1. The Origins of Mexican Anarchism
1. Peter Alekseevich Kropotkin,
Mutual Aid, pp. XIII-XIV.
2. For an excellent discussion of these points, see George Woodcock,
Anarchism, pp. 201–202.
3. Kropotkin,
Mutual Aid, p. 293.
4. Paul Avrich,
The Russian Anarchists, pp. 28–32.
5. Kropotkin,
Mutual Aid, p. 296.
8. Woodcock,
Anarchism, pp. 21, 318–325.
9.
Boletín de Información C.N.T.-A.I.T.-F. A.I., no. 193, February 27, 1934; cited in John Brademas, “Revolution and Social Revolution : The Anarcho-Syndicalist Movement in Spain, 1930–1937” (Ph.D. diss.), p. 343.
10. Avrich,
Russian Anarchists, pp. 19, 45, 55, 154–156; and Woodcock,
Anarchism, p. 426.
11. For works which describe at length the ineffectiveness of agrarian militias with anarchistlike organization, see Antonio Díaz Soto y Gama,
La Revolución agraria del sur y Emiliano Zapata su caudillo, p. 293; Robert E. Quirk,
The Mexican Revolution, 1914–1915, p. 325; John Womack,
Zapata and the Mexican Revolution, p. 435; and almost any volume of a large body of literature on the Spanish Civil War.
12. Ignacio Altamirano,
Paisajes y leyendas: Tradiciones y costumbres de Mexico, pp. 184–185.
13.
El Socialista, January 23, 1873.
14. For example, see Gastón García Cantú,
El socialismo en México, siglo XIX, p. 515.
15. Juan de Dios Bojórquez,
La inmigración española en México, p. 5.
2. The Proselytizer
1. “Pequeña biografía de Plotino C. Rhodakanaty,”
La Paz, March 17, 1873; cited in José C. Valadés, “Precursores del socialismo antiautoritario en México,”
La Protesta (Buenos Aires), May 22, 1928.
3. Plotino C. Rhodakanaty,
Cartilla socialista o sea el catecismo elemental de la escuela de Carlos Fourier-El falansterio, ed. José C. Valadés, p. 16.
4. For other examples of his belief in the innate goodness of man and of man’s corruption by private property and environmental conditions, see Rhodakanaty, “Estudios de filosofía social,”
El Socialista, February 26, May 9, 1883. Also idem, articles in
El Socialista, April 22, July 4, August 15, 1880.
5. Valadés, “Precursores del socialismo.”
6.
El Obrero Internacional, September 7, 1874.
7. Rhodakanaty,
Neopanteísmo, consideración sobre el hombre y la naturaleza.
8. Valadés, “Precursores del socialismo.”
9. Rhodakanaty, “Lo que queremos,”
El Hijo del Trabajo, April 28, 1878.
10. Rhodakanaty, “El programa social,”
El Socialista, April 16, 1876.
11. Rhodakanaty, article in
El Socialista, May 28, 1876; italics added.
12. For some excellent samples of this contempt for the bourgeois intellectual, see articles by José María González in
El Hijo del Trabajo, July 14, 28, 1878.
13.
El Hijo del Trabajo, May 22, 1881; also see almost any edition of
El Hijo del Trabajo between 1876 and 1883.
14. Rhodakanaty, “El programa social.”
15. Editorial,
El Hijo del Trabajo, May 9, 1876.
16. Rhodakanaty, “La organización del trabajo,”
El Socialista, February 27, 1876. For a discussion of this aspect of Proudhon’s thought, see J. Hampden Jackson,
Marx, Proudhon and European Socialism, p. 133.
18. For the best analysis of Proudhon’s serial principle, see George Woodcock,
Pierre Joseph Proudhon, p. 78.
19. Rhodakanaty,
Medula panteística del sistema filosófico de Spinoza. This essay also can be found as a series of articles with the same title in
El Socialista, March 27, 31, April 10, 1885. The same theme is used by Rhodakanaty in articles entitled “Estudios de filosofía social,”
El Socialista, February 26, May 9, 1883.
20. Emetrio Valverde y Téllez,
Crítica filosófica o estudio bibliográfico y crítico de las obras de filosofía, p. 432.
21. Rhodakanaty, “Peligros para el porvenir,”
El Socialista, March 12, 1867; “La asociación,”
El Socialista, March 26, 1876; “Lo que queremos”; and “Viva socialismo,”
El Hijo del Trabajo, March 17, 1878.
22. For example, see Rhodakanaty, article in
El Socialista, May 28, 1876; see also
El Hijo del Trabajo, May 9, 1876.
23. Rhodakanaty, “El programa social.”
24. Rhodakanaty, article in
El Socialista, May 28, 1876. For Kropotkin’s view, see Kropotkin,
Mutual Aid, p. 362.
25. Rhodakanaty, “Peligros para el porvenir.”
26. Text of Rhodakanaty speech commemorating the reinauguration of La Social in
El Socialista, May 14, 1876.
27. Rhodakanaty, article in
El Hijo del Trabajo, April 28, 1878.
28. Víctor Alba,
Las ideas sociales contemporáneas en México, p. 102. Alba provides an example of this tendency toward oversimplification by classifying Rhodakanaty as a disciple of Fourier.
29. See Rhodakanaty, “La organización del trabajo,” and “Lo que queremos.”
30. For their close similarity of viewpoints on the issue of wealth distribution, see Proudhon,
What Is Property?, pp. 121–140; and Rhodakanaty, article in “El programa social,”
El Hijo del Trabajo, April 28, 1878, “Viva socialismo,” and article in
El Socialista, May 28, 1876.
31. Rhodakanaty, “Peligros para el porvenir.” For a discussion of this stage in Proudhon’s thought, see Alan Ritter,
The Political Thought of Pierre Joseph Proudhon, pp. 86–90.
32. See
El Craneoscopio, periódico Frenológico y Científico, April 16 to June 10, 1874.
33. Rhodakanaty,
El Craneoscopio, April 16, 22, 29, 1874.
34. Ibid., May 5, 1874, special supplement.
35. Rhodakanaty, articles in
El Socialista, May 14, 28, 1876; and the text of a speech delivered by Rhodakanaty at the reinauguration of La Social on May 7, 1876, in
El Hijo del Trabajo, May 9, 1876. See also
El Craneoscopio, April 29, May 5, 1874.
36. Rhodakanaty,
El Craneoscopio, April 16 to June 10, 1874. See also Rhodakanaty,
Medula panteística.
37. For a complete exposition of his thought on this matter, see Rhodakanaty,
Cartilla socialista, p. 16; and his articles in
El Socialista, especially “Estudios de ñlosofía social.”
38. Rhodakanaty, “Peligros para el porvenir,” and article in
El Socialista, May 28, 1876.
39. Rhodakanaty,
Medula panteística. This was an extract of
Neopanteísmo, originally published in 1864 and from which virtually all revolutionary ideas had been edited.
3. The Organizers
1. For a brief description of La Social and insight into its ideology, see
El Hijo del Trabajo, May 9, 1876.
3. Letter, Rhodakanaty to Zalacosta, March 21, 1870; cited by Dieter Koniecki, interview, Mexico City, August 16, 1968.
4. José C. Valadés, “Sobre los origenes del movimiento obrero en México,”
La Protesta (Buenos Aires), June 1927, p. 72.
5.
El Obrero Internacional, September 7, 1874; and
El Socialista, August 25, 1872.
6.
La Internacional, July 21, 1878.
7. Valadés, “Precursores del socialismo,” p. 411.
8. Manuel Díaz Ramírez,
Apuntes históricos del movimiento obrero y campesino de México, 1844–1880, p. 77.
9. Moisés González Navarro,
El porfiriato: La vida social, p. 433.
10. Díaz Ramírez,
Apuntes históricos, pp. 31–32; and Valadés, “Precursores del socialismo,” p. 411.
11. Díaz Ramírez,
Apuntes históricos, pp. 31–32.
12.
Diario del Imperio, June 19, 1865. This special police force was intended to number 182 men, with district forces of 8 or 9 men each in the neighboring towns of Tlalnepantla, Texcoco, San Cristóbal, Tlalpán, Santa Fe, and Río Frío.
14. Díaz Ramírez,
Apuntes históricos, p. 32.
15. Rhodakanaty, “Lo que queremos,”
El Hijo del Trabajo, April 28,1878.
