NOTES

CHAPTER 1: TODAY

1.    Bill Gurley, “A Rake Too Far: Optimal Platform Pricing Strategy,” Above the Crowd, April 18, 2013, http://abovethecrowd.com/2013/04/18/a-rake-too-far-optimal-platformpricing-strategy/.

2.    Thomas Steenburgh, Jill Avery, and Naseem Dahod, “HubSpot: Inbound Marketing and Web 2.0,” Harvard Business School Case 509-049, 2009.

3.    Tom Goodwin, “The Battle Is for the Customer Interface,” TechCrunch, March 3, 2015, http://techcrunch.com/2015/03/03/in-the-age-of-disintermediation-the-battle-is-all-for-the-customer-interface/.

CHAPTER 2: NETWORK EFFECTS

1.    Aswath Damodaran, “Uber Isn’t Worth $17 Billion,” FiveThirty-
EightEconomics, June 18, 2014, http://fivethirtyeight.com/features/uber-isnt-worth-17-billion/.

2.    Bill Gurley, “How to Miss By a Mile: An Alternative Look at Uber’s Potential Market Size,” Above the Crowd, July 11, 2014, http://abovethecrowd.com/2014/07/11/how-to-miss-by-a-mile-an-alternative-look-at-ubers-potential-market-size/.

3.    W. Brian Arthur, “Increasing Returns and the Two Worlds of Business,” Harvard Business Review 74, no. 4 (1996): 100–9; Michael L. Katz and Carl Shapiro, “Network Externalities, Competition, and Compatibility,” American Economic Review 75, no. 3 (1985): 424–40.

4.    Carl Shapiro and Hal R. Varian, Information Rules (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1999).

5.    Thomas Eisenmann, Geoffrey Parker, and Marshall Van Alstyne, “Strategies for Two-Sided Markets,” Harvard Business Review 84, no. 10 (2006): 92–101.

6.    Sarah Needleman and Angus Loten, “When Freemium Fails,” Wall Street Journal, August 22, 2012.

7.    Saul Hansell, “No More Giveaway Computers. Free-PC To Be Bought by eMachines,” New York Times, November 30, 1999, http://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/30/business/no-more-giveaway-computers-free-pc-to-be-bought-by-emachines.html.

8.    Dashiell Bennett, “8 Dot-Coms That Spent Millions on Super Bowl Ads and No Longer Exist,” Business Insider, February 2, 2011, http://www.businessinsider.com/8-dot-com-super-bowl-advertisers-that-no-longer-exist-2011-2.

9.    “The Greatest Defunct Web Sites and Dotcom Disasters,” Crave, cnet
.co.uk, June 5, 2008, http://web.archive.org/web/20080607211840/http://crave.cnet.co.uk/0,39029477,49296926-6,00.htm.

10.  Geoffrey Parker and Marshall Van Alstyne, “Information Complements, Substitutes and Strategic Product Design,” Proceedings of the Twenty-First International Conference on Information Systems (Association for Information Systems, 2000), 13–15; Geoffrey Parker and Marshall Van Alstyne, “Internetwork Externalities and Free Information Goods,” Proceedings of the Second ACM Conference on Electronic Commerce (Association for Computing Machinery, 2000), 107–16; Geoffrey Parker and Marshall Van Alstyne, “Two-Sided Network Effects: A Theory of Information Product Design,” Management Science 51, no. 10 (2005): 1494–1504.

11.  M. Rysman, “The Economics of Two-Sided Markets,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 23, no. 3 (2009): 125–43.

12.  Paul David, “Clio and the Economics of QWERTY,” American Economic Review 75 (1985): 332–7.

13.  UN Data: https://data.un.org/Host.aspx?Content=Tools.

14.  Christian Rudder, “Your Looks and Your Inbox,” OkCupid, http://blog
.okcupid.com/index.php/your-looks-and-online-dating/.

15.  Jiang Yang, Lada A. Adamic, and Mark S. Ackerman, “Crowdsourcing and Knowledge Sharing: Strategic User Behavior on taskcn,” Proceedings of the Ninth ACM Conference on Electronic Commerce (Association for Computing Machinery, 2008), 246–55; Kevin Kyung Nam, Mark S. Ackerman, and Lada A. Adamic, “Questions In, Knowledge In?: A Study of Naver’s Question Answering Community,” Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (Special Interest Group on Computer–Human Interaction, 2009), 779–88. 

16.  Barry Libert, Yoram (Jerry) Wind, and Megan Beck Fenley, “What Airbnb, Uber, and Alibaba Have in Common,” Harvard Business Review, November 20, 2014, https://hbr.org/2014/11/what-airbnb-uber-and-alibaba-have-in-common.

