3

Marketing the Library and Information Consultant’s Services

Creating a Sophisticated Brand

Quality marketing of professional services is both an art and a science, requiring careful research by consultants to identify, retain, and grow a dedicated clientele. As customers continually exercise their right to choose, consultants must deliver value through their professional services and consistently communicate the value of those services to current and potential clients. Librarians often mistake marketing as advertising and publicity, which are just two of many tools or tactics in the marketing arsenal. True marketing is a managerial process, or, as stated by the American Marketing Association, “an organizational function and set of processes for creating, communicating, and delivering value to customers and for managing customer relationships in ways that benefit the organization and its stakeholders.”1 By listening and responding to the voice of the customer, the library and information consultant can craft a sophisticated marketing strategy.

This chapter focuses on marketing the library and information consultant’s services, with the goal of creating a brand identity that library consumers can both relate to and value. It will begin with an introduction to services marketing, discussing the value of the ServiceScape for effectively marketing a professional service product and the service blueprint for managing it. It will continue by outlining the traditional marketing plan, used for articulating the professional service product’s value. The chapter will end with a discussion on branding and the integrated marketing communications plan, as a means to consistently communicate the value of a library and information consultant’s professional services.

Services Marketing

To review, service products differ considerably from physical goods. Most notably they are heterogeneous and intangible in nature, requiring performances from both employees and the consumer. These characteristics lead to inherent variability in operational inputs and outputs, making services extremely difficult for customers to understand, let alone evaluate.

Customers, regardless of the degree of intangible service they’ve purchased, usually rely on tangible, or physical, evidence to judge service quality. Thus the discipline of marketing services is integrated with service operations. When visiting a grocery store, for example, the customer views the display of produce, the cleanliness of the bathrooms, the quality of aisle and pricing signage, and the friendliness of checkout clerks as clues regarding the quality of both the store and their service experience. This means a visit to Whole Foods, where employees are available to assist customers with matching seafood with varieties of fine wine, is very different than a visit to ALDI, where a “less is more philosophy” means customer interaction with employees is minimized. In the library setting, the consumer is accessing the library and information consultant’s knowledge when asking a question. It is unlikely that the consumer will base his opinion of the success of a reference transaction on whether the consultant responded to his question with the perfect answer alone. Rather the entire ServiceScape of the library will be included in the consumer’s assessment. To provide and market a service product consistently, the consultant needs to understand and develop his organization’s ServiceScape and construct a service blueprint so that he can objectively and quantifiably manage his service product.

ServiceScape

ServiceScape represents the environment in which a service is delivered and customers interact with employees.2 A ServiceScape is an important concern, because it influences both customer and employee behavior. Before, during, and after a customer uses a service, the customer will consider the physical evidence and use this evidence to formulate his opinion of that service. Thus building characteristics such as the quality of furnishings, building layout, signage, and equipment will communicate both quality and value to the customer along with other tangibles, such as the consistent presentation of brochures, websites, and other communication mediums. Ideally a ServiceScape satisfies the needs of both the consumer and the library and information consultant. It should be designed with the marketing segments the consultant wishes to target. The Columbus Metropolitan Library in Columbus, Ohio, for instance, offers Job Help Centers. These centers are physically located in its branch locations and defined using signage and furniture. To assist community members looking for work, it also partners with JOBLeaders, a statewide organization, to bring the Jobs Mobile bus to its locations.3 This is a significant element of the Columbus Metropolitan Library’s ServiceScape in a state with countywide unemployment rates reaching 7 to 16 percent.4

Similarly, the Veria Central Public Library in Greece created “The Magic Boxes,” a space within its library designed to promote reading, creativity, and digital literacy for its community’s children.5 To enable children to interact with one another and express their creativity and curiosity, the Veria library intentionally made this ServiceScape flexible, with multipurpose furniture that can continuously be reconfigured. It also selected colors and materials that will engage children’s emotions and creativity.