16. Juan Hernández Luna, “Movimiento anarco-fourierista entre el imperio y la reforma,”
Cuadernos de Orientación Política, no. 4 (April 1956), pp. 19–20. Also interviews with José C. Valadés, Oaxtepec, November 6, 1969, and Mexico City, August 13, 1971. The majority of historical works, in referring to this school, call it the Escuela Libre de Chalco. However, this was only a general name used by anarchists in the nineteenth century to describe the type of school which they dedicated to the education of the workers.
17. The intention was to organize the
campesinos on the hacienda near Texcoco on which he worked.
18. Chávez López was just beginning to master the art of writing.
19. Letter, Rhodakanaty to Zalacosta, September 3,1865; cited by Koniecki, interview.
20. Letter, Rhodakanaty to Zalacosta, Mexico City, November 1868, Archivo Judicial del Estado de Querétaro.
21. Díaz Ramírez,
Apuntes históricos, p. 35.
22. Letter, Gen. Rafael Cuéllar, Jefe Político de Chalco, to Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada, Minister de Gobernación, Río Frío, March 10, 1868, Archivo General de la Nación, Ramo de Gobernación, Tranquilidad Pública (hereinafter cited as AGN, Tranquilidad Pública), legajo 1546.
23. Letter, Antonio Flores, Prefect of Texcoco, to Lerdo, Texcoco, March 7, 1868, ibid.
24. Letters, Cuéllar to Lerdo, Ayotla, March 7, 1868, and Lerdo to Cuéllar, Mexico City, March 9, 1868, ibid.
25. Letters, R. T. García to Lerdo, Chalco, March 14, 19, 1868, ibid.
26. Letter, Flores to Lerdo, Texcoco, June 17, 1868, ibid.
27. Report of Judge José María Aimarás (with affidavits from witnesses in support of Flores’ charges), August 18, 1868, ibid.
29. Letter, Ignacio L. Vallarta to Cuéllar, Mexico City, June 22, 1868, ibid.
30. Letter, Ignacio Mejía to Cuéllar, Mexico City, June 25,1868, ibid. See also letter, Vallarta to Cuéllar, Mexico City, June 28, 1868, ibid.
31. Flores et al., undated document, ibid.
32. The government of the state of México to the Ministro de Gobernación, Toluca, communication no. 208, October 14, 1868, ibid.
33. Letter, Chávez López to Zalacosta, January 13, 1869, Archivo Judicial del Estado de Querétaro.
34. Letter, Chávez López to Zalacosta, April 18, 1869, ibid.
35. For the most extensive discussion available of the agrarian movement in the nineteenth century, see Jesús Silva Herzog,
El agrarismo Mexicano y la reforma agraria, p. 627; and Díaz Soto y Gama,
La revolución agraria, p. 293. However, neither of these works offers an attempt to measure the development of agrarian ideology during the period.
36. Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, no. 205, fol. 3f ; cited by Charles C. Gibson,
The Aztecs under Spanish Rule, pp. 141–142.
37. Gibson,
The Aztecs, pp. 290–291.
38. The Ramo de Tierras, AGN, and the Archivo 6 de Enero 1916 of the Mexican Agrarian Commission contain the records of numerous land disputes, in which legal action was initiated in the courts, between the indigenous villages of Chalco province and the haciendas of the area, beginning in 1570 and extending until 1807.
39. Gibson,
The Aztecs, pp. 407–409. See also the Ramo de Tierras, AGN, Chalco.
40. Venustiano Carranza tried to capitalize on this sentiment during his address to the 1916–1917 constitutional convention in Querétaro. See
Diario de los debates del Congreso Constituyente, 1916–1917, 1:266.
41. For a description of the land-acquisition process in the colonial period, see François Chevalier,
Land and Society in Colonial Mexico, p. 334. For an excellent discussion of hacienda expansion in nineteenth-century Morelos, see Womack,
Zapata and the Mexican Revolution, pp. 37–66.
42. Gibson,
The Aztecs, pp. 139–142.
43. Antonio García Cubas,
Diccionario geográfico histórico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, 2:431. The district of Chalco was comprised of the eight major municipalities of Chalco, Amecameca, Ayotzingo, Cuautzingo, Ixtapaluca, Ozumba, Tlalmanalco, and Xuchitepec; and of seven lesser
municipios, Atlautla, Ayapango, Cocotitlan, Ecatzingo, Temantla, Tenango, and Tepetlixpa. The district of Chalco was, and is, bordered on the north by the district of Texcoco, on the west by the Federal District, on the east by Puebla and on the south by Morelos.
45. Ramo de Gobernación, AGN, legajo 1786, “Tierras,” expediente 22, June 19, 1866. This legajo should not be confused with the Ramo de Tierras.
46. Ibid., expediente 19, February 23, 1866.
47. Ibid., expedientes 21 and 24, May 9, 1866.
48. Eric R. Wolf,
Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century, pp. 294–295.
49. Julio Chávez López, “Manifiesto a todos los oprimidos y pobres de México y del universo,” Chalco, April 20, 1869; text from Juan Hernandez Luna, “Movimiento anarco-fourierista entre el imperio y la reforma,”
Cuadernos de Orientación Política, no. 4 (April 1956), pp. 25–26.
50. Díaz Ramírez,
Apuntes históricos, p. 36.
51. Ibid.; see also Díaz Soto y Gama,
La revolución agraria, p. 29; and Hernández Luna, “Movimiento anarco-fourierista.”
52. Díaz Ramírez,
Apuntes históricos, p. 36.
54. Unfortunately, a great deal of material and information about the Escuela del Rayo y del Socialismo and, presumably, the activities of Rhodakanaty, Zalacosta, Chávez López, Gómez, and others involved with the school were lost when the building and records were destroyed in a fire.
55. Chávez López, “Manifiesto,” from Hernández Luna, “Movimiento anarco-fourierista,” p. 24.
56.
Diario de los debates, 1:266.
57. Letter, Rhodakanaty to Zalacosta, November 1868, Archivo Judicial del Estado de Querétaro.
58. Letters, Chávez López to Zalacosta, January 13, April 18, 1869, ibid.
4. The Anarchists and the Origins of the Urban Labor Movement
1. Chester Lyle Gutherie, “Riots in Seventeenth-Century Mexico City: A Study of Social and Economic Conditions,” in
Greater America, ed. Adele Ogden and Engel Sluiter, pp. 243–254; see also Noel Stowe, “The Tumulto of 1624: Turmoil at Mexico City” (Ph.D. diss.), pp. 58, 382, 383.
2. Romeo Flores Caballero, “Etapas del desarrollo industrial,” in
La economía mexicana en la época de Juárez, ed. Luis González et al., pp. 114–116.
3.
El Socialista, January 23, 1873.
4. Valadés, “Precursores del socialismo,” p. 411; and Díaz Ramírez,
Apuntes históricos, p. 32.
5. Díaz Ramírez,
Apuntes históricos, p. 32.
6.
El Hijo del Trabajo, February 17, 1878.
7. Alfonso López Aparicio,
El movimiento obrero en México, p. 107; and
El Socialista, August 25, 1872.
8. Díaz Ramírez,
Apuntes históricos, pp. 33–34; and Lino Medina Salazar, “Albores del movimiento obrero en México,”
Historia y Sociedad 4 (1965): 60.
9. Díaz Ramírez,
Apuntes históricos, pp. 33–34; and Medina Salazar, “Albores del movimiento obrero en México,” p. 60.
10.
El Hijo del Trabajo, May 9, July 9, 1876.
11. Letter, Juan Cano to Benito Juárez, May 23, 1870, documento 8164, Archivo Juárez, Biblioteca Nacional de México.
12. Quoted in Díaz Ramírez,
Apuntes históricos, pp. 37–38.
13. “Manifiesto de La Social,”
El Socialista, May 9, 1876.
14.
El Socialista, July 9, 1871; March 1, 1874.
15. Ibid., September 29, 1872.
16. Ibid.; and José María González, “Nuestra opinión,”
El Hijo del Trabajo, August 5, 1877; and “Ante un cadáver o ante una fiera,”
El Hijo del Trabajo, March 31, 1878.
17.
El Socialista, September 29, 1872.
18. Ibid., March 16, 1873.
19.
El Hijo del Trabajo, December 17, 1876.
20.
El Socialista, October 15, November 12, 1871.
