The structure of the teaching Tibetans sometimes argue that their teaching includes all three vehicles: the Hinayana, the Mahayana and the Vajrayana. There is some truth in this, although it can sometimes be a polemical claim, implying that other forms of Buddhism are redundant. The oldest Buddhism is represented in the Vinaya discipline and the practice of moral restraint. Moreover, the Tibetan monastic curriculum sometimes included quite detailed study of the abhidharma and there are in any case many elements surviving from an early period. Yet it is clearly with the second and third vehicles that most Northern Buddhist teaching is concerned. Tibetan Buddhism contains large elements both of Mahayana and of Mantrayana. The former, often referred to as the ‘Vehicle of the perfections’, Tibetans see as the bodhisattva path, developing perfections over many lives, as set out in the Mahayana sutras and the great shastra systems of the Shunyatavada and the Yogacara. These two shastra systems were widely known and studied in the Tibetan schools [30; 84].
The vehicle of the mantras is seen as a direct route, utilizing specific practices as a skilful means enabling buddhahood to be reached in years rather than lives. On one level this is reserved for the experienced practitioner at a relatively advanced stage. On another level it can be said to pervade the whole of Tibetan religion. Tibetan art and devotion are filled with the figures of deities, bodhisattvas and Buddhas whose origins lie in the tantras or who are presented in a guise based upon the tantra [87].
Perhaps the most striking feature of Tibetan Buddhism to the observer is the part played by ceremony and ritual, especially the public conferment of various kinds of blessing and initiation. This aspect of Northern Buddhism is in fact immensely successful and popular, even quite outside the normal limits of the religion. Recently such ceremonies have been performed fairly widely in both Europe and North America with visible effectiveness and impact. Their form and arrangement, however, are based upon Mantrayana theory of a quite detailed and sophisticated kind [61].
The role of the Lama Mantrayana Buddhism emphasizes the role of the teacher (Sanskrit guru; Tibetan blama), as any religious tradition which stresses initiations and esoteric teachings is likely to do. So much is this the case that the Lama is often added as a fourth refuge to the ‘refuge in the three jewels’ usual in Eastern or Southern Buddhism. It is incorrect to apply the term Lama to any Northern Buddhist monk, as is sometimes done. Indeed, Tibetans understandably tend to object to the name ‘Lamaism’ for their religion because it implies that it is not authentic Buddhism.
One significant innovation that certainly has been made in Tibet is the introduction of the institution of so-called ‘incarnate lamas’ or tulkus (Sanskrit nirmanakaya). Originally the idea was simply that a past teacher might return to new life as a child or might be especially connected to a child. The first Karmapa Lama (Dus gsum mkhyen pa: 1110–93) introduced a new notion by predicting his own immediate rebirth after death. Eventually the custom of finding a child to succeed a dead teacher became widespread. In some cases such ‘lines’ of succession were considered to act as the vehicle for the manifestation of the power of a bodhisattva or Buddha. The most famous example is of course the Dalai Lama, considered to be a focus for Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion [99: 134–5].
Meditation methods The same combination of Mahayana and Mantrayana applies in the realm of meditation practice. There is basic training in calm and insight meditation (see p. 404), modelled especially on the accounts of the Yogacara school. This is widely practised but is often, though not always, regarded as only a preliminary stage. More typical is some kind of meditative ritual. This is essentially some combination of an appropriate mantra with a corresponding visualization exercise. So, for example, one may visualize oneself as taking the form of a Buddha while picturing that Buddha before one in an appropriate context (e.g. surrounded by circles of attendant Buddhas, bodhisattvas and deities). Such a practice will usually be initiated by ceremonial authorizations from a teacher, preferably one who has himself mastered that particular method. The practitioner must thereafter repeat a series of chants and visualizations, make offerings, repeat the relevant mantra, make appropriate gestures (mudra) at intervals and so on. Eventually the visualization should come joyfully alive, only to be dissolved again in emptiness. Such methods occur in many different forms using a multiplicity of different techniques. Successful ritual service of a given deity is seen as bringing both inner and outer rewards, as well as advancing one on the path to liberation. It is almost impossible to separate this kind of meditation from more general popular devotion and cult, since each can lead into the other. Indeed, rituals performed by Tibetan monks are based upon the patterns and theoretical structure of tantric meditation and are at the same time intended to create conditions in the participant favourable for meditation, as well as accomplishing more immediate results [99: 47–109; 74: 148–58; 8; 5: 25ff].