The complexity of a library’s ServiceScape, however, can overwhelm consumers. This is an undeniable reality today as collections and services are now spread throughout a physical and online environment. A visitor to the Thompson Library at The Ohio State University, for example, initially encounters collections and services spread over an eleven-floor building with more than two hundred thousand assignable square feet of space. Signage alone is insufficient to help the visitor navigate this space. All staff must consciously interact with consumers in the building who appear lost or confused, offering directions or physically escorting the consumer to her desired destination. To help visitors, standards of employee dress, such as Vocera communication badges worn with traditional picture identification badges, are employed to distinguish staff from regular patrons.6 Vocera communication badges further shape the ServiceScape by assisting staff with addressing consumers’ information needs at their time and place of need. Part phone, part pager, part walkie-talkie, Vocera uses voice commands to enable staff to communicate with each other regardless of where they are in a building. Thus, if a consumer on the tenth floor of the Thompson Library approaches an employee shelving books with a detailed question, this employee can immediately call a library and information consultant for help, without having to physically escort the consumer to a phone or a consultant’s office. Vocera also allows users to call groups; a circulation supervisor can send employees to work on a shifting project in the stacks knowing that she may use Vocera to summon these individuals back to the desk if a line forms. These standards contribute to the ServiceScape.

The Thompson Library, however, is just one building in a system of eight department libraries, six regional campus libraries, separately administered law and health sciences libraries, and a remote storage facility. Ohio State library consumers can borrow materials from or make use of any of these facilities. The Ohio State Libraries’ ServiceScape is further complicated as their customers can request books and journals through the statewide OhioLINK system, a consortium of eighty-eight Ohio college and university libraries and the State Library of Ohio. To address this issue the Ohio State Libraries employs a communications officer and a graphic designer, who work in tandem to craft carefully designed maps, brochures, websites, and other media to assist patrons with understanding the Ohio State library system. This is an important yet daunting task, as is communicating a consistent message regarding the Ohio State Libraries. It is an important contribution to the ServiceScape, however, influencing consumers’ commitment to the library system, their use of library services, whether they recommend the library to their peers, and whether they support the library’s funding.

The ServiceScape also enables customers to differentiate one area of service from another within the library. Using furniture, private consultation rooms and other elements, a library and information consultant may distinguish her service area from others, such as circulation or a technology help center. Further, placement of computer terminals and chairs in the areas where a library and information consultant interacts with customers will affect social interaction. If chairs are placed so far away that the consultant cannot hear the consumer, the ServiceScape will be negatively affected.

While the ServiceScape facilitates the performance of both consumers and library employees, it also socializes them by communicating roles, behaviors, and relationships. The ServiceScape may define the role of the library and information consultant by functioning as a differentiator that both attracts and repels market segments. A well-trained, knowledgeable consultant, for instance, will not be able to encourage highly educated customers to use her services if her behavior contradicts her knowledge. Locating patron answers while blowing large bubbles with green-apple-scented chewing gum, for instance, may distract the consumer and communicate a lack of respect for the consumer’s question.

Because customer decisions to use or avoid a library service are influenced by staff, hiring, retention, and promotion decisions also contribute to the ServiceScape. Having the right employee in the right position influences customer decisions to stay and use a service as much as environmental conditions such a natural lighting, noise, and building temperature. Friendly library and information consultants who display both verbal and physical welcoming behaviors will be more successful than knowledgeable library and information consultants who repel potential clients with dismissive facial expressions.

The ServiceScape’s physical environment also affects staff behavior cognitively, emotionally, and physiologically. If a work area is in front of an open door during a cold northern winter, this can negatively impact even the most talented library and information consultant. The consultant must ask herself whether a consumer would enjoy an interaction in such a setting. If the consultant is uncomfortable, the consumer is likely uncomfortable too! Failure to address the uncomfortable environment will lead to avoidance behaviors from both the consultant and the consumer whom the consultant wishes to attract.

Service Blueprinting

The less experienced the consumer, the more important it is for the service provider to manage the consumer’s service experience. Service blueprinting complements the ServiceScape by detailing the processes and specifications to which the service product should conform. Introduced by G. Lynn Shostack, a former vice-president at Citibank and chair of the American Marketing Association’s special task force on service marketing, the service blueprint maps the processes inherent in a service and identifies potential points of failure by indicating all potential points of contact where the customer and service provider interact.7 It is a useful tool for developing or improving a new or existing service. By understanding potential failure points, the library and information consultant can either address the service failure by redesigning the service process, or, if appropriate, create contingency plans to minimize or address a service failure that cannot be avoided. For instance, in a library that offers a series of popular classes requiring pre-registration, unavoidable service failure may occur on the first day of registration, particularly if budgetary realities restrict the library to accepting registrations by telephone only. If telephone capacity cannot be increased to address the increased volume of calls from eager consumers, a service failure will occur.