17.  Andrei Hagiu and Julian Wright, “Marketplace or Reseller?” Management Science 61, no. 1 (January 2015): 184–203.

18.  Clay Shirky, Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations (New York: Penguin, 2008).

19.  Henry Chesbrough, Open Innovation: The New Imperative for Creating and Profiting from Technology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 2003).

CHAPTER 3: ARCHITECTURE

1.    Charles B. Stabell and Øystein D. Fjeldstad, “Configuring Value for Competitive Advantage: On Chains, Shops, and Networks,” Strategic Management Journal 19, no. 5 (1998): 413–37.

2.    Rajiv Banker, Sabyasachi Mitra, and Vallabh Sambamurthy, “The Effects of Digital Trading Platforms on Commodity Prices in Agricultural Supply Chains,” MIS Quarterly 35, no. 3 (2011): 599–611.

3.    “Hop In and Shove Over,” Businessweek, February 2, 2015.

4.    Mark Scott and Mike Isaac, “Uber Joins the Bidding for Here, Nokia’s Digital Mapping Service,” New York Times, May 7, 2015.

5.    Adam Lashinsky, “Uber Banks on World Domination,” Fortune, October 6, 2014.

6.    J. H. Saltzer, D. P. Reed, and D. D. Clark, “End-to-End Arguments in System Design,” ACM Transactions on Computer Systems 2, no. 4 (1984): 277–88.

7.    Steve Lohr, “First the Wait for Microsoft Vista; Now the Marketing Barrage,” New York Times, January 30, 2007.

8.    Denise Dubie, “Microsoft Struggling to Convince about Vista,” Computerworld UK, November 19, 2007, http://www.computerworlduk.com/news/it-vendors/microsoft-struggling-to-convince-about-vista-6258/.

9.    Robin Bloor, “10 Reasons Why Vista is a Disaster,” Inside Analysis, December 18, 2007, http://insideanalysis.com/2007/12/10-reasons-why-vista-is-a-disaster/2/.

10.  See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Vista and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_XP.

11.  Steve Lohr and John Markoff, “Windows Is So Slow, but Why?” New York Times, March 27, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/27/technology/27soft.html?_r=1.

12.  Carliss Young Baldwin and Kim B. Clark, Design Rules: The Power of Modularity, vol. 1 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000).

13.  Robert S. Huckman, Gary P. Pisano, and Liz Kind, “Amazon Web Services,” Harvard Business School Case 609-048, 2008.

14.  Carliss Young Baldwin and Kim B. Clark, “Managing in an Age of Modularity,” Harvard Business Review 75, no. 5 (1996): 84–93.

15.  Carliss Young Baldwin and C. Jason Woodard, “The Architecture of Platforms: A Unified View,” Harvard Business School Working Paper 09-034, http://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Publication%20Files/09-034_149607b7-2b95-4316-b4b6-1df66dd34e83.pdf.

16.  Daniel Jacobson, Greg Brail, and Dan Woods, APIs: A Strategy Guide (Cambridge, MA: O’Reilly, 2012).

17.  Peter C. Evans and Rahul C. Basole, “Decoding the API Economy with Visual Analytics,” Center for Global Enterprise, September 2, 2015, http://thecge.net/decoding-the-api-economy-with-visual-analytics/.

18.  Michael G. Jacobides and John Paul MacDuffie, “How to Drive Value Your Way,” Harvard Business Review 91, no. 7/8 (2013): 92–100.

19.  Amrit Tiwana, Platform Ecosystems: Aligning Architecture, Governance, and Strategy (Burlington, MA: Morgan Kaufmann, 2013), ch. 5.

20.  Steven Eppinger and Tyson Browning, Design Structure Matrix Methods and Applications (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012).

21.  Alan MacCormack and Carliss Young Baldwin, “Exploring the Structure of Complex Software Designs: An Empirical Study of Open Source and Proprietary Code,” Management Science 52, no. 7 (2006): 1015–30.

22.  Andy Grove, Only the Paranoid Survive (New York: Doubleday, 1996).

23.  Michael A. Cusumano and Annabelle Gawer, “The Elements of Platform Leadership,” MIT Sloan Management Review 43, no. 3 (2002): 51.

24.  Edward G. Anderson, Geoffrey G. Parker, and Burcu Tan, “Platform Performance Investment in the Presence of Network Externalities,” Information Systems Research 25, no. 1 (2014): 152–72.