The schools of Northern Buddhism Tibetan Buddhist schools differ as to precisely which texts they hold to be authoritative and to which deities they pay most attention; in some cases they possess particular teachings or practices in which they specialize. They remain quite similar in general features and perhaps do not amount to distinct sects. Three general groups can be distinguished: (1) the tradition deriving from the first diffusion of Buddhism in Tibet – the Nyingma (‘old ones’); (2) the schools stemming from the second diffusion – especially the Kadam, the Sakya and the Kagyu; and (3) the reform which gave rise to the Gelu or New Kadam school, often known as the ‘Yellow Sect’. The earlier Kadam was absorbed by the Gelu school. This left four main schools as well as a number of less well-known ones.
The Sakya and Kagyu may perhaps be seen as the intellectual and yogic wings of the same many-branched tradition. The latter in particular is well known for its cotton-clad yogis, going back to the teachings of the poet-saint Milarepa (1040–1123). Especially important for this school are the Six Doctrines attributed to the Indian yogi Naropa (the teacher of Marpa), leading to the spiritual achievement known as Mahamudra.
The Nyingma is partly a response to the success of the schools belonging to the second diffusion. On the one hand, it retains many ancient traditions and practices of varying origin. On the other hand, it has been one of the most creative schools. It gives authority to texts supposedly hidden during the period of persecution and later found by clairvoyant masters, even to some which are openly the product of contemplation. In this, of course, it simply continues the practice of the ancient Mahayana. The Nyingma school underwent a considerable renaissance in the fourteenth century, creating its own collection of tantras and developing a cult based upon the legendary figure of Padmasambhava, seen as its founder.
The Gelu school represents an attempt to return to the tradition of Atisha, re-emphasizing monastic discipline, which its founder Tsong kha pa (1357–1419) felt had become lax. Tsong kha pa had studied in all three of the schools of the second diffusion and stressed the importance of following authentic Indian tradition. The school had great success and founded large monastic universities in Lhasa and elsewhere, requiring a long and impressive period of study. Shunyatavada teaching played an important role and unusual emphasis was placed on the study of logic and on public debate [22: 388–9; 99: 33–9, 47–109].
The Sangha Only one Vinaya tradition was established in Tibet – that of the Mulasarvastivada. In principle it is adhered to by all schools, but in practice it is overlaid to some extent by various Mahayana and Mantrayana traditions. A fairly complex organization had naturally developed in the larger monasteries. Before 1959 Tibet had a rather larger Sangha, according to some accounts as much as 25 per cent or more of the population. Such a high figure is probably an exaggeration, since observers may have been confused by the presence of married lay disciples at monasteries, wearing similar robes to the monks. There were certainly a few very large monasteries, especially in Lhasa and at the principal centres of various sects [88: 237ff; 99: 110ff].
Festivals The Tibetan calendar is related to the Chinese, with some differences. It is a lunar calendar, each month beginning at the new moon with the full moon on the fifteenth day. New Year and harvest festivals play an important part everywhere, as do festivals of sect founders and tutelary deities in particular monasteries. Those generally recognized are shown in table 8.7 [99: 146ff; 38: 53–6].
