unlike English, French does not use different pronouns to distinguish between restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses.
Le livre que vous venez de lire est célèbre dans le monde entier. Madame Bovary, que la classe va lire, est très célèbre.
Relative pronouns are often omitted in English.
That’s the man I saw yesterday!
French does not allow this.
C’est l’homme que j’ai vu hier.
All relative pronouns must have antecedents. If there isn’t one, ce is supplied.
He didn’t come, which surprised me. (which = subject)
There is no antecedent for which, so ce plus a relative pronoun is used.
Il n’est pas venu, ce qui m’a surpris.
If the relative pronoun had been que or dont, ce que or ce dont would have been used.
A relative pronoun can take any form of the verb in its clause. This is also true of English, but many people do not follow this practice.
This can cause problems, because relative pronouns (in English and French) often look the same as interrogatives (for example, who? and what?), which always take a verb in the third person.
How to analyze relative pronouns
1. Find the repeated element. → Mr. Smith
2. Find the function of the repeated element in the second sentence, which will become the relative clause. → the subject
3. Choose the relative pronoun. → who (person, subject)
4. Copy the first sentence through the antecedent. → Mr. Smith...
5. Put in the correct relative pronoun, in this case, who. → Mr. Smith, who...
6. Copy the relative clause. → Mr. Smith, who made these pies...
7. Copy the rest of the first sentence. Leave out any parts represented by the relative pronoun. → Mr. Smith, who made these pies, is an excellent cook.
Other examples follow.
The ten books are on the table. I am reading them.
The ten books that I am reading are on the table.
That is used because it
1. is the object of am reading in the clause (no commas).
2. refers to a thing.
3. is restrictive (defines which ten books).
Mr. Jones died today. I saw him yesterday.
Mr. Jones, whom I saw yesterday, died today.
Whom is used because it
1. is the object of I saw (with commas).
2. refers to a person.
3. is nonrestrictive. (You already know who Mr. Jones is. This merely gives an extra fact about him.)
The student is asleep. I am speaking to that student.
The student to whom I am speaking is asleep.
To whom is used because it
1. is the indirect object (no commas).
2. refers to a person.
3. is restrictive (defines which student).
The old house is falling down. I lived in that house as a child.
The old house where (in which) I lived as a child is falling down.
Where is used because it
1. replaces a place preposition plus noun object (no commas).
2. refers to a thing. (In which is also correct.)
The woman lives in New York. I took her coat.
The woman whose coat I took lives in New York.
Whose is used because it
1. is possessive (no commas).
2. refers to a person.
3. is restrictive (defines which woman).
How to analyze relative pronounsThe important considerations are function in the clause and word order.
M. Smith est un excellent chef.
M. Smith a fait ces tartes.
1. Find the repeated element. → M. Smith
2. Identify the function of the repeated element in the second sentence, which will become the relative clause. → the subject
3. Choose the relative pronoun. → qui
4. Copy the first sentence through the noun phrase to be described. → M. Smith…
5. Put in the relative pronoun (with preposition, if any) to replace the second M. Smith. → M. Smith, qui…
6. Copy the rest of the second sentence (now a relative clause). → M. Smith, qui a fait ces tartes,…
7. Copy the rest of the first sentence. → M. Smith, qui a fait ces tartes, est un excellent chef.
Try this with other sentences. Follow the same steps until they feel natural.
Les dix livres sont sur la table. Je les lis.
Les dix livres que je lis sont sur la table.
M. Jones est mort aujourd’hui. Je l’ai vu hier.
M. Jones, que j’ai vu hier, est mort aujourd’hui.
L’étudiant est endormi. Je parle à cet étudiant.
L’étudiant à qui je parle est endormi.
La vieille maison s’écroule. Je vivais dans cette maison dans ma jeunesse.
La vieille maison où je vivais dans ma jeunesse s’écroule.
(Dans laquelle may also be used.)