21. Ibid., September 29, 1872.
22. Ibid., November 23, 1873.
23. Ibid., August 4, 1872.
24. For a thorough discussion of the prolonged economic difficulties experienced by the operators of the Real del Monte in the first half of the nineteenth century, see Robert W. Randall,
Real del Monte, p. 257.
25.
El Socialista, August 18, 1872; also see the articles by Ricardo Velatti in
El Obrero Internacional, November 3, December 1, 1874.
26.
El Obrero Internacional, October 6, 13, 1874.
27. Ibid., August 31, 1874.
29. José María González, “Las sociedades mutualistas,”
El Hijo del Trabajo, August 6, 1876.
30. This is what happened between 1934 and 1939 in the Levant and Old Aragon in Spain; see Hugh Thomas, “Agrarian Anarchist Collectives in the Spanish Civil War,” in
A Century of Conflict, 1850–1950, ed. Martin Gilbert, pp. 245–263.
31. Ricardo Velatti, article in
El Obrero Internacional, November 11, 1874.
32. Rosendo Rojas Coria,
Tratado de cooperativismo mexicano, pp. 125, 186. The book, Fernando Garrido’s
Historia de las asociaciones obreras en Europa (Barcelona, May 28, 1864), is available in the Biblioteca Arus, Barcelona. Garrido was one of Spain’s leading “libertarian socialist” intellectuals at the time.
33.
El Socialista, September 21, 1873.
34. José Muñuzuri, article in
El Hijo del Trabajo, August 20, 1876.
35.
El Obrero Internacional, October 27, 1874.
36.
El Hijo del Trabajo, May 1, 22, July 2, August 27, 1876.
37. The first recorded reference to a national workers’ congress can be found in “Los obreros de San Luis Potosí,”
El Socialista, October 15, 1871. This need was discussed repeatedly in the pages of
El Hijo del Trabajo in 1876,
El Obrero Internacional in 1874, and
El Socialista during the period extending from late in 1875 throughout 1876.
38.
El Socialista, February 27,1876.
39. Ibid., March 5, 1876.
40. José C. Valadés, “El 50 aniversario del Primer Congreso Obrero en América,”
La Protesta, April 1926.
41.
El Socialista, March 21, 1876.
42. For example, see ibid., June 11, 1876.
43. “Manifiesto,” ibid., April 23, 1876.
44.
El Hijo del Trabajo, May 9, 1876.
45.
El Socialista, May 7, 1876; and
El Hijo del Trabajo, May 9, 1876.
46. “We are all men beneath the same heaven and entitled to the same justice and dignity in our work” (Valadés, “El 50 Aniversario”).
47.
El Hijo del Trabajo, May 22, 1876; also see article by Juana la Progresista.
48. Ibid., December 20, 1879; May 16, 1880.
49.
El Socialista, June 11,1876.
50. For example, see articles by Juan Villareal and José María González in
El Hijo del Trabajo, December 24, 1876.
51.
El Socialista, June 25, 1876.
52. See numerous articles extolling the virtues of Díaz and the plan of Tuxtepec in
El Hijo del Trabajo during 1876.
53.
El Socialista, June 25,1876.
54.
El Hijo del Trabajo, December 14, 1876.
55. See ibid., December 2, 9, 1877; and numerous articles in ibid.,
La Internacional, and
El Socialista throughout the two-year period.
56.
El Hijo del Trabajo, February 3, 17, 1878.
57. Ibid., April 6, 13, 1879.
60. Ibid., April 25, May 16, 1880.
61. Ibid. García de la Cadena had a long and impressive record of support for both the urban labor and the agrarian movements. For details, see Trinidad García de la Cadena, General de la Brigada, expediente 15–395, Archivo Histórico de la Defensa Nacional (AHDN).
62.
El Socialista, December 18, 1879;
El Hijo del Trabajo, December 14, 20, 1879.
63. “Manifiesto de La Social.”
64.
La Internacional, August 25, October 6, 1878.
65.
El Socialista, September 26, 1882.
66. For examples, see their proclamations in any issue of
La Internacional.
5. Nineteenth-Century Anarchism and the Agrarian Movement
1. In recent years a number of works have explored the complexity of nineteenth-century Mexican agrarian uprisings. See Friedrich Katz, “Labor Conditions on Haciendas in Porfirian Mexico: Some Trends and Tendencies,”
Hispanic American Historical Review 54 (February 1974) : 1–47; John H. Coatsworth, “Railroads and the Concentration of Landownership in the Early Porfiriato,” ibid., pp. 48–71; and Jean Meyer,
Problemas campesinos y revueltas agrarias (1821–1910), p. 235.
2. Colin Maclachlan, “The Crisis of Order in New Spain : A New Departure in the Administration of Justice,” in
Mexican History Edition, The North Dakota Quarterly, ed. John M. Hart, pp. 7–21.
3. Enrique Semo and Gloria Pedrero, “La vida en una hacienda-aserradero mexicana a principios del siglo XIX,”
Investigación Económica, pp. 129–161. This wage pattern apparently did not hold in areas of the south (see Katz, “Labor Conditions,” pp. 18–23). An example of long-standing village land disputes can be found in the
legajos for Anenecuilco and Ayala in the Archivo Seis de Enero of the National Agrarian Commission. The pre- and post-Zapata fighting between these two
ejidos dates from
“tiempos inmemorables.”
4. Norman Cohn,
The Pursuit of the Millennium, pp. 228, 230.
5. An intensive historical analysis, “The Mexican Agrarian Movement, 1810–1910,” is under research. For a useful overview of most of these episodes, see Meyer,
Problemas campesinos. An important study of the
campesino’s struggle is Arturo Warman, Y
venimos a contradecir, p. 351.
6. Eric J. Hobsbawn,
Primitive Rebels, p. 84.
7. For discussions of the Río Verde uprisings, see Valentín Gama, “La propiedad en México: La reforma agraria,”
Revista Mexicana de Ingeniería y Arquitectura, nos. 6, 8, 9, 10 (1931); also Silva Herzog,
El agrarismo mexicano, pp. 62–63.
8. For the most extensive discussion of the agrarian movement in the nineteenth century, see Silva Herzog,
El agrarismo Mexicano.
9. The principal periodicals involved were
El Socialista, El Hijo del Trabajo, El Obrero Internacional, and
La Internacional.
10. José María González, “El pueblo esclavo,”
El Hijo del Trabajo, October 14, 1877.
11. For example, see González, “Miseria,” ibid., January 20, 1878.
12. González, in a speech to the Sociedad Mutua del Ramo de Sombrerería, reported in
El Socialista, November 17, 1879.
13. González, articles in
El Hijo del Trabajo, July 30, 1876.
14. González, “A la sociedad de artesanos de Oaxaca,” ibid., October 7, 1877.
15. Gonzalez, “Las sociedades mutualistas,” ibid., August 6, 1876.
17. For examples, see
La Internacional, July 28, 1878; González, “También son hombres,”
El Hijo del Trabajo, September 23, 1877; and González and others in the series entitled “La cuestion indígena,” which was carried by
El Hijo del Trabajo throughout 1877–1878.
18. González, “¡Apeo y deslinde de terrenos! ¡Abajo la usurpación!”
El Hijo del Trabajo, November 4, 1877.
19. González, “La cuestion indígena (Hacienda de las Bocas),” ibid., December 2, 1877.
20.
La Internacional, August 25, 1878.
21. Report from Juan Othón, Señor Secretario de la Prefectura Superior Política del Departmento de San Luis Potosí, January 1864, cited by González in “La cuestion indígena (Hacienda de las Bocas).” See also Jan Bazant,
Cinco haciendas mexicanas, pp. 121–122.
22. González, article in
El Hijo del Trabajo, January 27, 1878.
23. This was probably done in 1876, although no record of the exact date of the event exists.
24. González, “La cuestion indígena (Hacienda de las Bocas).”
25. Communique from Joaquín Flores to Commandant F. Rodríquez, according to
La Internacional reporter Moctezuma and telegraphed to
La Internacional on July 20, 1878. It was published in
La Internacional, July 21, 1878.
26. Editorial, ibid., July 28, 1878.
27. For examples, see González, “¡Apeo y deslinde de terrenos! ¡Abajo la usurpación!”; and “¡De rodillas, miserables!”
El Hijo del Trabajo, August 12, 1877.
28.
La Internacional, August 25, October 6, 1878.
