Tokyo Bay is a temperate, semi-enclosed bay, located on the Pacific side of central Japan (Figure 16.1). It constitutes the most urbanized and developed, as well as the most densely populated, bay in the whole country, as it is faced by the Tokyo metropolitan area and Yokohama city, the two largest and most populated cities of Japan. The catchment spans over 9000 km2 with 27.8 million inhabitants, accounting for 20 percent of the total Japanese population (Furukawa and Okada 2006).
Tokyo Bay is composed mainly of sandy habitats, alternating with muddy ones (Kodama et al. 2010a). The surface area of the bay is 922 km2 and it has a mean depth of 19 m (Yoshikawa 2011). Being semi-enclosed, water exchange is limited, with a water retention period of 31 days (Okada et al. 2007). As for water circulation, Unogi and Kishino (1977) estimated that the annual average exchange time is about 2 months. However, mainly due to changes in river runoff, there are variations in the exchange time during the year. For example, during the cold period (January–February), the exchange time lasts 3.5 months, whereas during the hot period (September–October), it lasts 0.8 months (Tokyo Bay Environmental Research Committee 2011).
Tokyo Bay has supported a considerable number of fish stocks, upon which the livelihoods of the local fishing communities have relied throughout history, until the present time. Local consumption of food originating from the sea dates back several thousand years, and is an integral part of the Tokyo Bay culture and daily life of the current local population, with the oldest shell and other marine species remnants discovered within human settlements, dating around 9293 to 7320 BC (Habu et al. 2011). During the 1950s, 12,000 households in the three prefectures within the Tokyo Bay area, namely Tokyo, Kanagawa and Chiba, relied on fisheries, with men occupied in the harvesting sector and women taking care of land-based, fisheries-related activities, such as processing, accounting, etc., but slowly decreasing, to reach 3,100 during the 1980s (Takao and Bower 1999). According to the fisheries census, in 2013, 4,527 people in the Tokyo Bay area were directly occupied in the fisheries sector, a decrease from 23,454 in 1968 (Figure 16.2).
Even though human presence in Tokyo Bay dates back to the Stone Age, it was only at the beginning of the seventeenth century that the area was transformed into a hub of human activity, when Ieyasu Tokugawa founded the Tokugawa shogunate in Edo, later renamed Tokyo (Takao and Bower 1999). Human intervention in Tokyo Bay began right after the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate, with the diversion of the Tone River, which resulted in the significant reduction of fresh water inflow in the bay (Takao and Bower 1999). During the Tokugawa era, land reclamation in the region was initiated in order to create space for residential purposes (Pernice 2007).
Since the 1860s, with the establishment of the Meiji government which was highly industry and military oriented, the increasing land demand for human activity, ranging from residential use and port development to aquaculture and salt production, led to extensive reclamation of the coastline of Tokyo Bay (Figure 16.3).
During the Meiji era, several large-scale reclamation projects were implemented, resulting in the construction of, among others, several commercial harbors and a naval base. In the early twentieth century, a large part of the current Tokyo metropolitan area, and more specifically Tokyo, Kawasaki and Yokohama, were already hosting a considerable and ever-increasing expanse of industrial operations, which were halted only during World War II, when the American air raids demolished a significant portion of the local industrial infrastructure (Takao and Bower 1999).
The participation of Japan in World War II changed drastically the national economic situation. In urgent need of economic development, the country turned to the rapid promotion of heavy industry, and during the 1950s, in order to establish an economic model with focus on exports, the government passed an act for the industrial development of Tokyo Bay, which led to further land reclamation in the area. It was during the late 1950s that the Japanese economy experienced its most radical transformation, shifting from a largely primary industrial focus to put emphasis on the secondary and tertiary sectors. This shift caused a significant change in population distribution, resulting in large population concentration in the Tokyo Bay area, as well as the construction of large scale industrial facilities (Pernice 2007). In the 1940s, 137 km2 were covered by tidal flats; the tidal flat surface had been reduced to only 10 km2 by the 1990s (Kodama and Horiguchi 2011). Today in the Tokyo metropolitan and Yokohama City areas, there is almost no natural coastline remaining (Makino 2011).