There are various formats of the service blueprint an organization can use. It is best to choose a format that works best for the consultant’s professional service products and to use this format consistently. An example of a service blueprint for a proactive library and information consulting service is provided in figure 3.1. To construct this blueprint, the key activities required to produce and deliver the service from the customer’s and consultant’s points of view were identified first and mapped into the following categories of actions: customer actions, employee actions both onstage and backstage, and support processes. The tangible physical evidence the customer experiences for the service process was also identified and recorded at the top of the blueprint. The service blueprint illustrates that front room and back room activities run in parallel. Along with the physical evidence, these activities contribute to the successful delivery of the service.

Figure 3.1 Blueprint for Proactive Library and Information Consulting Service

In figure 3.1, the author attempted to identify all of the steps taken, frustrations experienced, and choices made by a library customer looking for articles on a specific topic. The onstage and backstage actions taken by the consultant interacting with a customer in a proactive library and information consulting service are listed. Backstage activities include anything that the contact employee does to assist the customer onstage. Lastly, the support processes that aid the contact employee in delivering the service are listed. In a library organization, this would include activities conducted by individuals in acquisitions, cataloging, information technology, and general management.

As composed, the service blueprint denotes three key action areas: the line of interaction, the line of visibility, and the line of internal interaction. Service encounters are denoted any time a vertical line crosses the line of interaction; this means a customer has interacted with an employee. The line of visibility denotes all activities which are visible to the customer and on which the customer will formulate an opinion of her individual service experience. This includes everything above the line of interaction. Potential failure points are usually identified above this line and represented by a circled capital F. Making a service process more visible to the customer or improving the physical evidence can sometimes address these failure points. In other instances, a redesign of the service process may be required. For example, in an academic library setting, offering tours of a remote storage facility to university faculty and graduate students can help manage expectations regarding book retrieval wait times. Circulating a short YouTube video explaining this facility to these target populations may also creatively accomplish this task. Changing the process for retrieving items in a way that reduces wait time is also an option.

Vertical lines that cross the line of internal interaction represent internal service encounters. This would include contacts consultants make with colleagues in information technology. A request for assistance with creating and posting a subject guide in the library organization’s content management system, for example, is not seen by the customer. Completion of this activity, however, is required for a successful service transaction.

To improve a service or address failure points, any activities identified in the service blueprint may require a service blueprint of its own. The beauty of the service blueprint, however, is that each service encounter identified by the vertical lines indicates a “moment of truth.” Here an internal or external customer may have an excellent or poor service experience. The service blueprint illustrates that service failure is usually not a factor of human error but a lack of systematic design and control. The blueprint provides an opportunity to systematically describe a service concept and record detailed specifications. It represents the who, what, where, when, and how of the service product. The service blueprint represented in figure 3.1 shows three potential failure points: when the consultant approaches and interviews the customer; when the consultant researches the customer’s question; and when the consultant gives the customer an answer and follows up with a question or invitation to return for additional service. These failures will not occur in every transaction. In fact, they may rarely occur at all. The service blueprint, however, prompts library and information consultants to honestly work toward minimizing errors in their service, through such practices as training or standardizing practice. From a marketing perspective, the service blueprint is essential for understanding a service and creating both a marketing plan and a brand identity to communicate its value.

The Marketing Plan: A Foundation for Articulating Value

Successful marketing is embedded in the design, creation, and implementation of products and services. It is not an activity undertaken after a good or service is created. Since marketing primarily focuses on value creation and delivery, it is vital for any library and information consultant to have a sound strategy for researching the needs of current and potential customers. With the information gathered from the ServiceScape, service blueprinting, and Voice of the Customer tools and activities, the consultant can obtain precise knowledge of customer needs. Using this knowledge, he can successfully create both services and products that meet these needs and communicate the value of these services and products. The consultant can then create a marketing plan to commit his understanding of the marketplace, with its various segments, competitors, and overall environment, in writing. The purpose of the marketing plan is to identify target populations, objectives for the marketing program, a positioning strategy, and the mix of advertisements and promotional strategies to be used to communicate with the target population. Measurable financial or behavioral outcomes along with a strategy for implementing and adjusting the marketing strategy are also identified. These adjustments are accomplished by establishing internal controls and external measures to inform decision making.