29. Ibid., July 14, 1878.
30. Coatsworth, “Railroads,” pp. 56–65.
31. Ibid.; Díaz Soto y Gama,
La revolución agraria, pp. 43–47; Díaz Ramírez,
Apuntes históricos, pp. 63–66; Meyer,
Problemas campesinos, pp. 21–24; and interview, Valadés, Oaxtepec, November 6, 1969.
32. Interview, Valadés, Oaxtepec, November 6, 1969; see also Díaz Soto y Gama,
La revolución agraria, pp. 52–53.
33. Alberto Santa Fe, “La Ley del Pueblo,”
La Revolución Social (Puebla), December 18, 1879; and
El Socialista, August 4, 1878.
34. Alba,
Las ideas sociales contemporáneas en México, p. 103.
35.
El Socialista, April 11, 1883.
36. Santa Fe had worked with Rhodakanaty, González, and Zalacosta on the staffs of
El Hijo del Trabajo and
La Internacional.
37. Letters, Santa Fe to the Editor,
El Hijo del Trabajo, June 15, November 23, 1879.
38. Santa Fe, “La Ley del Pueblo.”
39. Letters, Santa Fe to the Editor,
El Hijo del Trabajo, June 15, November 23, 1879; and
El Socialista, January 15, 1880.
40.
La Revolución Social (Puebla), October 17, 24,1878; see also Díaz Soto y Gama,
La revolución agraria, pp. 50–53.
41. Letters, Santa Fe to the Editor,
El Hijo del Trabajo, June 15, November 23, 1879.
42.
El Socialista, August 29, 1886.
43. “Don Miguel Negrete,”
El Hijo del Trabajo, October 10, 1880.
44. Miguel Negrete, article in
El Socialista, June 9, 1879.
45. See “Don Miguel Negrete”; and
El Hijo del Ahuizote, November 2, 1890.
46. Negrete, article in
El Socialista.
47. Ibid.; see also letters, Gen. González Ortega to Negrete, New York, September 10, 1866, and Silvestre Aranda to Benito Juárez, Chihuahua, April 22, 1866, Archivo Juárez, Biblioteca Nacional de México.
48.
Diario del Imperio, June 14, 1865.
49. Letters, Gen. Francisco Naranjo to Negrete, Villa Aldama, Nuevo León, January 27, February 6, 7, 1866; also, Gen. Juan N. Sáenz to Negrete, February 6, 7, 1866 (point of dispatch unknown), Archivo Juárez, Biblioteca Nacional de México.
50. Letters, Cuéllar to Lerdo, Ayotla, March 7, 1868, AGN, Tranquilidad Pública, legajo 1546; and Lerdo to Cuéllar, Mexico City, March 9, 1868, ibid.; and five letters, Negrete to Col. Pedro Villegas, Santa Ana, Puebla, February 14, 1869; also letter, Negrete to Lt. Col. Melitrón Galarza, February 14, 1869, Chiautla, Puebla, Archivo Juárez, Biblioteca Nacional de México.
51. “Don Miguel Negrete.”
53. Miguel Negrete, “Municipio Libre,”
El Hijo del Trabajo, May 23, 1880.
54. Letter, Negrete to Porfirio Díaz, January 30, 1893, Archivo Histórico de la Defensa Nacional, expediente X/111.2/15–709, primer tomo, documento 499.
55. Díaz Ramírez,
Apuntes históricos, p. 73.
56. Tiburcio Montiel, “Comunismo,”
El Socialista, July 31, 1878.
57. Díaz Soto y Gama,
La revolución agraria, p. 43.
58. Montiel, “Comunismo.”
59. Rafael Ramos Pedrueza,
La lucha de clases a través de la historia de México, 2:412.
60. Díaz Ramírez,
Apuntes históricos, p. 73.
61. González Navarro,
El porfiriato, p. 244.
62. For data on land distribution and the size of haciendas before the revolution of 1910, see Womack,
Zapata, pp. 391–392; Gildardo Magaña,
Emiliano Zapata y el agrarismo en México, 1:39; and Domingo Díez,
Dos conferencias sobre el estado de Morelos, p. 56.
63. Professor John Womack, in his perceptive
Zapata and the Mexican Revolution (p. 405), makes the claim of “originality” for Zapata’s Plan de Ayala and Agrarian Law. Díaz Soto y Gama, however, has argued the case for the precursors, with the claim that the Plan de Ayala offered the people nothing more than what the nineteenth-century agrarians had proposed in the face of insurmountable odds
(La revolución agraria, pp. 49–50).
64. For the closest comparison, see Santa Fe, “Ley del Pueblo.”
65. Womack,
Zapata, p. 393.
6. Decline and Perseverance
1.
El Socialista, February 1, 1880.
2. Ibid., January 8, 1880.
3. Ibid., April 29, 1880.
4. Ibid., February 8, 1880.
5. “Protesta,” proclamation in
El Hijo del Trabajo, May 16, 1880.
6.
El Socialista, January 8, April 29, 1880.
8.
El Socialista, September 26, 1882.
9. González, “El círculo de obreros,”
El Socialista, February 17, March 10, 1878.
10. Letter, Santa Fe, to the editor,
El Hijo del Trabajo, May 11,1879.
11. Montiel, “Comunismo.” See also Díaz Ramírez,
Apuntes históricos, p. 73.
12. Interview, Valadés, Oaxtepec, November 6, 1969.
13. Their abilities in this context are attested to in several instances. For example, see Ramo de Gobernación, AGN, Rurales report no. 54, 1881.
14. There are several secondary sources available which describe the extension by the Díaz government of its control over the agrarian population. The best of these are Silva Herzog,
El agrarismo mexicano, pp. 104–147; and González Navarro,
El porfiriato, pp. 239–259.
15.
El Hijo del Trabajo, July 6, 1879.
16. For a general description of government suppression, see López Aparicio,
El movimiento obrero, p. 112.
17. The best example of editorial outrage was signed with a pseudonym: Luigi, “La revolución es necesaria,”
El Hijo del Trabajo, December 28, 1879.
18.
El Socialista, November 26, 1880.
19.
El Hijo del Trabajo, March 6, 1881.
20. “El círculo de obreros,”
El Hijo del Trabajo, March 19,1882.
21. “Obituario al Gran Círculo,”
El Socialista, November 2,1883; also see Ramos Pedrueza,
La lucha de las clases, p. 412.
22.
El Socialista, January 15, 1880.
23. Nathan Ganz: “What We Will and What We Will Not,” and “War against the Authorities by Various Methods and Means,”
El Socialista, January 10, 1881. For details of the convention, see Woodcock,
Anarchism, p. 258.
24.
El Socialista, December 7, 1884; italics added.
25. For a biographical essay and a description of the labor career of Pedro Ordóñez, see
El Socialista, June 30, 1881.
26. Gen. Carlos Pacheco, Secretario de Fomento,
Memoria presentada al Congreso de la Unión por el secretario de Estado y del despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana [hereafter cited as
Memoria de Fomento] :
Corresponde a los años trascurridos de enero de 1883 a junio de 1885, pp. 195–212.
27. Manuel Fernández Leal, Secretario de Fomento,
Memoria de Fomento: Corresponde a los años transcurridos de 1892 a 1896, pp. 13–16.
28.
El Socialista, June 28, 1885.
29. López Aparicio,
El movimiento obrero, p. 115.
30.
El Socialista, July 5, 1884.
32. Bojórquez,
La inmigración española, p. 5.
33. Rojas Coria,
Tratado de cooperativismo mexicano, pp. 214–230, 235.
35. Letter, Gen. González Ortega to Negrete, New York, September 10, 1866, Archivo Juárez, Biblioteca Nacional de Mexico. For additional information regarding one of their conspiracies against Juárez, see letter, Silvestre Aranda to Juárez, Chihuahua, April 22, 1866, ibid.
36. García de la Cadena supported Díaz against both Juárez and Lerdo de Tejada. See Trinidad García de la Cadena, General de Brigada, expediente 15–395, documentos 5, 6, 153, 154, 165–173, AHDN.
37. The esteem in which García de la Cadena was held is indicated by the following : “It [the ceremony] was presided over by General García de la Cadena for whom the working class has nothing but praise”
(El Socialista, March 24, 1879).
38. Trinidad García de la Cadena, article in
El Socialista, June 2,1879.
39.
El Siglo XIX, November 3, 1866.