25.  Interested readers who wish to learn more might begin with the following managerial works: Charles H. Fine, Clockspeed: Winning Industry Control in the Age of Temporary Advantage (New York: Basic Books, 1998); N. Venkatraman and John C. Henderson, “Real Strategies for Virtual Organizing,” MIT Sloan Management Review 40, no. 1 (1998): 33; and Daniel E. Whitney, “Manufacturing by Design,” Harvard Business Review 66, no. 4 (1988): 83–91. There is also a tremendous volume of academic work on modularity. Readers who wish to explore the subject might start with the following academic works: Baldwin and Clark, Design Rules; Timothy F. Bresnahan and Shane Greenstein, “Technological Competition and the Structure of the Computer Industry,” Journal of Industrial Economics 47, no. 1 (1999): 1–40; Viswanathan Krishnan and Karl T. Ulrich, “Product Development Decisions: A Review of the Literature,” Management Science 47, no. 1 (2001): 1–21; Ron Sanchez and Joseph T. Mahoney, “Modularity, Flexibility, and Knowledge Management in Product and Organization Design,” Strategic Management Journal 17, no. S2 (1996): 63–76; Melissa A. Schilling, “Toward a General Modular Systems Theory and Its Application to Interfirm Product Modularity,” Academy of Management Review 25, no. 2 (2000): 312–34; Herbert A. Simon, The Sciences of the Artificial (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1969); and Karl Ulrich, Fundamentals of Product Modularity (Heidelberg, Germany: Springer Netherlands, 1994).

CHAPTER 4: DISRUPTION

1.    Chris Gayomali, “The Two Startups that Joined the $40 Billion Club in 2014,” Fast Company, December 30, 2014, http://www.fastcompany.com/3040367/the-two-startups-that-joined-the-40-billion-club-in-2014.

2.    Kara Swisher, “Man and Uber Man,” Vanity Fair, December 2014; Jessica Kwong, “Head of SF Taxis to Retire,” San Francisco Examiner, May 30, 2014; Alison Griswold, “The Million-Dollar New York City Taxi Medallion May Be a Thing of the Past,” Slate, December 1, 2014, http://www.slate.com/blogs/moneybox/2014/12/01/new_york_taxi_medallions_did_tlc_transaction_data_inflate_the_price_of_driving.html.

3.    Swisher, “Man and Uber Man.”

4.    Zack Kanter, “How Uber’s Autonomous Cars Will Destroy 10 Million Jobs and Reshape the Economy by 2025,” CBS SF Bay Area, sanfrancisco.cbslocal.com/2015/01/27/how-ubers-autonomous-cars-will-destroy-10-million-jobs-and-reshape-the-economy-by-2025-lyft-google-zack-kanter/.

5.    Swisher, “Man and Uber Man.”

6.    Marc Andreessen, “Why Software Is Eating the World,” Wall Street Journal, August 20, 2011, http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424053111903480904576512250915629460.

7.    Phil Simon, The Age of the Platform: How Amazon, Apple, Facebook, and Google Have Redefined Business (Henderson, NV: Motion Publishing, 2011).

8.    Feng Zhu and Marco Iansiti, “Entry into Platform-Based Markets,” Strategic Management Journal 33, no. 1 (2012): 88–106.

9.    Jason Tanz, “How Airbnb and Lyft Finally Got Americans to Trust Each Other,” Wired, April 23, 2014, http://www.wired.com/2014/04/trust-in-the-share-economy/.

10.  Arun Sundararajan, “From Zipcar to the Sharing Economy,” Harvard Business Review, January 3, 2013, https://hbr.org/2013/01/from-zipcar-to-the-sharing-eco/.

11.  Dan Charles, “In Search of a Drought Strategy, California Looks Down Under,” The Salt, NPR, August 19, 2015, http://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2015/08/19/432885101/in-search-of-salvation-from-drought-california-looks-down-under.

12.  Simon, The Age of the Platform.

13.  Hemant K. Bhargava and Vidyanand Choudhary, “Economics of an Information Intermediary with Aggregation Benefits,” Information Systems Research 15, no. 1 (2004): 22–36.

14.  Marco Ceccagnoli, Chris Forman, Peng Huang, and D. J. Wu, “Cocreation of Value in a Platform Ecosystem: The Case of Enterprise Software,” MIS Quarterly 36, no. 1 (2012): 263–90.

15.  DC Rainmaker blog, “Under Armour (owner of MapMyFitness) buys both MyFitnessPal and Endomondo,” February 4, 2015, http://www
.dcrainmaker.com/2015/02/mapmyfitness-myfitnesspal-endomondo
.html.

16.  Peter C. Evans and Marco Annunziata, “Industrial Internet: Pushing the Boundaries of Minds and Machines,” General Electric, November 26, 2012, http://www.ge.com/docs/chapters/Industrial_Internet.pdf.