While many formats of the marketing plan exist and are advocated by experts, a well-crafted marketing plan consists of strategies and tactics. The strategic component focuses on the value proposition to be created and delivered after analyzing a market environment. The tactical component focuses on specific marketing tools or methods, such as promotion, pricing, or service features, to communicate the value proposition to the markets targeted. Most marketing plans consist of six basic elements:
  1. a situation/market analysis which examines the product or consultant’s current strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in the broader marketplace. This is often referred to as a SWOT analysis.
  2. a customer analysis that answers key questions about current customers’ or prospects’ decision-making influences
  3. marketing goals and objectives stated in measurable terms
  4. a marketing strategy outlining the tactics required to achieve these goals
  5. a budget which supports the marketing strategy
  6. an execution and evaluation plan for implementing and adjusting the marketing strategy

The situation and market analysis ground the marketing plan by requiring examination of the overall macroenvironment. The customer analysis, marketing goals and objectives, and marketing strategy focus on the value proposition. The budget and evaluation plan are necessary to measure the plan’s effectiveness. More formal marketing plans are usually prefaced by an executive summary, which highlights key points from each segment of the document.

Situation/Market Analysis

Any strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats relevant to the library and information consultant’s professional service products are documented in the situation analysis. Strengths include anything from having a team of highly knowledgeable, effective, and experienced employees, to having a unique product or service that cannot easily be replicated by others. Weaknesses include factors such as limited funding opportunities or a hiring freeze that compromises the consultant’s ability to replace valued employees following retirement. Opportunities represent external factors that the consultant can capitalize upon to improve value creation and delivery to consumers, while threats represent external environmental factors the consultant may not be able to control, but can address to minimize the disruption to or interference with a product or service.

Any factor that may influence usage of the consultant’s services must be considered in the situation analysis. For instance, the economic downturn of 2008–2009 reinforced the relationship between a weakening economy and usage of libraries, particularly library programs and resources related to job seeking in areas of high unemployment. It also highlighted public libraries’ reliance on state and local tax revenues for daily operation and support. Other legal and governmental factors such as copyright or local building and fire code compliance must be documented in the situation analysis, as these issues will influence the overall marketing strategy of a library and information consultant. Technological and sociocultural trends, such as social networking, Web 2.0, or mobile broadband, must also be documented in the situation analysis section of the marketing plan.

In the market analysis, current and potential competitors, their influence in the marketplace, and how this influence may affect the market are examined. Here competitors’ strengths and weaknesses are identified, with detail illustrating how they may affect delivery or use of the consultant’s professional service products. Information about the market environment is also documented in the market analysis, including specific market circumstances that the consultant may or may not be able to control.

Customer Analysis

Both current and potential markets for the consultant’s professional service products are documented in the customer analysis. This is accomplished by defining the size of the market and the various segments within the market. Market segments represent groups of customers who share similar needs, desires, and preferences. An understanding of these groups may be used to focus various marketing strategies and tactics. Marketers usually segment consumer markets broadly by the following variables:

With psychological segmentation, the consultant can look at such things as decision roles. This includes who influences an individual’s decision to use a library and information consultant’s services. Thus, the library and information consultant can examine what psychological factors encourage students to study in a library and at what time of day. Physical and psychological factors, such as a consultant colocated in an academic library coffee bar or a safe place for kids to get help with their homework in the public library, encourage a consumer to utilize a library and information consultant’s services repeatedly, and refer these services to a friend. Such referrals are especially important as word-of-mouth marketing is not only free, but extremely effective. Although much of the information for segmenting has already been collected while defining the Voice of the Customer, it is important to document measurable market segments in the marketing plan, because this information is necessary to define which markets to target both for the design and promotion of the consultant’s service product.