40. Negrete, “El Plan de Loma Alta,” Loma Alta, Puebla, June 26, 1886, expediente X/111.2/15–709, tomo II, documento 00342, AHDN.
41. See the reports of Hinojosa for July, August, September, October, 1886, expediente X/111.2/15–709, tomo II, ibid.
42. Luis Carballeda, Reports, Mexico City, October 20, 1886, expediente X/111.2/15–709, tomo II, documentos 00359, 00360, ibid.
43. Román Suastegui a Pedro Hinojosa, Ministro de Guerra y Marina, Zacatecas, October 19, 1886, expediente 15–395, documento 204; Hinojosa, Directive to capture García de la Cadena, Mexico City, October 20, 1886, expediente 15–395, documento 214; Gen. Carlos Lueso, Reports concerning the death of García de la Cadena, Zacatecas, November 11, October 25, 1886, expediente 15–395, documentos 218, 220; Hinojosa, Report, Mexico City, November 16, 1886, documento 219, ibid.
7. The Resurgence
1. Moisés González Navarro,
Las huelgas textiles en el porfiriato, pp. 36–40.
3. López Aparicio,
El movimiento obrero en México, p. 115.
4. Alfredo Chavero,
Segunda Conferencia Internacional de América, ciudad de México, 1901–1902, La Comisión de Extradición y Protección contra el Anarquismo, p. 181.
5. Ibid., pp. 187–188, 215.
6. Fernando Rosenzweig, “El desarrollo económico de México de 1877 a 1911,”
Trimestre Económico 37 (July-September 1965): 418.
7. John H. Coatsworth, “The Mexican Economy, 1810–1910,” unpublished manuscript, University of Chicago, 1975; and Seminario de la Historia Moderna de México,
Estadísticas económicas del porfiriato: Fuerza de trabajo y actividad económica por sectores, p. 25. The Coatsworth study contains a re-evaluation of Rosenzweig’s data, including the identification of erroneous 1877 crop statistics.
8. González Navarro,
El porfiriato, p. 210. For an incisive analysis of Porfirian agricultural development, see John H. Coatsworth, “Anotaciones sobre la producción de alimentos durante el porfiriato,”
Historia Mexicana 102 (October-December 1976): 167–187.
9. James Wilkie,
The Mexican Revolution, p. 189.
10. For sugar and other crop data, see Seminario,
Estadísticas económicas, pp. 68–82.
11. See Ward Barrett,
The Sugar Hacienda of the Marqueses del Valle, p. 147. Barrett dispels the notion among scholars that the hacienda was not run as a business in search of cash profits. The origin of this misunderstanding was George McCutchen McBride’s literal acceptance of the claim by Andrés Molina Enríquez that
“La hacienda no es negocio.” Molina Enriquez could have said that the hacienda, beset by Mexico’s incessant internal turmoil and the fluctuations of both domestic and foreign prices, was a difficult business. See McBride,
The Land Systems of Mexico, pp. 38–40; and Molina Enriquez,
Los grandes problemas nacionales, p. 347.
12. Seminario,
Estadísticas económicas, pp. 68–82. For a useful study of the impact of
latifundia upon village life, see Paul Friedrich,
Agrarian Revolt in a Mexican Village, pp. 43–50.
13. Rosenzweig, “El desarrollo económico,” p. 444.
14. Enrique Florescano and María de Rosario Lanzagorta, “Politica económica,” in
La economía mexicana en la época de Juárez, ed. Luis González et al., p. 83.
15. It is noteworthy that these ideas, e.g., the elimination of urban capitalists from rural landownership, the redistribution of agrarian lands, agrarian development banks, etc., expressed thirty years after their popularity in the 1870’s by Andrés Molina Enríquez in his monumental
Los grandes problemas nacionales, were applauded by some observers, and later even scholars, as original, imaginative, and brilliant proposals.
16. Interviews, Rosendo Salazar, Tlalnepantla, August 10, 1969; and Gen. Celestino Gasca, Mexico City, August 19, 1969.
17. Ricardo Flores Magón’s background is well known. Two useful sources in English that treat this period of his life are Juan Gómez Quiñones,
Sembradores: Ricardo Flores Magón y El Partido Liberal Mexicano, pp. 1–18; and James D. Cockcroft,
Intellectual Precursors of the Mexican Revolution, 1900–1913, pp. 86–87. For reference to Ricardo’s early anarchism, see Cockcroft,
Intellectual Precursors, pp. 72, 80.
18. Gómez Quiñones,
Sembradores, p. 23; and Cockcroft,
Intellectual Precursors, pp. 117–120.
19. Gómez Quiñones,
Sembradores, p. 25.
20. Cockcroft,
Intellectual Precursors, p. 124.
21. “El informe secreto de la Pinkerton,”
El Democrata, September 4, 1924.
22. Cockcroft,
Intellectual Precursors, p. 137.
24. Rosendo Salazar,
Historia de las luchas proletarias de México, 1923 a 1936, 1:63,72,74.
25. “Como juzgan los revolucionarios a sus camaradas,” in
Documentos históricos de la Revolución Mexicana, vol. 10,
Actividades políticas y revolucionarias de los hermanos Flores Magón, ed. Josefina E. de Fabela, pp. 86–88.
26. Rodney D. Anderson,
Outcasts in Their Own Land, p. 99; and Cockcroft,
Intellectual Precursors, p. 124.
27. Armando Bartra, “Ricardo Flores Magón en el cincuentenario de su muerte,”
Supplemento de Siempre, December 6, 1972; see also Fabela,
Documentos, 10:36–40, 78, 89–90, 99; and Vol. n,
Precursores de la Revolución Mexicana, 1906–191 o, p. 53.
28. “El informe secreto,”
El Democrata, September 4, 1924. The PLM’s base of working-class support, its anarchism, and the techniques used by Furlong to frustrate its revolutionary plans were revealed in an interview by the detective who gained employment within the Junta’s offices. His identity was confirmed by the reporter through Enrique Flores Magón, who remembered him all too well. See also Thomas Furlong,
Fifty Years a Detective.
29. Luis Araiza,
Historia del movimiento obrero mexicano, 2:43, 49.
30. Letter, Esteban Baca Calderón, Cananea, Sonora, to Antonio I. Villareal, Saint Louis, April 6, 1906, in Manuel González Ramirez, ed.,
Fuentes para la historia de la Revolución Mexicana, vol. 3,
La huelga de Cananea, p. 9.
31. Ibid., p. 45; and Esteban Baca Calderón,
Juicio sobre la guerra del yanqui y génesis de la huelga de Cananea, pp. 19–33.
32. Jesús González Monroy, “El porfirismo y la oposición,” unpublished; quoted in Bartra, “Ricardo Flores Magón.”
33. Cockcroft,
Intellectual Precursors, p. 135.
34. William Dirk Raat, “The Diplomacy of Suppression: Los Revoltosos, Mexico and the United States, 1906–1911,”
Hispanic American Historical Review 56 (November 1976): 529–550.
35. Cockcroft,
Intellectual Precursors, pp. 136–137.
36. “Programa del Partido Liberal y manifiesto a la nación,” in Fabela,
Documentos, 10:41–68.
37. Cockcroft,
Intellectual Precursors, pp. 124, 146–149; Gómez Quiñones,
Sembradores, pp. 31–32; and Bartra, “Ricardo Flores Magón.”
38. Dawn Keremitsis,
La industrial textil mexicana en el siglo XIX, p. 113.
39. González Navarro,
Las huelgas textiles, p. 226.
40. González Navarro,
El porfiriato, p. 326.
41. “Delegados a la Primera y Unica Convención de Obreros e Industriales del Ramo Textil Verificada en agosto de 1912,”
La Revolución Social (Mexico City), November 18, 1922.
42. Araiza,
Historia, 2:99.
43. “Delegados a la Primera y Unica Convención de Obreros e Industriales del Ramo Textil Verificada en agosto de 1912.”
44. Araiza,
Historia, 2:99–100; and Rodney D. Anderson, “Díaz y la crisis laboral de 1906,”
Historia Mexicana 19 (April-July 1970) : 516.
45. Araiza,
Historia, 2:100–101.
46. Anderson, “Díaz y la crisis,” p. 520.
47. Araiza,
Historia, 2:101–102.
48. Ibid., pp. 103, 109–110; and González Navarro,
Las huelgas textiles, pp. 51–61, 72.