17.  Accenture Technology, “Vision 2015 – Trend 3: Platform (R)evolution,” http://techtrends.accenture.com/us-en/downloads/Accenture_Technology_Vision%202015_Platform_Revolution.pdf. Accessed October 13, 2015.

18.  Barry Wacksman and Chris Stutzman, Connected by Design: Seven Principles for Business Transformation Through Functional Integration (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2014).

CHAPTER 5: LAUNCH

1.    Eric M. Jackson, “How eBay’s purchase of PayPal changed Silicon Valley,” VentureBeat, October 27, 2012, http://venturebeat.com/2012/10/27/how-ebays-purchase-of-paypal-changed-silicon-valley/.

2.    Blake Masters, “Peter Thiel’s CS183: Startup—Class 2 Notes Essay,” Blake Masters blog, April 6, 2012, http://blakemasters.com/post/20582845717/peter-thiels-cs183-startup-class-2-notes-essay. Copyright 2014 by David O. Sacks. Reprinted by permission.

3.    Eric M. Jackson, The PayPal Wars: Battles with eBay, the Media, the Mafia, and the Rest of Planet Earth (Los Angeles: WND Books, 2012).

4.    Andrei Hagiu and Thomas Eisenmann, “A Staged Solution to the Catch-22,” Harvard Business Review 85, no. 11 (2007): 25–26.

5.    Annabelle Gawer and Rebecca Henderson, “Platform Owner Entry and Innovation in Complementary Markets: Evidence from Intel,” Journal of Economics and Management Strategy 16, no. 1 (2007): 1–34.

6.    Joel West and Michael Mace, “Browsing as the Killer App: Explaining the Rapid Success of Apple’s iPhone,” Telecommunications Policy 34, no. 5 (2010): 270–86.

7.    K. J. Boudreau, “Let a Thousand Flowers Bloom? An Early Look at Large Numbers of Software App Developers and Patterns of Innovation,” Organization Science 23, no. 5 (2012): 1409–27.

8.    Ciara O’Rourke, “Swiss Postal Service Is Moving Some Mail Online,” New York Times, July 13, 2009.

9.    Ellen Wallace, “Swiss Post Set to Become Country’s Largest Apple Seller,” Genevalunch, June 28, 2012, http://genevalunch.com/2012/06/28/swiss-post-set-to-become-countrys-largest-apple-seller/.

10.  Mark Suster, “Why Launching Your Startup at SXSW Is a Bad Idea,” Fast Company, February 13, 2013.

11.  “Instagram Tips: Using Hashtags,” Instagram blog, http://blog
.instagram.com/post/17674993957/instagram-tips-using-hashtags.

CHAPTER 6: MONETIZATION

1.    Research Network, September 12, 2012, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1676444.

2.    Parker and Van Alstyne, “Internetwork Externalities and Free Information Goods”; Geoffrey G. Parker and Marshall Van Alstyne, “Two-Sided Network Effects: A Theory of Information Product Design,” Management Science 51, no. 10 (2005); Eisenmann, Parker, and Van Alstyne, “Strategies for Two-Sided Markets.”

3.    Jean-Charles Rochet and Jean Tirole, “Platform Competition in Two-Sided Markets,” Journal of the European Economic Association 1, no. 4 (2003): 990–1029.

4.    Rob Hof, “Meetup’s Challenge,” Businessweek, April 14, 2005, http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2005-04-13/meetups-challenge.

5.    Matt Linderman, “Scott Heiferman Looks Back at Meetup’s Bet-the-Company Moment,” Signal v. Noise, January 25, 2011, https://signalvnoise.com/posts/2751-scott-heiferman-looks-back-at-meetups-bet-the-company-moment-.

6.    Stuart Dredge, “MySpace—What Went Wrong,” Guardian, March 6, 2015.

CHAPTER 7: OPENNESS

1.    Nigel Scott, “Wikipedia: Where Truth Dies Online,” Spiked, April 29, 2014, http://www.spiked-online.com/newsite/article/wikipedia-where-truth-dies-online/14963#.U7RzHxbuSQ2.

2.    Thomas R. Eisenmann, Geoffrey G. Parker, and Marshall Van Alstyne, “Opening Platforms: How, When and Why?” chapter 6 in Platforms, Markets and Innovation, edited by Annabelle Gawer (Cheltenham, UK, and Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar, 2009).

3.    Kevin Boudreau, “Open Platform Strategies and Innovation: Granting Access Versus Devolving Control,” Management Science 56, no. 10 (2010): 1849–72.