These radical changes in the coastal environment resulted in marine pollution, mostly due to large amounts of solid wastes and wastewater being discharged into the bay, and eutrophication, due to the reduction of water exchange rates (Furukawa and Okada 2006). Very characteristic of the severity of the situation is the fact that during the 1970s, when water quality reached its lowest point, Tokyo Bay became known as the ‘sea of death’ (Takao and Bower 1999). The subsequent enforcement of stricter water quality control led to a gradual improvement of the issue (Tokyo Bay Environmental Research Committee 2011). Nevertheless, the levels of dissolved oxygen in the deeper waters still remain low, thus decreasing the survival rates of the bottom-dwelling marine species (Figure 16.4).
Furthermore, the loss of tidelands and seagrass beds, as well as the deterioration of the seafloor quality as the sandy parts are being covered by sludge, has affected gravely the reproduction rates of the marine species, resulting in significant decrease of both catch amount and catch diversity (Furukawa and Okada 2006; Ogura 1993). In particular, the population of the mantis shrimp (Oratosquilla oratoria), one of the most famous and branded species of the local fisheries, has deteriorated drastically, with the catches radically declining during the 1980s.
Tokyo Bay is a water body which offers a vast array of ecosystem services to the local population, ranging from cultural (e.g. aesthetic value and local history) to provisioning, with most prominent, several fisheries of high commercial value.
Although fisheries product consumption in Tokyo Bay dates back to the Stone Age, commercial exploitation of the local fish stocks bloomed during the Edo period (1603–1868, Figure 16.5) under the patronage of Ieyasu Tokugawa initially, and later on, his successors of the Tokugawa shogunate. During the Edo era, the local populace appreciated the fish-centered local diet, thus creating a local food culture heavily reliant on fisheries. As it is mentioned in Seiken Terakado’s book Edo Hanjoki, Edo people “loved fish so much, that they said that their bones would fall apart if they went without fish for three days” (Terakado (1974) as cited in Tomioka (2007)). Due to the fact that the uniquely large Edo population of the eighteenth century was predominantly male, with a ratio of 1.5 men per 1 woman, most of whom were live-in employees in the various large establishments and had no means of cooking for themselves, the food industry grew quickly, catering to their needs for readymade meals (Harada 2006).
As most meals of the Edo people contained fisheries products of some sort, be it fish, shellfish or seaweed (Harada 2006; Tomioka 2007), demand increased rapidly, driving prices higher and thus enhancing the local fishing activity. Furthermore, after the Genroku earthquake (1703) and the following fire that took place in Edo, the food catering industry expanded rapidly. The backbone of this industry was the abundant seafood originating from Tokyo Bay, and the dishes based on that were called ‘Edo-mae’ (Japanese for ‘in front of Edo’ or ‘Edo-style’), which constitute the Edo-mae food culture (Tomioka 2007). This food trend began with broiled Edo-mae eel and was followed by several innovative dishes, created locally, the most renowned among which is sushi (Tomioka 2007). This culture of consuming seafood originating from Tokyo Bay supported a wealthy fishing industry in the area, continuing until today.
Common name |
Scientific name |
Japanese name | |
Short-neck clam |
Ruditapes phillippinarium |
Asari |
アサリ |
Hard clam |
Meretrix lusoria |
Hamaguri |
ハマグリ |
Japanese shrimp |
Panaeus japonicus |
Kurumaebi |
クルマエビ |
Swimming crab |
Portunus trituberculatus |
Gazami |
ガザミ |
Japanese mantis shrimp |
Oratosquilla oratoria |
Shako |
シャコ |
Black porgy |
Acanthopagrus schlegelii |
Kurodai |
クロダイ |
Japanese sea bass |
Lateolabrax japonicus |
Suzuki |
スズキ |
Flathead grey mullet |
Mugil cephalus cephalus |
Bora |
ボラ |
Stone flounder |
Kareius bicoloratus |
Ishigarei |
イシガレイ |
Whitespotted conger eel |
Conger myriaster |
Anago |
アナゴ |
Yellowfin goby |
Acanthogobius flavimanus |
Mahaze |
マハゼ |
Barracuda |
Sphyraena spp. |
Kamasu |
カマス |
Japanese amberjack |
Seriola quinqueradiata |
Buri |
ブリ |
Source: Takao and Bower (1999)
Currently, the local fishermen target a range of species, especially fish and crustaceans. Traditional local fish stocks include Japanese sea bass (Lateolabrax japonicus), whitespotted conger eel (Conger myriaster), stone flounder (Kareius bicoloratus) and, as mentioned earlier, Japanese mantis shrimp (O. oratoria) (Table 16.1).