Marketing Goals and Objectives

Once background information has been collected and documented to inform the marketing plan, the strategies and tactics are outlined next. Marketing goals and objectives must be stated in measurable terms. This requires defining target markets using the information documented earlier in the market segmentation, to focus the consultant’s financial, capital, and human resources on potential customers. These are individuals who are most receptive to using and appreciating the value of the consultant’s products and services. The marketing goals and objectives must also be linked to the consultant’s stated mission. Thus, if the overarching mission of the library is to promote literacy and lifelong learning within its community, a consultant’s target market might include adults age thirty and older with school-age children living within five miles of the North Everett branch. Note that the geographic and demographic variables for this target market are clearly defined. Parents of school-age children influence their child’s ability to use the library and the library’s services. If the goal of the consultant’s marketing plan is to encourage individuals in this target market, whose tax dollars both contribute to and support the library’s mission, the marketing objectives may be:

Marketing Strategy

To create a marketing strategy, the consultant must articulate a positioning strategy for a product, service, or brand by outlining marketing’s traditional four Ps. The four Ps represent the marketing mix and encourage the library and information consultant to balance the marketing strategy by considering the:

Some marketers add an additional three categories to the four Ps for service products including:

As noted in chapter 2, categories such as price may be defined more broadly, including variables such as the price of convenience or the price of receiving inaccurate information.

The point of the marketing strategy is to highlight the points of difference and points of parity between a product and a competitor’s product in an effort to influence consumers’ choices.8 Points of difference represent the attributes or benefits a product or service offers the consumer that the consumer believes cannot be obtained from a competitor. For the service product, this may include the format of the service, features, performance quality, reliability, and style. The ability to locate a specific children’s book for a customer without having a title or author, for instance, often serves as a point of difference between a library and information consultant and a bookstore employee. Points of parity represent the attributes or benefits a product or service offers that the consumer can satisfy elsewhere. This may also include elements of the service format, features, performance quality, reliability, and style. Points of parity are not necessarily negative. If a consumer expects your product or service to offer similar elements as a competitor’s service, failure to meet these expectations can influence the consumer to choose a competitor’s product or service. Thus if a bookstore offers premium coffee in its café, and the library’s coffee kiosk does not, the coffee aficionados will choose the bookstore over the library for study space. Points of parity and points of difference must be relevant, distinctive, and believable to adequately influence consumer behavior. They must also be feasible, able to be communicated, and sustainable for the consultant or organization that establishes them.

Budget

The expected costs for implementing the marketing plan are identified in detail in the budget section of the marketing plan. Here the financial resources required for advertising and promotional activities are outlined, along with any costs associated with evaluating the marketing plan’s success in meeting its goals and objectives, such as hiring an independent survey research group. Although the typical marketing plan should include a sales forecast to predict expected revenue and a break-even analysis to identify the point where profits will be realized, this may or may not be appropriate for the library and information consultant. If the consultant were marketing a fundraising event, the projected fundraising goal would serve as the sales forecast from which the forecasted costs to market and execute the program would be subtracted to determine the program’s break-even point. For a grant-funded program, however, determining the break-even point may prove more difficult. With no exchange of financial resources, community outcomes or outputs may prove more relevant. Thus, for a community with a 10 percent unemployment rate, the library and information consultant’s sales forecast for a grant-funded job-seeking assistance program may instead be defined as “10 percent of our community’s unemployed citizens will attend one of the library’s ten resume-writing workshops within the next three months.”

Execution and Evaluation Plan

A marketing plan has no strength unless a detailed timetable for executing each individual marketing activity is created and followed. The consultant must identify both mechanisms and dates for measuring the overall success of the marketing plan and adjusting its implementation. Having a detailed execution and evaluation plan not only improves accountability, both internally and externally, but also the success of the marketing campaign.

Branding the Library and Information Consultant’s Service Product

Branding solidifies the image the library and information consultant wishes to portray for his professional service products, and is a valuable tool for both conveying the value of these services and differentiating them from the services offered by others. Branding tells a story, helping consumers to understand what they might expect when using service. Well-executed branding strategies generate equity for a consultant, influencing how consumers will think, feel, and react. A strong brand appeals to a consumer’s emotions and creates a loyal customer willing to invest more time, money, and resources in her service experience. It establishes a presence for the service product, communicates its relevance to the consumer, and assures the consumer that the product will deliver what it promises. The goal of branding is to move consumers from simply identifying a brand and knowing that it exists, to associating a brand with their needs. A loyal consumer will become a passionate brand supporter, developing a lasting bond with the brand.

Branding is more holistic than logos and letterhead. A strong brand will communicate and reflect how a library and information consultant does business. Thus development of a marketing plan, a series of service blueprints, and an understanding of a ServiceScape all contribute to the creation and maintenance of a sophisticated brand. A strong brand is memorable, meaningful, likeable, transferable, adaptable, and protectable.9 This means brand names for the library and information consultant’s professional service products, along with visual representations of the consultant’s brand via logos and websites, taglines, and other marketing tools, must support the brand’s promise. To accomplish this, the library and information consultant must work with his organization’s integrated marketing communications strategy, or insist that one must be employed, to consistently communicate his brand’s promise while protecting and strengthening his brand’s image.