4.    Andrei Hagiu and Robin S. Lee, “Exclusivity and Control,” Journal of Economics and Management Strategy 20, no. 3 (Fall 2011): 679–708.

5.    Joel West, “How Open Is Open Enough? Melding Proprietary and Open Source Platform Strategies,” Research Policy 32, no. 7 (2003): 1259–85; Henry William Chesbrough, Open Innovation: The New Imperative for Creating and Profiting from Technology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 2006).

6.    Felix Gillette, “The Rise and Inglorious Fall of Myspace,” Businessweek, June 22, 2011.

7.    Simon, The Age of the Platform.

8.    Catherine Rampell, “Widgets Become Coins of the Social Realm,” Washington Post, November 3, 2011, D01.

9.    Peng Huang, Marco Ceccagnoli, Chris Forman, and D. J. Wu, “Appropriability Mechanisms and the Platform Partnership Decision: Evidence from Enterprise Software,” Management Science 59, no. 1 (2013): 102–21.

10.  Thomas R. Eisenmann, “Managing Proprietary and Shared Platforms,” California Management Review 50, no. 4 (2008): 31–53.

11.  Eisenmann, Parker, and Van Alstyne, “Opening Platforms.”

12.  “Android and iOS Squeeze the Competition, Swelling to 96.3% of the Smartphone Operating System Market for Both 4Q14 and CY14, According to IDC,” press release, International Data Corporation, February 24, 2015, http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25450615.

13.  Matt Rosoff, “Should Google Ditch Android Open Source?” Business Insider, April 10, 2015, http://www.businessinsider.com/google-should-ditch-android-open-source-2015-4; Ron Amadeo, “Google’s Iron Grip on Android—Controlling Open Source By Any Means Necessary,” Arstechnica, October 20, 2013, http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2013/10/googles-iron-grip-on-android-controlling-open-source-by-any-means-necessary/.

14.  Rahul Basole and Peter Evans, “Decoding the API Economy with Visual Analytics Using Programmable Web Data,” Center for Global Enterprise, September 2015, http://thecge.net/decoding-the-api-economy-with-visual-analytics/.

15.  Shannon Pettypiece, “Amazon Passes Wal-Mart as Biggest Retailer by Market Cap,” BloombergBusiness, July 23, 2015, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-07-23/amazon-surpasses-wal-mart-as-biggest-retailer-by-market-value.

16.  Bala Iyer and Mohan Subramaniam, “The Strategic Value of APIs,” Harvard Business Review, January 7, 2015, https://hbr.org/2015/01/the-strategic-value-of-apis.

17.  Charles Duhigg, “How Companies Learn Your Secrets,” New York Times, February 16, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/19/magazine/shopping-habits.html?pagewanted=all.

18.  Wade Roush, “The Story of Siri, from Birth at SRI to Acquisition by Apple—Virtual Personal Assistants Go Mobile,” xconomy, June 14, 2010, http://www.xconomy.com/san-francisco/2010/06/14/the-story-of-siri-from-birth-at-sri-to-acquisition-by-apple-virtual-personal-assistants-go-mobile/?single_page=true.

19.  “A letter from Tim Cook on Maps,” Apple, http://www.apple.com/letter-from-tim-cook-on-maps/.

20.  Amadeo, “Google’s Iron Grip on Android.”

CHAPTER 8: GOVERNANCE

1.    Josh Dzieza, “Keurig’s Attempt to DRM Its Coffee Cups Totally Backfired,” The Verge, February 5, 2015, http://www.theverge
.com/2015/2/5/7986327/keurigs-attempt-to-drm-its-coffee-cups-totally-backfired.

2.    Geoffrey G. Parker and Marshall Van Alstyne, “Innovation, Openness and Platform Control,” October 3, 2014, available at SSRN at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1079712.

3.    Tiwana, Platform Ecosystems; Youngin Yoo, Richard J. Boland, Kalle Lyytinen, and Ann Majchrzak, “Organizing for Innovation in the Digitized World,” Organization Science 23, no. 15 (2012): 1398–1408.

4.    J. R. Raphael, “Facebook Privacy: Secrets Unveiled,” PCWorld, May 16, 2010, http://www.pcworld.com/article/196410/Facebook_Privacy_Secrets_Unveiled.html.

5.    Brad McCarty, “LinkedIn Lockout and the State of CRM,” Full Contact, March 28, 2014, https://www.fullcontact.com/blog/linkedin-state-of-crm-2014/.

6.    Nitasha Tiku and Casey Newton, “Twitter CEO: ‘We Suck at Dealing with Abuse,’” The Verge, February 4, 2015, http://www
.theverge.com/2015/2/4/7982099/twitter-ceo-sent-memo-taking-personal-responsibility-for-the.