Apart from capture fisheries, for many years the yield of cultivated seaweed (laver, Porphyra spp., in Japanese known as nori) was the highest nationally (Takao and Bower 1999). Nevertheless, both fisheries, especially those targeting shellfish, and seaweed cultivation showed a general declining trend since the mid-1960s, mostly due to land reclamation of the Tokyo Bay coastline (Figures 16.6 and 16.7).
The predominant commercial species in Tokyo Bay is the Japanese mantis shrimp (O. oratoria, in Japanese known as shako), targeted mainly by the Shiba Branch small-scale bottom trawlers belonging to the Yokohama City Fisheries Cooperative Association (Yokohama FCA) (Kodama et al. 2002; Kodama et al. 2003; Kodama et al. 2006; Kodama et al. 2005; Ohtomi 1991; Shimizu 2002). The Japanese mantis shrimp are muddy bottom dwellers, with their population spread along the Japanese coastline (Hamano 2005; Hamano and Matsuura 1984; Kodama et al. 2006). They are believed to reach exploitable size (≥11 cm from the base of the rostrum to the anterior edge of the median notch of the telson) at 2 to 3 years of age (Hamano and Morrissy 1992; Kodama et al. 2005; Kubo et al. 1959; Nakata 1987; Ohtomi et al. 1992; Ohtomi and Shimizu 1988).
During the 1970s, the commercial mantis shrimp fishery in Tokyo Bay started exhibiting increased annual landings, which remained high until the early 1990s, achieving its historical high in 1989 (1081 tons) (Kodama et al. 2005; Kodama et al. 2006). Since the 1990s, the catch levels have been declining continuously (Figure 16.8) (Kodama et al. 2006). The stock size has been diminishing since the 1980s, until 2005 when it was recognized as having collapsed (Kodama et al. 2002; Kodama et al. 2010b; Kodama et al. 2014).
Source: Kodama et al. (2006)
Extensive land reclamation and heavy industry development policy in the Tokyo Bay area gravely affected the local environment, with degradation of water quality being the most significant impact. However, land reclamation and industrial development are not the only drivers of change in the area. Fishing pressure and prolonged conflicts between sectoral interests, mainly heavy industry, fisheries and environmental protection, as well as the implementation of vertically segmented management measures, have had considerable effects on Tokyo Bay, especially related to the local mantis shrimp stock. For example, as the local heavy industrial model is based on relatively low marine transportation costs for imports of raw materials and exports of final products, pressure from cargo shipping on the local marine environment is quite strong, and this fact, coupled with long-term wastewater discharge, has accelerated the decline of the fishing and water recreation sectors (Takao and Bower 1999).
Physical changes in the land surrounding Tokyo Bay and substantial levels of pollution directly resulted in the degradation of the living environment of the mantis shrimp population and, enhanced by increased fishing pressure, they accelerated the decrease of the mantis shrimp resource level, pushing it below the species survival rate. Furthermore, while the stakeholder groups occupied within the fisheries sector or concerned about environmental protection could have a positive impact on the attempts to restore what is lost, namely the marine habitats like seagrass beds, their leverage power is far lower than the economic power yielded by the heavy industry and the chemical production sector.
All the aforementioned stressors caused a considerable decrease in the size of the mantis shrimp population of Tokyo Bay, endangering the viability of the local fishery. The obvious decrease in mantis shrimp populations within the fishing grounds has inadvertently resulted in a significant reduction of the local fishery catches. As there is limited interest in the mantis shrimp resource at the national level, the local fishermen are not able to find support at a management level higher than the local level, and, thus, they have no state allies in their attempts to revive their resource and income source.
Governance of the Tokyo Bay area is diffused sectorally to various organizations across ministries, as well as vertically, from the national level down to the local level. At the national level, three ministries are involved in the management of the bay: industrial development falls under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry; river and rain water inflow and coastlines are managed mainly by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism; and the natural environment is governed by the Ministry of the Environment. Furthermore, at the prefectural level (regional level), the Fisheries Division of the prefectural government is in charge of the fisheries resource management. In addition, at the local level, the official association of local fishermen (Fisheries Cooperative Association – FCA), existing under the jurisdiction of the prefectural government, is the main body responsible for the adoption, implementation and enforcement of local fisheries management.