49. González Navarro,
El porfiriato, p. 324.
51. Ibid., pp. 326–327; and Araiza,
Historia, 2:105.
52. González Navarro,
El porfiriato, p. 331; and Araiza,
Historia, 2:110–111.
53. Araiza,
Historia, 2:114–115, 117; and González Navarro,
Las huelgas textiles, pp. 79–80.
54. González Navarro,
Las huelgas textiles, p. 80.
55. Araiza,
Historia, 2:115; and González Navarro,
Las huelgas textiles, p. 80.
56. Jacinto Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia del movimiento obrero en México, p. 118; and Araiza,
Historia, 2:121.
57. González Navarro,
El porfiriato, p. 334. For a version which estimates far smaller workers’ casualty counts at Río Blanco and rejects the contention that the
rurales were involved or executed, see Anderson,
Outcasts in Their Own Land, pp. 166–169.
58.
El Imparcial, January 9, 1907.
59. Ibid., January 11,13, 23, February 14, 23, April 17, May 30, June 1, 3, 5, 1907; and
El País, May 29, 1907; cited in González Navarro,
Las huelgas textiles, p. 409.
60.
Charrismo is a Mexicanism for “working-class leaders” who, in the view of their critics, actually serve capital or the government rather than the workers.
61.
El Imparcial, January 8, May 28, 29, 1908; cited in González Navarro,
Las huelgas textiles, p. 409. For reference to unrest in the wake of Río Blanco, see Anderson,
Outcasts in Their Own Land, p. 194.
62.
El Imparcial, April 23, 25, May 13, 14, 1909; cited in González Navarro,
Las huelgas textiles, p. 409.
63.
El Imparcial, July 25, 26, 1910;
El País, July 24, 27, 1910; cited in Gonzalez Navarro,
Las huelgas textiles, p. 409.
64. Cockcroft,
Intellectual Precursors, p. 151; and Gómez Quiñones,
Sembradores, pp. 32–33.
65. Cockcroft,
Intellectual Precursors, pp. 152–153; and Bartra, “Ricardo Flores Magón.”
66. Raat, “The Diplomacy of Suppression,” p. 546; and Colin M. Maclachlan, “The Making of a Chicano Radical: The Federal Trials of Ricardo Flores Magón,” unpublished manuscript, Tulane University, 1975, pp. 4–11.
67. Gómez Quiñones,
Sembradores, pp. 33, 35–36.
68. Ibid., p. 46; and Cockcroft,
Intellectual Precursors, pp. 179–183. For additional information on the life and activities of Praxedis Guerrero, see his
Praxedis Guerrero: Artículos literarios y de combate.
69. Bartra, “Ricardo Flores Magón”; and Cockcroft,
Intellectual Precursors, pp. 177–183.
70. The termination of silver purchases by foreign governments and its reduced value helped precipitate lowered real wages. For data, see Seminario,
Estadísticas económicas, p. 447. For an interpretation, see David M. Pletcher, “The Fall of Silver in Mexico, 1870–1910, and Its Effects on American Investments,”
Journal of Economic History 18 (March 1958): 38.
8. Anarchism, the Working Class, and the Opening Phases of the Revolution
1. “Libertad, A.I.T., F.A.I., C.N.T. : Tres postulados, tres banderas del proletariado español con repercuciones universales. Proletariados de todo el mundo. La revolución social de España es vuestra revolución,”
Regeneración (Mexico), May 1, 1937; and Amadeo Ferrés, “Hacia el porvenir,”
El Tipógrafo Mexicano, July 1, 1912.
2. Agustín Segura, “La influencia de Amadeo Ferrés,”
El Tipógrafo Mexicano, December 27, 1911; and Fernando Córdova Pérez, “El Movimiento anarquista en México (1911–1921)” (Licenciado Thesis), pp. 1–8. See also Ramón Eduardo Ruiz,
Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries, p. 27.
3. Ferrés, “Hacia el porvenir.”
4. Ferrés, “¡Compañeros, Saludemos!”
El Tipógrafo Mexicano, November 10, 1911.
5. Ferrés, “El despertar del obrero mexicano,”
El Tipógrafo Mexicano, December 27, 1911.
6. Ferrés, “Hacia el porvenir,” “¡Compañeros, Saludemos!” and “El despertar del obrero mexicano.”
7. Ferrés, “¡Compañeros, Saludemos!” and “El despertar del obrero mexicano.”
8. José López Dónez, “La significación de la imprenta,”
El Tipógrafo Mexicano, June 1, 1912; and Segura, “La influencia de Amadeo Ferrés.”
9. Anastacio S. Marín, “Luchemos por la reinvindicación del proletariado,”
El Tipógrafo Mexicano, August 1, 1912.
10. López Dónez, “La significación de la imprenta.”
11. Rafael Quintero, “19 de mayo de 1912,”
El Tipógrafo Mexicano, June 1, 1912.
12. Ferrés, “El despertar del obrero mexicano”; and Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” p. 2.
13. Ferrés, “Hacia el porvenir”; Marín, “Nuestro llamamiento en favor de la lucha rein vindicadora ha merecido la atención de los tipógrafos,”
El Tipógrafo Mexicano, December 27,1911; Segura, “La influencia de Amadeo Ferrés”; and “Extracto de la sesión del 5 de noviembre de 1911,”
El Tipógrafo Mexicano, December 1,1911.
14. “Corte de caja,”
El Tipógrafo Mexicano, December 27,1911.
15.
El Tipógrafo Mexicano, November 10, 1911.
16. “Extracto de la sesión del 5 de noviembre de 1911”; see also letter, Manuel Arriola, Guatemala, to the Secretary, Confederación Tipográfica Mexicana,
El Tipógrafo Mexicano, December 27, 1911.
17. “Extracto de la sesión del 5 de noviembre de 1911”; see also
El Tipógrafo Mexicano, December 1, 27, 1911, December 1, 1912.
18.
El Tipógrafo Mexicano, December 1, 1912; and “La voz del oprimidio,” ibid., August 1, 1912.
19. Severino Rodríguez Villafuerte, “Discurso,” ibid., July 1, 1912.
20. Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” p. 25.
22. “Extracto de la sesión del 29 de noviembre de 1911,”
El Tipógrafo Mexicano, July 1, 1912.
23.
El Tipógrafo Mexicano, December 1, 1911; “Extracto de la sesión del 29 de noviembre de 1911”; “Extracto de la sesión del 8 de mayo de 1912,” ibid., July 1, 1912; and “Extracto de la sesión del 15 de noviembre de 1912,” ibid., December 1,1912.
24. López Dónez, “Las huelgas,” ibid., May 1, 1913.
25.
El Tipógrafo Mexicano, December 1, 1911.
26. Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” pp. 41–43; and Araiza,
Historia, 3:12.
27. Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” pp. 36–37; Rosendo Salazar and José G. Escobedo,
Las pugnas de la gleba, 1907–1922, 1140–41; and Araiza,
Historia, 3:12–17.
28. Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, p. 198.
29. Araiza,
Historia, 3:12–13; and Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” pp. 36–39.
30. Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, pp. 199–206.
31.
Luz, July 17, 1918; and Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” pp. 40–41.
32. Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, pp. 210–212; and Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” p. 15.
33. Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” pp. 42–43.
34. Araiza,
Historia, 3:17–29.
35. Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” pp. 57–58.
36. “Luz,”
Luz, April 1,1913.
37. “La Gran Confederación del Trabajo,”
El Obrero Liberal, February 1, 1913; and “La Gran Liga Obrera y la sesión tormentosa de la Confederación,” ibid.
38. “Un boicot, un jurado y una manifestación,”
Lucha, February 5, 1913; and Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, p. 227.
39. Lorenzo Camacho Escamilla, “Ingenioso primer jurado sindical,”
Gaceta Obrera, no. 6 (June 1962), p. 26.
40. “Un boicot, un jurado y una manifestación”; and Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, p. 227.
41. “Confederación Internacional del Trabajo,”
Lucha, February 5, 1913; and Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” pp. 57, 81–82. For a discussion of the government’s promanagement position, see Ruiz,
Labor, p. 30.
42. Hilario Carrillo, “¡Aparteos vampiros!”
Lucha, May 1, 1913.
43. Rafael Pérez Taylor,
El socialismo en México, p. 59.
44. Timoteo García, “Protesta,”
Lucha, May 1, 1913.