7.    Juro Osawa, “How to Understand Alibaba’s Business Model,” MarketWatch, March 15, 2014, http://www.marketwatch.com/story/how-to-understand-alibabas-business-model-2014-03-15-94855847.

8.    Brad Burnham, “Web Services as Governments,” Union Square Ventures, June 10, 2010, https://www.usv.com/blog/web-services-as-governments.

9.    Wolfram Knowledgebase, https://www.wolfram.com/knowledgebase/. Accessed May 30, 2015.

10.  “Politicians,” Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau, https://www.cpib
.gov.sg/cases-interest/cases-involving-public-sector-officers/politicians. Accessed October 13, 2015.

11.  “Corrupt Perceptions Index,” Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corruption_Perceptions_Index, accessed October 13, 2015; B. Podobnik, J. Shao, D. Njavro, P. C. Ivanov, and H. E. Stanley, “Influence of Corruption on Economic Growth Rate and Foreign Investment,” European Physical Journal B-Condensed Matter and Complex Systems 63, no. 4:547–50.

12.  Estimate based on data from Wolfram Knowledgebase. Accessed October 13, 2015.

13.  Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson, “The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation,” American Economic Review 91, no. 5 (2001): 1369–1401; D. Acemoglu, S. Johnson, and J. A. Robinson, “Reversal of Fortune: Geography and Institutions in the Making of the Modern World Income Distribution,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 117, no. 4 (2002): 1231–94; Gavin Clarkson and Marshall Van Alstyne, “The Social Efficiency of Fairness,” Gruter Institute Squaw Valley Conference: Innovation and Economic Growth, October 2010.

14.  Roger Protz, “Arctic Ale, 1845,” Beer Pages, March 23, 2011, http://www.beer-pages.com/stories/arctic-ale.htm; Jeremy Singer-Vine, “How Long Can You Survive on Beer Alone?” Slate, April 28, 2011, http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2011/04/how_long_can_you_survive_on_beer_alone.html.

15.  “Allsopp’s Arctic Ale, The $500,000 eBay Typo,” New Life Auctions, http://www.newlifeauctions.com/allsopp.html, accessed October 13, 2015. In fact, the winning bid was $503,300, but it is unclear whether anyone actually paid this amount.

16.  Hillel Aron, “How eBay, Amazon and Alibaba Fuel the World’s Top Illegal Industry—The Counterfeit Products Market,” LA Weekly, December 3, 2014, http://www.laweekly.com/news/how-ebay-amazon-and-alibaba-fuel-the-worlds-top-illegal-industry-the-counterfeit-products-market-5261019.

17.  Andrei Shleifer and Robert W. Vishny, “A Survey of Corporate Governance,” Journal of Finance 52, no. 2 (1997): 737–83, esp. 737.

18.  Steve Denning, “The Dumbest Idea in the World: Maximizing Shareholder Value,” Forbes, November 28, 2011, http://www
.forbes.com/sites/stevedenning/2011/11/28/maximizing-shareholder-value-the-dumbest-idea-in-the-world/.

19.  Alvin E. Roth, “The Art of Designing Markets,” Harvard Business Review 85, no. 10 (2007): 118.

20.  Lawrence Lessig, Code and Other Laws of Cyberspace (New York: Basic Books, 1999).

21.  Dana Sauchelli and Bruce Golding, “Hookers Turning Airbnb Apartments into Brothels,” New York Post, April 14, 2014, http://nypost.com/2014/04/14/hookers-using-airbnb-to-use-apartments-for-sex-sessions/; Amber Stegall, “Craigslist Killers: 86 Murders Linked to Popular Classifieds Website,” WAFB 9 News, Baton Rouge, LA, April 9, 2015, http://www.wafb.com/story/28761189/craigslist-killers-86-murders-linked-to-popular-classifieds-website.

22.  Apple, “iTunes Store—Terms and Conditions,” http://www.apple.com/legal/internet-services/itunes/us/terms.html. Accessed May 20, 2015.

23.  Apple, “iOS Developer Program License Agreement,” https://developer
.apple.com/programs/terms/ios/standard/ios_program_standard_agreement_20140909.pdf. Accessed May 20, 2015.

24.  Stack Overflow, “Privileges,” Stack Overflow help page, http://stackoverflow.com/help/privileges. Accessed May 20, 2015.

25.  Rebecca Grant and Meghan Stothers, “iStockphoto.Com: Turning Community Into Commerce,” Richard Ivey School of Business Case 907E13, 2011.