Nationwide, major fishing regions have their own FCAs, membership in which is obligatory to anyone who intends to fish in the coastal areas. The FCAs have the highest priority for fishing rights for the area under their jurisdiction, and their members are responsible for the adoption, implementation and enforcement of the majority of fishing regulations, supported by research institutions and the local government (Japan International Fisheries Research Society 2004; Makino 2011). Collaboration between the state and the fishermen is not limited at the local level, however; at the prefectural level, the Area Fisheries Coordinating Committees (AFCCs), bodies consisting of elected members of FCAS, offer consultation to the prefectural government (Japan International Fisheries Research Society 2004). At the national level, Wide-area Fisheries Coordinating Committees (WFCCs), comprising AFCC elected members, operate as advisory bodies to the central government, focusing on migratory species and resource management coordination (Makino and Matsuda 2005).
This collaboration between the state and the local fishermen is a prime example of co-management based on fishing rights and licenses issued by the government and regulation enforcement entrusted to local associations. Collective fishing rights are given to each FCA by the state once every five years, provided that the members accept also the responsibility to conserve the local marine environment (Japan International Fisheries Research Society 2004). The national fisheries management objectives, especially the long-term ones, are established by the Fisheries Policy Act of 2001 and include a stable supply of seafood to the citizens and healthy development of the fisheries sector. However, even though the majority of management measures are implemented autonomously by the FCA, these measures focus mainly on fisheries resource management rather than environmental conservation. As such, environmental rehabilitation is not under the jurisdiction of the Fisheries Law and thus not within the control of the FCA. However, the environmental sector has increasing influence on public opinion and, as a result, the needs for more integrated marine and environmental policy are also on the rise. One of the first actions taken nationally was stricter water quality regulation imposed by the Ministry of the Environment. Due to the new regulations, water quality in the Tokyo Bay area gradually improved (Figure 16.9), even though bottom water quality still has significant scope for amelioration; the current conditions are still unable to foster recovery of the mantis shrimp stock.
Figure 16.9 Changes in the water quality of Tokyo Bay, 1982–2012
Source: Tokyo Bay Coastal Municipal Government Assembly for Environmental Conservation (2015)
The local FCAs have long been active in mantis shrimp fishery management, despite several issues that arose regularly. During the 1970s, the catch had fallen to very low levels. Furthermore, the national government officially promoted the land reclamation of coastal areas and development of heavy industry, thus forcing the Tokyo and Yokohama FCAs to abandon their fishing rights in the Tokyo Bay (1971–1975, see Figure 16.10). Nevertheless, fishermen who were previously members of the FCAs continued their individual operations in the area, until the early 1980s when a new wider Yokohama FCA was established with more than 200 household members. Despite the establishment of the new FCA, the fishing rights regime was not re-established. The reinitiated fishing activity was undertaken without fishing rights in a cooperative and voluntarily self-restrained manner.
The Yokohama FCA members fish without fishing rights, yet they are obliged to follow the regulations set by the AFCC in order to conserve the Tokyo Bay fish stocks as much as possible (Figure 16.11).
In the meantime, in order to reduce fishing pressure on the mantis shrimp stocks, the fishermen introduced regulations focusing mainly on fishing effort, the most significant of which was the reduction of days of operation, by implementing a 2 days of operation/1 day off effort module year round. In addition, they autonomously introduced the total allowable amount of catch by size categories. It is worth noting that the FCA introduced control measures before the catch fluctuation showed a steady declining trend since the late 1980s. Even though the amount of the catch was high, the size of the individuals caught was decreasing. As a result, the members of the FCA began to worry about the declining quality of the mantis shrimp fishery and proceeded to implement control measures. As the fishermen’s primary catch target during that time was stone flounder, they were able to implement management measures for non-target species such as mantis shrimp without facing significant resistance. Nevertheless, after the establishment of the new FCA and the introduction of further measures, focusing mainly on the selectivity of fishing tools, not only did the size of the individuals not increase, but also the overall size of the catch started showing declining trends.
In order to reverse this dire situation, the FCA targeting mantis shrimp have gradually been implementing autonomous measures, from entry controls (vessel and gear sizes, vessel number, total days at sea, etc.), to catch limits (size and volume), and, finally, a total ban on mantis shrimp fishing operations for five years (2007–2011). Despite these efforts, no recovery of the species was observed (Figure 16.10).