| Table 8.7 Tibetan Buddhist festivals | ||
| Month | Day | Event |
| One | 10–15 | Great miracle at Shravasti (following the New Year celebrations) |
| Four | 7 | Birth of the Buddha |
| Four | 15 | Enlightenment and entry into nirvana of the Buddha |
| Six | 4 | First sermon of the Buddha |
| Nine | 22 | Descent of the Buddha from heaven (end of the rains retreat) |
| Ten | 25 | Death of Tsonkhapa (offering of robes) |
The Manchu rulers of China had established suzerainty over Tibet and their representatives exercised a measure of authority in Lhasa throughout the nineteenth century. The fall of the Manchu dynasty in 1911 ended that suzerainty as far as the Tibetans were concerned. Tibetan culture and religion continued to remain largely out of contact with the rest of the world until the Chinese Communist invasion in 1950 established Chinese overlordship under an agreement providing for Tibetan self-government. This collapsed in 1959, the Dalai Lama fled to India and direct Chinese colonial rule was forcibly imposed. Eventually the Cultural Revolution led to an attempt to destroy Tibetan religion totally. This appears to have involved the large-scale destruction of Tibet’s artistic, sculptural and architectural heritage – probably one of the worst cultural crimes of one people against another in recent centuries. At present there are intermittent signs of a return to more moderate policies.
Tibetan religion is still active in the Himalayan territories of India and Nepal as well as in the small kingdom of Bhutan and among refugee communities in India and elsewhere. With the decline of Communism in the former Soviet Union, Northern Buddhism has revived considerably in its former territories, both in Mongolia and among the Buriat, Tuvan and Kalmuk peoples of Russia, recovering for example its former ‘Cathedral’ in St Petersburg. Moreover, it has had some success in the field of missionary endeavour.
The twentieth century has brought mixed fortunes for Buddhism. Communist rule has meant wholesale destruction, especially to the Sangha, first in the Asian territories of the Soviet Union and in Mongolia, then successively in North Korea, China, Tibet, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. Each of the three traditions has suffered. The same period saw a revival of activity and a return to lands long lost. Notably in Indonesia and in India, Buddhism has re-established its presence and won new support.
More remarkably, new fields for expansion have emerged. In Europe, Southern Buddhism began to establish itself on a small scale as early as the beginning of the century. Eastern Buddhism in its Zen form started to attract a significant following outside the Asian immigrant communities in the 1950s, especially in North America. The work of Tibetan refugee teachers in the 1960s and 1970s won support for Northern Buddhism. By the early 1980 s some hundreds of Buddhist groups and centres were widely scattered across the Western world. Much of this activity is on a fairly small scale, but in many cases quite well established. All three major traditions have been increasing in numbers fairly rapidly. Membership figures are rarely available, even for groups that have a formal membership (many do not), but it is clear that the number of groups is increasing quite rapidly both in Europe and in the Americas. In Germany, for example, the number of centres grew fivefold (to a couple of hundred) between 1975 and 1991. The situation is similar in a number of other countries, including the UK [79: 198ff; 74: 248–58; 4: 273–85].
It is important to note that there has been a considerable emigration from the traditional Buddhist countries over recent decades. This has brought a substantial population into a number of areas where Asian Buddhists were not previously present in large numbers. The US now has a population of approaching half a million people claiming descent from the Southern Buddhist countries; not all of these will be Buddhists, but many must be. Similar immigration has taken place in Europe, but on a smaller scale; for example, there are some 40,000 Buddhist immigrants in Germany.
It is perhaps important to note that from the 1980s there has been a considerable revival of Buddhist activity in much of its traditional territory. Despite many earlier predictions to the contrary, Buddhism looks highly likely to outlast Communism, which had earlier presented the appearance of a most lethal enemy. Its position is now much stronger in the Southern Buddhist lands of Laos and Cambodia, in the Eastern Buddhist territories of China and across the greater part of the territorial range of Northern Buddhism. Setting this trend alongside the continuing growth in Europe, the Americas and elsewhere, it seems that a genuine Buddhist revival has been in process. No doubt Buddhism faces many difficulties as a result of the social changes arising with rapid growth and industrialization in Pacific Asia, but it is clear that it is likely to continue to be able to respond to such problems in the medium term.
1 Where Buddhist names and terms are current in both a Sanskrit and a Pali form (see p. 382), only one form is generally given in the text: Sanskrit where dealing with Northern or Eastern Buddhism or with specifically Mahayana notions, Pali in the case of Southern Buddhism or the remainder of Ancient Buddhism.
2 The written form of the Tibetan language is unusually different from the present-day spoken forms. Although a correct form has been generally used here, simplified forms have been given for words which already have some current usage in English, e.g. names of sects.
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