An integrated marketing communications strategy considers how all advertising, promotional, public relations, and other marketing activities work together to support the brand image. It requires coordinating the visual identity for a brand and establishing set standards for using the brand. For the library and information consultant, this means an editorial policy for the brand must be created and executed. All employees must understand and respect standards that define elements, such as how the brand will be referred to in writing and whether certain documents must be forwarded to a brand advocate for approval before distribution. For example, the author is currently employed by The Ohio State University. Here she is required to refer to the institution as “The Ohio State University” the first time the university is referred to in written documents. Subsequent references must be written as “Ohio State,” not “OSU,” with the word university un-capitalized. Employees are referred to the 15th edition of the Chicago Manual of Style for editorial issues not addressed by the university’s editorial style guide.10

Design standards must also be employed in tandem with editorial standards. Design standards define the basic rules for how the visual elements, such as logos, colors, or templates for a brand, must be employed. To coordinate and monitor the execution of editorial and design standards for an integrated marketing communications strategy, the appointment of a brand champion or advocate is often necessary. This individual functions as the “voice of the brand” and must lead regular brand audits to ensure the library and information consultant’s message is consistent and successful in triggering a desired emotional response from targeted consumers. If no individual within the library organization has been appointed to this role, the library and information consultant must either consciously serve as his own brand advocate, or insist that the library appoint someone to oversee the entire organization’s branding efforts.

Summary

Library and information consultants must craft a sophisticated marketing strategy to successfully communicate the value of their professional services to current and future customers. The consultant must understand the ServiceScape or environment in which his service products are delivered, as customers rely on tangible evidence to evaluate the quality of these services. This means library and information consultants must ensure that such details as furnishings, decor, written communications, and employee behavior and dress all match the value proposition of their professional service products.

The discipline of creating service blueprints supports the library and information consultant’s efforts to create and maintain an appropriate ServiceScape by detailing the processes and specifications to which their service products must conform. Service blueprints may also assist with identifying and addressing potential points in a service process where failure may occur.

With a written marketing plan, the library and information consultant may articulate the value of his professional service products to customers. The marketing plan assists the consultant by forcing the consultant to identify and then segment target populations, create a positioning strategy, and determine the mix of advertising and promotional activities required to successfully communicate the value of a service to the target populations. A quality marketing plan identifies measurable financial or behavioral outcomes to enable the consultant to monitor the plan’s success and adjust the plan as necessary.

Lastly, branding generates equity, creating loyal customers by appealing to customer emotions. Loyal customers not only invest a considerable amount of time, energy, and resources into a brand, but they also sell a brand to others. A consultant should either function as an advocate for the brand himself or appoint an individual to serve in this capacity. This ensures the consultant’s professional service product delivers what it promises.

Notes

1. American Marketing Association, “Resource Library: Dictionary,” www.marketingpower.com/_layouts/Dictionary.aspx?dLetter=M.

2. Mary Jo Bitner, “ServiceScapes: The Impact of Physical Surroundings on Customers and Employees,” Journal of Marketing 56, no. 2 (1992): 57–71.

3. Columbus Metropolitan Library, “Job Help Center,” www.columbuslibrary.org/jobhelp.

4. Ohio Department of Job and Family Services, “July 2010 Ranking of Ohio County Unemployment Rates,” http://lmi.state.oh.us/LAUS/Ranking.pdf.

5. Veria Central Public Library, “The Magic Boxes,” http://blog.libver.gr/en/?page_id=26.

6. Sarah Anne Murphy, “Vocera: Enhancing Communication across a Library System,” College and Research Libraries News 70, no. 7 (2009): 408–11.

7. G. L. Shostack, “Designing Services That Deliver,” Harvard Business Review 62, no. 1 (1984): 133–39.

8. Philip Kotler and Kevin Lane Keller, Marketing Management, 12th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006), 312–16.

9. Ibid., 282.

10. The Ohio State University. “Office of Marketing Communications, Editorial Style Guide,” www.osu.edu.proxy.lib.ohio-state.edu/resources/styleguide.html.