26.  Michael Dunlop, “Interview With Bruce Livingstone—Founder and CEO of iStockphoto,” Retire at 21, http://www.retireat21.com/interview/interview-with-bruce-livingstone-founder-of-istockphoto.

27.  Grant and Stothers, “iStockphoto.Com,” 3.

28.  Nir Eyal, Hooked: How to Build Habit-Forming Products (Toronto: Penguin Canada, 2014).

29.  Nir Eyal, “Hooks: An Intro on How to Manufacture Desire,” Nir & Far, http://www.nirandfar.com/2012/03/how-to-manufacture-desire
.html. Accessed October 13, 2015.

30.  Elinor Ostrom, Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990).

31.  Jeff Jordan, “Managing Tensions In Online Marketplaces,” TechCrunch, February 23, 2015, http://techcrunch.com/2015/02/23/managing-tensions-in-online-marketplaces/.

32.  Ibid.

33.  Charles Moldow, “A Trillion Dollar Market, By the People, For the People,” Foundation Capital, https://foundationcapital.com/downloads/FoundationCap_MarketplaceLendingWhitepaper.pdf.

34.  Sangeet Choudhary, “Will Peer Lending Platforms Disrupt Banking?” Platform Thinking, http://platformed.info/peer-lending-platforms-disrupt-banking/.

35.  Michael Lewis, Flash Boys: A Wall Street Revolt (New York: Norton, 2014); P. Martens, “Goldman Sachs Drops a Bombshell on Wall Street,” Wall Street on Parade, April 9, 2014, http://wallstreetonparade
.com/2014/04/goldman-sachs-drops-a-bombshell-on-wall-street/.

36.  Michael Lewis, “Michael Lewis Reflects on his Book Flash Boys, a Year after It Shook Wall Street to its Core,” Vanity Fair, April 2015, http://www.vanityfair.com/news/2015/03/michael-lewis-flash-boys-one-year-later.

37.  William Mougayar, “Understanding the Blockchain,” Radar, January 16, 2015, http://radar.oreilly.com/2015/01/understanding-the-blockchain.html.

38.  Ibid.

39.  Tamara McCleary, “Got Influence? What’s Social Currency Got To Do With It?” Tamara McCleary blog, December 1, 2014, http://tamaramccleary.com/got-influence-social-currency/.

40.  Grant and Stothers, “iStockphoto.Com,” 3.

41.  Hind Benbya and Marshall Van Alstyne, “How to Find Answers within Your Company,” MIT Sloan Management Review 52, no. 2 (2011): 65–75.

42.  Peng Huang, Marco Ceccagnoli, Chris Forman, and D. J. Wu, “IT Knowledge Spillovers and Productivity: Evidence from Enterprise Software,” Working Paper, University of Maryland and Georgia Institute of Technology, April 2, 2013, http://ssrn.com/abstract=2243886.

43.  Benbya and Van Alstyne, “How to Find Answers within Your Company.”

44.  Geoffrey G. Parker and Marshall Van Alstyne, “Innovation, Openness, and Platform Control.”

45.  Arvind Malhotra and Marshall Van Alstyne, “The Dark Side of the Sharing Economy … and How to Lighten It,” Communications of the ACM 57, no. 11 (2014): 24–27.

46.  Julie Bort, “An Airbnb Guest Held a Huge Party in This New York Penthouse and Trashed It,” Business Insider, March 19, 2014, http://www.businessinsider.com/how-an-airbnb-guest-trashed-a-penthouse-2014-3?op=1#ixzz3dA5DDMZz; M. Matthews, “Uber Passenger Says Driver Struck Him with Hammer After He Told Him He Was Going the Wrong Way,” NBC Bay Area, October 8, 2014, http://www.nbcbayarea.com/news/local/Passenger-Hit-with-Hammer-by-Uber-Driver-278596821.html.

47.  Airbnb, “Host Protection Insurance,” https://www.airbnb.com/host-protection-insurance, accessed June 15, 2015; A. Cecil, “Uber, Lyft, and Other Rideshare Drivers Now Have Insurance Options,” Policy Genius, https://www.policygenius.com/blog/uber-lyft-and-other-rideshare-drivers-now-have-insurance-options/, accessed June 14, 2015.

48.  Huckman, Pisano, and Kind, “Amazon Web Services.”

49.  Jillian D’Onfro, “Here’s a Reminder Just How Massive Amazon’s Web Services Business Is,” Business Insider, June 16, 2014, http://www
.businessinsider.com/amazon-web-services-market-share-2014-6.

50.  Annabelle Gawer and Michael A. Cusumano, Platform Leadership: How Intel, Microsoft, and Cisco Drive Industry Innovation (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2002).