45. Córdova Pérez, “Movimento,” pp. 65–71.
46. Araiza,
Historia, 3:35–41; Rosendo Salazar,
La Casa del Obrero Mundial, pp. 35–38; Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:63–67; and Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, pp. 229–234.
47. Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, p. 230; and Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” p. 83.
48. Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” p. 84. For a careful assessment of the politics of the Huerta regime, see Michael Meyer,
Huerta: A Political Portrait.
49. “Calendario Laico. Efemérides. Septiembre,”
Luz, May 1, 1918; and Jacinto Huitrón, “El movimiento sindical en México,”
Regeneración, September 15, 1942.
50. “A todos los sastres de México,”
El Sindicalista, October 10, 1913.
51. Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, pp. 235–236; “Horario de asambleas,”
El Sindicalista, October 10, 1913; Pérez Taylor,
Socialismo, p. 84; and “Calendario Laico. Efemérides. Septiembre.”
52. Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, pp. 236–237; Araiza,
Historia, 3:43–44; and Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:64–70.
53. Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1.69–72.
54. Araiza,
Historia, 3:44–48; Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” pp. 98–103; see also Higinio C. García, “Actitud del sindicato de tipógrafos,”
El Sindicalista, October 10, 1913.
55. Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” pp. 101–105.
56. Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, p. 240.
57. Pérez Taylor,
Socialismo, pp. 15–16.
58. Epigmenio H. Ocampo, “Valor y serenidad,”
El Sindicalista, September 30, 1913.
59. Antonio Díaz Soto y Gama, “Educación racional, lucha reinvindicadora,” ibid.
60. “La declaración de principios de la Casa del Obrero Mundial,” cited by Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, p. 250.
61. Díaz Soto y Gama, “Educación racional, lucha reinvindicadora.”
62. Santiago R. de la Vega, “La paradoja triste,”
El Sindicalista, November 20, 1913.
63. “El himno del porvenir,” ibid., October 10, 1913.
64. Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” p. 106.
65. Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:76–77.
66. “Los últimos mítines que se han celebrado en la Casa del Obrero Mundial,”
Emancipación Obrera, May 15, 1914.
67. Araiza,
Historia, 3:48–49; and Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1 : 80.
9. The Casa del Obrero Mundial and the Constitutionalists
1. Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:83–85; and Araiza,
Historia, 3149.
2. “Calendario Laico. Efemérides. Septiembre”; and Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” pp. 131–132.
3. “Quedará constituido el sindicato de costureras,”
Nueva Patria, October 13, 1914; “Sindicato de Carpinteros,” ibid., October 13, 1914; “Calendario Laico. Efemérides. Septiembre”; and “Movimiento obrero,”
Ideas, November 22, 1914.
4. Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” p. 134.
7. “¡Proletarios, Salud!”
Tinta Roja, October 24, 1914.
8. Jacinto Huitrón, “Organización,”
La Vanguardia, June 1, 1915; interviews, Salazar and Gasca; and
Excelsior, January 28, 1926.
9. Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:91–93; and Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, pp. 257–260.
10. Interviews, Salazar and Gasca.
11. Ibid.; and Ruiz,
Labor, p. 50.
12. Interviews, Salazar and Gasca.
13. Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, p. 267; Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:93; and Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” pp. 146–147.
14. Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:93–95.
15. Ibid., 1:95–101; and Araiza,
Historia, 3:63–66.
16. Interviews, Salazar and Gasca; also Gasca,
Un fragmento vivo de las luchas del movimiento obrero nacional, pp. 18–19; Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:95–101; Araiza,
Historia, 3:67–79; and Huitrón, “Organización” and
Orígenes e historia, pp. 259–264. For further discussions, see Ruiz,
Labor, pp. 47–52; and Barry Carr,
El movimiento obrero y la política en México, 1910–192,9, 1:84–85, 91.
17. Araiza,
Historia, 3:79–103; Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:107–109; and Salazar,
La Casa del Obrero Mundial, pp. 161–173.
18. Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:116–117; Ruiz,
Labor, pp. 52–54; and Carr,
El movimiento obrero, 1 : 90.
19. Interviews, Salazar and Gasca.
20. Guillermo Palacios, “La salida de los batallones tercero y cuarto rojo y la fundación de la Casa del Obrero Mundial de Morelia, Michoacán,”
Crom, June 1, 1930; and Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, pp. 279–289.
21. “La Casa del Obrero Mundial en Mérida,”
La Vanguardia, June 2, 1915; and Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” pp. 156–157.
22. Huitrón, “Organización.”
23. Carlos M. Rincón, “La Casa del Obrero Mundial de México es el alma de la revolución constitucionalista: El alma mundial de la revolución,”
Pluma Roja, August 30, 1915.
24. Roberto de la Cerda Silva,
El movimiento obrero en México, p. 116; Huitrón,
Cinquentenario de la Casa del Obrero, 1912–1962, and
Orígenes e historia, p. 289; and Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1 : 134.
25. “Por que la carne cuestra cara,”
La Vanguardia, June 2, 1915; and “Crítica situación de la ex-capital,” ibid., June 3, 1915.
26. Leonardo p. Castro, “Nuestros mejores auxiliares,”
Ariete, November 7, 1915.
27. Adalberto Concha, “Maquinaciones del alto comercio de México para aumentar el costo de la vida del pueblo,”
Acción Mundial, February 5, 1916; and idem, “Cargos concretos al alto comercio sobre el costo de la vida,” ibid., February 12, 1916.
28. Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, pp. 279–289; and Cerda Silva,
Movimiento obrero, pp. 115–116.
29. Castro, “Nuestros mejores auxiliares”; “Nuevos sindicatos,”
Ariete, October 24, 1915; “Movimiento obrero local: Sindicato de zapateros,” ibid., November 21, 1915; “Movimiento obrero local: Las obreras se sindican,” ibid.; “Movimiento obrero local: Sindicato de costureras,” ibid., December 12, 1915; and Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, p. 291.
30. Castro, “Nuestros mejores auxiliares.”
31. Araiza,
Historia, 3:106–107.
32. Juan Tudó, “Desde la Atalaya,”
Ariete, October 31, 1915; Castro, “La infancia de la Casa del Obrero Mundial,” ibid., October 24, 1915; and Rosendo Medina, “Destruyamos los viejos moldes,” ibid., December 12, 1915.
33. “Movimiento obrero local: Huelga de panaderos,” ibid., November 7, 1915.
35. “Movimiento obrero local: Los compañeros tejedores,” ibid., December 12, 1915.]
36. “Movimiento obrero local: Sindicato de carpinteros y similares,” ibid., December 12, 1915.
37. “Movimiento obrero local: Sindicato de botoneras,” ibid., December 12, 1915; “Movimiento obrero local: La huelga de la perfeccionada,” ibid., December 19, 1915; and “Movimiento obrero local: Sindicato de peluqueros,” ibid., December 19, 1915.
38. Interview, Antonio Matta Reyes, Tacubaya, July 8, 1975; and Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:167–169.
39. Araiza,
Historia, 3:106–109, 120–125; Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:147–153; and Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, pp. 292–293. For an analysis of the conflict between the Casa and the government, see Ruiz,
Labor, pp. 52–58.
40. Huitrón, “La Casa del Obrero y la revolución social,”
Regeneración, August 12, 1943; and Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:165–166.
41. Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, p. 294; Araiza,
Historia, 3:129–135; Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:170–177; and Carr,
El movimiento obrero, 1:97.
42. Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, pp. 294, 297; Araiza,
Historia, 3:135–137; and Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:177–180.
43. “La huelga general de obreros del Distrito Federal,”
Acción Mundial, May 22, 1916; “La huelga, su orígen, su desarrollo, sus consecuencias,” ibid.; Dr. Atl, “Los obreros y la revolución: La huelga actual,” ibid.; Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:184–187; Huitrón, “La Casa del Obrero y la revolución social,” and
Orígenes e historia, pp. 294–295.
44. Dr. Atl, “Los obreros y la revolución: La huelga actual.”
45. Araiza,
Historia, 3:138–140.
46. Salazar,
La Casa del Obrero Mundial, pp. 217–222.
47. Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:181–184; Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, p. 295; and Araiza,
Historia, 3:138–140.
48. Slight variances in this organization’s name can be noted, depending on the date and the source consulted. The Federación de Sindicatos Obreros was the most common usage; see Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, p. 295.
49. Araiza,
Historia, 3:140–143.