During the five-year-ban, local fishermen and researchers conducted experimental operations, during which only a limited amount of juvenile mantis shrimps was recovered. These results led the fishermen to the conclusion that mantis shrimp move to deeper waters when they reach adulthood and die due to the hypoxic environment. Even though there is scientific evidence proving the existence of low oxygen levels in Tokyo Bay, the assumption that adult mantis shrimp die due to hypoxia is not scientifically supported, as the species is capable of migrating to more suitable living environments. Nevertheless, the actual distribution of the mantis shrimp population is largely unknown, rendering it impossible to create a viable management plan for the fishery.
Despite the long-term efforts of the FCAs, the mantis shrimp fishery has still not recovered. Local fishermen who used to target mantis shrimp are now turning to other species, causing conflicts with other stakeholder groups. For example, the fishermen who now target conger eel (C. myriaster, in Japanese known as anago), having no capacity to replace their gear, are just adapting it to the new fishery, with significant side effects to the local marine species. Specifically, for the mantis shrimp fishery, small trawlers with large mesh size were used, whereas the suitable equipment for the conger eel fishery would be tube traps. As the mantis shrimp fishermen already are in possession of small trawlers, they simply reduced the mesh size and turned to conger eel fishing. The fishing of conger eel differs fundamentally from that of mantis shrimp due to the physical characteristics of the two species; conger eel is long and slick and thus easily escapes large mesh sizes, whereas mantis shrimp is bulkier and gets easily entangled even in nets with a large mesh size. However, fishing with the small mesh size nets necessary for conger eel fishing results in significant bycatch, especially of juvenile mantis shrimp, further reducing the species’ capacity for recovery.
Furthermore, clusters of fishermen operating in Tokyo Bay fish aggressively, ignoring the AFCC regulations, claiming that they do not recognize them as legitimate. Such actions severely undermine the voluntary initiatives and self-constraints that other local FCAs, like the Yokohama FCA, put upon themselves in order to protect the environment, thus creating conflicts among the groups and reducing the positive impact that conservation activity has on the local marine environment. As there is no enforcement of the AFCC regulations and the fisheries groups cannot control one another effectively, this issue seems impossible to solve.
As a result of the dramatic changes that Tokyo Bay faced, the local marine environment degraded significantly. Intense industrial development, expansive land reclamation, significant fishing pressure and conflicting interests led to an extensive degeneration of the local habitat and resources. The Tokyo Bay mantis shrimp population declined rapidly, pushing the income levels of the local fishermen to unprecedented low levels (see Figure 16.12).
Despite the numerous attempts and vast effort employed at the local level, the collapsed fish stock is still below viable levels. The response of the natural system to the actions taken in both the social and the governing system has been neither fast nor extensive enough to bring hope for recovery. As a matter of fact, the initiatives for the restoration of Tokyo Bay have been far from fruitful, as the environment is still largely hypoxic (Figure 16.12). During the past decade, occasional bycatch of mantis shrimp individuals during fishing for other species has led the fishermen to pursue the re-opening of the mantis shrimp fishery several times, however, with limited to no success. All those attempts were terminated soon after their initiation. Currently, the fishermen who previously targeted mantis shrimp are shifting towards other species in the area, as well as experimenting with other fishing gear in order to find a substitute for mantis shrimp fishery. Another main target species, apart from conger eel, on which the fishermen are currently focusing is sea cucumber (A. japonicus, in Japanese known as namako), a species that is a popular delicacy both inside and outside the Japanese borders. In addition, the fishermen are experimenting with commercial rod fishing, which targets mainly chub mackerel (S. japonicus, in Japan known as masaba).
Despite the fruitless efforts to revive the mantis shrimp fishery, the Tokyo Bay stakeholders have a very successful project related to fisheries that they can take pride in. In the early 1980s, a group of volunteer scuba divers, with academic support, started a seagrass replanting activity which soon expanded widely (Makino 2011). The seagrass beds had been declining severely during the past decades to the point of having virtually disappeared from Tokyo Bay until the 1970s (FAO 2013). Currently, a vast array of stakeholder groups, ranging from fishermen to schools and state actors, are participating in the replanting activities, reinvigorating the local marine environment (Citizen Group Meeting for the Promotion of Nature Restoration 2005). This attempt has been crowned with surprising success, with the replanted areas being protected as no-take zones by the Japanese legislation and with the oval squid (Sepioteuthis lessoniana) spawning in the beds for the first time in 2004 after a 30-year absence (Makino 2011).