La dame habite à New York. J’ai pris le manteau de cette dame. La dame dont j’ai pris le manteau habite à New York.
This may seem complicated, requiring a lot of thought. That is because people usually use many short sentences when speaking. Relative clauses are used mainly to vary written style—when you have time to think, cross something out, and write it in a different way.
Demonstrative pronounsDefinition
Demonstrative pronouns point out someone or something.
Forms
There are four forms of the demonstrative pronoun in English.
Uses
These pronouns distinguish only between what is near (this, these) and far (that, those) and between singular and plural. No changes are made for gender or case.
I can’t decide which of the chairs to buy.
This one is lovely, but that one is comfortable.
This is lovely, but that is comfortable.
Demonstrative pronounsForms
There are four forms of the demonstrative pronoun in French.
Uses
Demonstrative pronouns replace a demonstrative adjective plus its noun.
In French, demonstrative pronouns are never used alone—something must follow to explain them.
1. -Ci or -là. These distinguish between near (-ci) and far (-là).
These affixes are also used to indicate “former” and “latter.” Since the one “nearest” to the demonstrative pronoun is the last one mentioned, celui-ci means “the latter” and celui-là means “the former.”
Voilà Jean et Marc. Celui-ci (Marc) est français, mais celui-là (Jean) est américain.
2. A prepositional phrase
3. A relative clause
QUICK CHECK
Notice that the form of the demonstrative pronoun is made up of the pronoun ce plus the disjunctive pronoun that would be used for that noun.
Interrogative pronounsDefinition
Interrogative pronouns ask a question.
Forms
Interrogative pronouns have different forms for people and things. The pronoun referring to people, who, is also inflected for case.
No change is made for number. Who?/whom? and what? can refer to one or more than one.
Uses
The interrogative pronouns in English are used in the following ways.
1. Person as subject
Who is coming? John. OR The Smiths.
2. Thing as subject
What is going on? A riot.
3. Person as direct object
Whom did you see? John.
4. Thing as direct object
What are you doing? My homework.
5. Person as indirect object*
To whom are you speaking? To Mary.
6. Person as object of a preposition
With whom are you going? With Jean-Luc.
7. Thing as object of a preposition
What are you thinking about? About the music.
As an interrogative pronoun, which? relates to choice. It can simply be which?, used in the singular or plural, or which one(s)?
Here are two books. Which (one) do you want?
There are many good shops in town. Which (ones) do you like best?
Interrogative pronounsForms
Interrogative pronouns are confusing in both English and French because the forms are used for other purposes, but they are more complex in French because, in most cases, you have a choice of two forms.
Short forms
Long forms
These interrogatives are made up of three parts: an interrogative pronoun + est-ce + a relative pronoun. The first part indicates if it refers to a person or thing; the last part indicates if it is a subject or object; the middle part, est-ce, indicates that the subject and verb are in normal word order.
Uses
The interrogative pronouns in French are used in the following ways.
1. Person as subject
Qui arrive? OR Qui est-ce qui arrive? Jean. OR Les Smith.
2. Thing as subject
Qu’est-ce qui arrive? Une émeute.
3. Person as direct object
Qui avez-vous vu? Qui est-ce que vous avez vu? Jean.
4. Thing as direct object
Que faites-vous? or Qu’est-ce que vous faites? Mes devoirs.
5. Person as indirect object
À qui parlez-vous? À Marie.
6. Person as object of a preposition
Avec qui allez-vous? Avec Jean-Luc.
7. Thing as object of a preposition
À quoi pensez-vous? À la musique.
QUICK CHECK
Interrogative pronouns (continued)Choice interrogatives
Another kind of interrogative pronoun relates to choice: Which one(s)? These forms, which agree in gender and number with the noun they replace, are made up of the definite article + the interrogative adjective.
These interrogatives offer a choice between possibilities.
Voici deux livres. Lequel voulez-vous?
Il y a beaucoup de bonnes boutiques en ville. Lesquelles préférez-vous?