51. Ibid., 3:148–156, 175–177; and interview, Salazar.
52. Another version of the Casa’s defeat holds that Luis Morones and other leaders of a new Casa faction—who supported him and who hoped to work with Obregón in order to eventually gain control of the urban labor movement for themselves—encouraged the general strike of July 31-August 2, 1916. They hoped to discredit and eliminate the independent anarchosyndicalist leadership of the Casa. Knowing the strike was hopeless, they remained in the background, betrayed it, and capitalized upon its failure to gain the objective of their ambition (interview, Salazar; also see Araiza,
Historia, 3:178).
53. “El caso del compañero Ernesto H. Velasco,”
El Rebelde, October 20, 1917; and Araiza,
Historia, 3:161–175.
54. “La muerte de José Barragán Hernández unirá a los trabajadores,”
Luz, October 17, 1917; Araiza,
Historia, 3:178–184; and Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:211–223.
10. The Aftermath of August 1916: Continued Activity
1. Tudó, “Desde la Atalaya: Grito de sordos y llamamiento a la libertad,”
Luz, October 24, 1917.
2. Ibid., August 29, 1917.
3. Ibid.; and “Orientaciones para la celebración del 1° de mayo,” ibid., April 17, 1918.
4. López Dónez, “En linea recta,” ibid., August 14, 1918; idem, “Nuevo Paladin,” ibid., January 15, 1919; “Acracia,”
El Azote, June 11,1917; and Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” pp. 183–186, 193.
5. “A nuestros lectores,”
Tribuna Roja (Tampico), September 18, 1915.
6. “De Texas con Germinal,”
Germinal, February 7, 1918.
7. “La Casa del Obrero Mundial de Tampico a los organizaciones obreras de la región mexicana, Salud,”
Luz, September 5,1917.
8. Araiza,
Historia, 3:187–192; Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” pp. 204–206; and Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:243–249.
9. Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, p. 300.
10. Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 2:7–25, 33–46.
11. “Se impone la organización de la verdadera confederación,”
Luz, April 16, 1919; Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, p. 300; and Jorge Basurto,
El proletariado industrial en México (1850–1930), p. 203.
12.
El Pequeño Grande, April 6, 1919; and Córdova Pérez, “Movimiento,” pp. 206–207.
13. Huitrón, “En el XXIII aniversario de la CGT,”
Regeneración, February 15, 1944.
14. Araiza,
Historia, 4:56–66.
15. Ibid.; Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 2:116–118; and Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, pp. 306–307.
16. “Comienza el terror blanco en México,”
Bandera Roja, June 5, 1921;
El Trabajador, May 8, 15, October 15, 1921; and Araiza,
Historia, 4: 56–66. For a description of the CGT program and its agrarianism, see Ruiz,
Labor, pp. 98–99.
17.
El Trabajador, November 1, 1921; and Araiza,
Historia, 4:67–69.
18. “La Confederación General de Trabajadores y la Internacional de Sindicatos Rojos,”
Nuestros Ideales, June 2, 1922; Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 2:124–128; and Araiza,
Historia, 4:70–73, 78.
19. Araiza,
Historia, 4:74–84.
20. Huitrón,
Orígenes e historia, pp. 307–308.
21. Miguel T. Ochoa, “Asesinos,”
Nueva Solidaridad Obrera, May 15, 1922; Araiza,
Historia, 4:87–91; and Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 2:149–157.
22. “El zarpazo de la fiera,”
Nuestra Palabra, October 18, 1923.
23. Araiza,
Historia, 4:91–101; and Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 2:107–210.
24.
Nuestra Palabra, August 2, October 11, 1923.
25. Araiza,
Historia, 4:108–122; and Marjorie Ruth Clark,
Organized Labor in Mexico, pp. 100, 114.
26. Salazar,
Historia de las luchas, 1:116.
27. Octavio García Mundo,
El movimiento inquilinario de Veracruz, 1922, pp. 19–35.
29. Ibid.; and Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:36–38.
30. García Mundo,
El movimiento inquilinario, pp. 13–15, 54, 56.
32. Ibid., pp. 83–88, 122.
35.
El Dictamen (Veracruz), June 30,1922; and García Mundo,
El movimiento inquilinario, pp. 129–132, 153.
36. García Mundo,
El movimiento inquilinario, pp. 129–131, 159–171.
37. Heather Fowler, “Los orígenes de las organizaciones campesinas en Veracruz: Raíces políticas y sociales,”
Historia Mexicana 85 (July-September 1972): 66, 70, 73.
38. Salazar,
Historia de las luchas, 1:72, 74, 78.
39. “¡Los traidores sobran en el mundo!”
Nuestra Palabra, August 30, 1923.
40. “Nos reafirmamos en la idea antipolítica,”
Nuestra Palabra, December 13, 1923; Salazar,
Historia de las luchas, 1.72, 74, 78, 101; and Araiza,
Historia, 4:123–124.
41. Salazar,
Historia de las luchas, 1:119.
43. Araiza,
Historia, 4:124–128; and Cerda Silva,
El movimiento obrero, p. 137.
44. Cerda Silva,
El movimiento obrero, pp. 137–143. For an assessment which doubts CROM membership claims, see Jean Meyer, “Los obreros en la Revolución Mexicana: Los Batallones Rojos,”
Historia Mexicana 81 (July-September 1971) : 28. For a version which accepts CROM figures, see Carr,
Movimiento obrero, 2:5–20.
45. Salazar,
Historia de las luchas, 1:173.
46. “Quienes desean unirse a la C.R.O.M.,”
Nuestra Palabra, February 19, 1925.
47. Salazar,
Historia de las luchas, 1:187–188.
48. Ibid., 1:191–192, 196–197, 199, 204, 207–210.
50. Ibid., 1 :197, 199, 204.
52. Cerda Silva,
El movimiento obrero, p. 140.
53. Salazar,
Historia de las luchas, 1:215–235.
54. Araiza,
Historia, 4:128–138.
55. Clark,
Organized Labor, pp. 114–119; and Salazar,
Historia de las luchas, 1:261, 265.
56. For an in-depth analysis of Morones’ demise, see Carr,
Movimiento obrero, 2:115–176. For pro-CGT contemporary accounts, see “La Confederación General de Trabajadores,”
¡Avante! July 15, 1928; E. Leal, “El fracaso de los políticos y la idea anarquista,” ibid., February 1, 1929; and “¡Votalos, pero no votes!” ibid., June 15, 1928.
57. Araiza,
Historia, 4:138–156; Salazar,
Historia de las luchas, 1:290–291, 306–307, 329; and Clark,
Organized Labor, pp. 138, 140.
58. Librado Rivera, “Las farsas electorales,”
¡Avante! January 30,1930; “El VII Congreso de la C.G.T.,” ibid., July 10, 1929; Araiza,
Historia, 4: 157–189; and Clark,
Organized Labor, pp. 140, 147, 195, 233, 268.
59. Luis G. Franco,
Glosa del perioda de gobierno del C. General e Ingeniera Pascual Ortíz Rubio, 1930–31–32, p. 32.
61. Salazar,
Historia de las luchas, 2:15–18, 40–42, 47, 62.
62. Clark,
Organized Labor, p. 274.
63. Ibid., pp. 140, 147, 195, 233, 268; and Araiza,
Historia, 4:197–199.
64. “La C.G.T. no es filial a la A.I.T.,”
Regeneración, no. 1 (April 1937); and “¡No abdicamos nuestra ideología revolucionaria!”
Regeneración, November 15, 1954.
65. “A todos los grupos e individualidades anarquistas de la región mexicana,”
Tribuna Obrera, August 1934; and
El Tornillo, June 28, 1937.
11. Conclusion
1. It is interesting to note that many nineteenth-century ideas—e.g., the elimination of urban capitalists from rural Iandownership, the redistribution of agrarian lands, agrarian development banks, etc.—when explained by Molina Enriquez thirty years later in his monumental
Los grandes problemas nacionales were applauded by some observers, and later even scholars, as original, imaginative, and brilliant proposals.
2. Interviews, Salazar and Gasca.
4. Ibid.; also Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:93–103.
5. Interviews, Salazar and Gasca; also, Salazar and Escobedo,
Las pugnas, 1:200–213.
6.
La Protesta, May 23, 1929.
7. Letter, Valadés, Mexico City, to the Secretary, Asociación Internacional de Trabajadores, Berlin, December 27, 1923, International Institute of Social History, Nettlau Archive, Amsterdam.