This positive outcome raises hope for the possibility of a greater revival of the Tokyo Bay marine resources in the future, which will fuel the resuscitation of the local community as well, lifting the Tokyo Bay case from a failed attempt at conservation to a rewarding common effort.
In order to assess the Tokyo Bay mantis shrimp fishery, the authors made extensive use of the I-ADApT tools, from the case study template to the graph that outlines the stages of the description and responses (see Figure 16.12). Utilization of the tools assisted the progress of the research by enabling ease of comparison between the levels of responses, as well as the stages of the change in the fishery. We believe that I-ADApT made a significant contribution towards a better understanding of our case study.
Bay Renaissance Project. (2003). Current state of the water environment in Tokyo Bay: First interim evaluation of the first term. Bay Renaissance Project, Tokyo.
Bundy, A., Chuenpagdee, R., Cooley, S.R., Defeo, O., Glaeser, B., Guillotreau, P., Issacs, M., Makino, M. and Perry, R.I. (2016). A decision support tool for response to global change in marine systems: The IMBeR-ADApT framework. Fish and Fisheries 17: 1183–1193. DOI: 10.1111/faf.12110
Citizen Group Meeting for the Promotion of Nature Restoration. (2005). Nature restoration activities linking forests, villages, rivers and the ocean: Lessons from 13 advanced cases in Japan. Chuohoki Publishers, Tokyo.
FAO. (2013). Marine protected areas: Country case studies on policy, governance and institutional issues (Japan, Mauritania, Philippines, Samoa), FAO, Rome.
Furukawa, K. and Okada, T. (2006). Tokyo Bay: Its environmental status – past, present, and future. In: E. Wolanski (Ed.) The environment in Asia Pacific harbours. Springer, Dordrecht.
Habu, J., Matsui, A., Yamamoto, N. and Kanno, T. (2011). Shell midden archaeology in Japan: Aquatic food acquisition and long-term change in the Jomon culture. Quaternary International 239: 19–27.
Hamano, T. (2005). Biology of stomatopod crustaceans and stock management of the Japanese mantis shrimp Oratosquilla oratoria, Japan Fisheries Resource Conservation Association, Tokyo.
Hamano, T. and Matsuura, S. (1984). Egg laying and egg mass nursing behaviour in the Japanese mantis shrimp. Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries 50: 1969–1973.
Hamano, T. and Morrissy, N.M. (1992). Growth of Oratosquilla oratoria (de Haan, 1844) (Stomatopoda) in the Sea of Suo-Nada, Japan. Crustaceana 63: 263–276.
Harada, N. (2006). A peek at the meals of the people of Edo: Tracing the diet of Edo – The establishment of Japan’s culinary culture – Part 1. Food Culture, 12: 2–6. www.kikkoman.co.jp/kiifc/foodculture/pdf_12/e_002_006.pdf.
Japan International Fisheries Research Society. (2004). Japan and her fisheries, Overseas Fishery Cooperation Foundation Japan, Tokyo.
Kodama, K., Aoki, I., Shimizu, M. and Taniuchi, T. (2002). Long-term changes in the assemblage of demersal fishes and invertebrates in relation to environmental variations in Tokyo Bay, Japan. Fisheries Management and Ecology 9: 303–313.
Kodama, K. and Horiguchi, T. (2011). Effects of hypoxia on benthic organisms in Tokyo Bay, Japan: A review. Marine Pollution Bulletin 63: 215–220.
Kodama, K., Oyama, M., Kume, G., Serizawa, S., Shiraishi, H., Shibata, Y., Shimizu, M. and Horiguchi, T. (2010a). Impaired megabenthic community structure caused by summer hypoxia in a eutrophic coastal bay. Ecotoxicology 19: 479–492.
Kodama, K., Oyama, M., Lee, J.H., Kume, G., Yamaguchi, A., Shibata, Y., Shiraishi, H., Morita, M., Shimizu, M. and Horiguchi, T. (2010b). Drastic and synchronous changes in megabenthic community structure concurrent with environmental variations in a eutrophic coastal bay. Progress in Oceanography 87: 157–167.
Kodama, K., Shimizu, T. and Aoki, I. (2003). Possible factors causing the fluctuation of the recruitment of Japanese mantis shrimp Oratosquilla oratoria in Tokyo Bay. Bulletin of Kanagawa Prefecture Fisheries Research Institute 8: 71–76.
Kodama, K., Shimizu, T., Yamakawa, T. and Aoki, I. (2006). Changes in reproductive patterns in relation to decline in stock abundance of the Japanese mantis shrimp Oratosquilla oratoria in Tokyo Bay. Fisheries Science 72: 568–577.
Kodama, K., Tajima, Y., Shimizu, T., Ohata, S., Shiraishi, H. and Horiguchi, T. (2014). Disturbance of recruitment success of mantis shrimp in Tokyo Bay associated with effects of hypoxia on the early life history. Marine Pollution Bulletin 85: 433–438.
Kodama, K., Yamakawa, T., Shimizu, T. and Aoki, I. (2005). Age estimation of the wild population of Japanese mantis shrimp Oratosquilla oratoria (Crustacea: Stomatopoda) in Tokyo Bay, Japan, using lipofuscin as an age marker. Fisheries Science 71: 141–150.
Kubo, I., Hori, S., Kumemura, M., Naganawa, M. and Soedjono, J. (1959). A biological study on Japanese edible mantis shrimp, Squilla oratoria de Haan. Journal of Tokyo University of Fisheries 45: 1–25.
Makino, M. (2011). Fisheries management in Japan, Springer, Dordrecht.
Makino, M. and Matsuda, H. (2005). Co-management in Japanese coastal fisheries: Institutional features and transaction costs. Marine Policy 29: 441–450.
Marine Cadastre. (2015). Ocean WebGIS. www.kaiyoudaichou.go.jp/KaiyowebGIS/.
Ministry of Land Infrastructure Transport and Tourism of Japan. (2005). White Paper on Capital Area.
Nakata, N. (1987). Growth of juveniles and adults of the Japanese mantis shrimp in Tokyo Bay. Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Fisheries Oceanography 51: 307–312.
Ogura, N. (1993). Tokyo Bay – Its environmental changes, Koseisha Koseikaku, Tokyo.
Ohtomi, J. (1991). Studies on the stock management of the mantis shrimp Oratosquilla oratoria in Tokyo Bay, University of Tokyo, Tokyo.
Ohtomi, J., Nakata, N. and Shimizu, M. (1992). Discarding of the Japanese mantis shrimp Oratosquilla oratoria by small-scale trawlers in Tokyo Bay. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 58: 665–670.
Ohtomi, J. and Shimizu, M. (1988). Growth after recruitment completion and life span of the Japanese mantis shrimp Oratosquilla oratoria in Tokyo Bay. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 54: 1935–1940.
Okada, T., Takao, T., Nakayama, K. and Furukawa, K. (2007). Changes in freshwater discharge and residence time of sea water in Tokyo Bay. Doboku Gakkai Ronbunshuu B 63: 67–72.
Pernice, R. (2007). The issue of Tokyo Bay’s reclaimed lands as the origin of urban utopias in modern Japanese architecture. Journal of Architecture and Planning 613: 259–266.
Shimizu, T. (2002). On the resource of Japanese mantis shrimp Oratosquilla oratoria (de Haan) in Tokyo Bay – I: Summarization on the resource untilization and life history. Bulletin of Kanagawa Prefecture Fisheries Research Institute 7: 1–10.
Takao, K. and Bower, B.T. (1999). Management of Tokyo Bay. In: W. Salomons, R.K. Turner, L.D. de Lacerda, and S. Ramachandran (Eds.) Perspectives on integrated coastal zone management. Berlin: Springer.
Terakado, S. (1974). Edo Hanjoki Vol. 1, Toyo Bunko, Tokyo.
Tokyo Bay Coastal Municipal Government Assembly for Environmental Conservation. (2015). The Tokyo Bay water quality survey report of 2013. www.tokyowangan.jp/database/pdf/h24hokoku.pdf
Tokyo Bay Environmental Research Committee. (2011). Tokyo Bay, Kouseisha Kouseikaku, Tokyo.
Tomioka, I. (2007). The history of Nihonbashi Uogashi – Part 2. Food Culture, 15: 8–14. www.kikkoman.co.jp/kiifc/foodculture/pdf_15/e_008_014.pdf.
Yoshikawa, K. (2011). Drainage basin of Tokyo Bay. In: Committee on Marine Environmental Studies in Tokyo Bay (Ed.) Tokyo Bay: Regenaration of relationships between human and nature. Kouseisha Kouseikaku, Tokyo, pp. 2–9.