51.  Adapted from Gawer and Cusumano, Platform Leadership.

52.  Clarkson and Van Alstyne, “The Social Efficiency of Fairness.”

53.  Ibid.

54.  Benbya and Van Alstyne, “How to Find Answers within Your Company.”

CHAPTER 9: METRICS

1.    Jonathan P. Roth, The Logistics of the Roman Army at War: 264 BC–AD 235 (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1999), 3.

2.    Josh Costine, “BranchOut Launches Talk.co to Expand from Networking into a WhatsApp for the Workplace,” TechCrunch, October 7, 2013, http://techcrunch.com/2013/10/07/talk-co/.

3.    Teresa Torres, “Why the BranchOut Decline Isn’t Surprising,” Product Talk, June 7, 2012, http://www.producttalk.org/2012/06/why-the-branchout-decline-isnt-surpising/.

4.    John Egan, “Anatomy of a Failed Growth Hack,” John Egan blog, December 6, 2012, http://jwegan.com/growth-hacking/autopsy-of-a-failed-growth-hack/.

5.    Derek Sivers, “The Lean Startup—by Eric Ries,” Derek Sivers blog, October 23, 2011, https://sivers.org/book/LeanStartup.

6.    Alistair Croll and Benjamin Yoskovitz, Lean Analytics: Use Data to Build a Better Startup Faster (Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly Media, 2013).

7.    Christian Rudder, “The Mathematics of Beauty,” OkTrends: Dating Research from OkCupid, January 10, 2011, http://blog.okcupid.com/index.php/the-mathematics-of-beauty/.

8.    Bianca Bosker, “OkCupid Hides Good-Looking People from Less Attractive Users,” Huffington Post, June 16, 2010, http://www.huffingtonpost
.com/2010/06/16/okcupid-hiding-hotties-fr_n_614149.html.

9.    Eisenmann, Parker, and Van Alstyne, “Strategies for Two-Sided Markets”; Croll and Yoskovitz, Lean Analytics.

10.  Francis J. Mulhern, “Customer Profitability Analysis: Measurement, Concentration, and Research Directions,” Journal of Interactive Marketing 13, no. 1 (1999): 25–40; Nicolas Glady, Bart Baesens, and Christophe Croux, “Modeling Churn Using Customer Lifetime Value,” European Journal of Operational Research 197, no. 1 (2009): 402–11.

11.  Minter Dial, “Best of the Web or Death by Aggregation? Why Don’t Brands Curate the News?” Myndset, December 16, 2014, http://themyndset.com/2014/12/aggregation-curation/.

12.  Nidhi Subbaraman, “Airbnb’s Small Army of Photographers Are Making You (and Them) Look Good,” Fast Company, October 17, 2011, http://www.fastcompany.com/1786980/airbnbs-small-army-photographers-are-making-you-and-them-look-good.

13.  Ruimin Zhang interview by Geoffrey Parker and Marshall Van Alstyne, December 12, 2014.

14.  Tiwana, Platform Ecosystems.

15.  Parker and Van Alstyne. “Innovation, Openness, and Platform Control.”

16.  Guido Jouret interview by Geoffrey Parker and Marshall Van Alstyne, September 8, 2006.

17.  Gary Swart, “7 Things I Learned from Startup Failure,” In, September 23, 2013, https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/20130923123247-758147-7-things-i-learned-from-startup-failure.

18.  Eric Ries, The Lean Startup: How Today’s Entrepreneurs Use Continuous Innovation to Create Radically Successful Businesses (New York: Random House, 2011).

CHAPTER 10: STRATEGY

1.    David J. Teece, “Next Generation Competition: New Concepts for Understanding How Innovation Shapes Competition and Policy in the Digital Economy,” Journal of Law Economics and Policy 9, no. 1 (2012): 97–118.

2.    David B. Yoffie and Michael A. Cusumano, Strategy Rules: Five Timeless Lessons from Bill Gates, Andy Grove, and Steve Jobs (New York: HarperCollins, 2015); F. F. Suarez and J. Kirtley, “Innovation Strategy—Dethroning an Established Platform,” MIT Sloan Management Review 53, no. 4 (2012): 35.

3.    David Barboza, “China’s Internet Giants May Be Stuck There,” New York Times, March 23, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/24/business/global/24internet.html.

4.    Brad Stone, “Alibaba’s IPO May Herald the End of U.S. E-Commerce Dominance,” Businessweek, August 7, 2014, http://www.bloomberg.com/bw/articles/2014-08-07/alibabas-ipo-may-herald-the-end-of-u-dot-s-dot-e-commerce-dominance.

5.    Sarit Markovich and Johannes Moenius, “Winning While Losing: Competition Dynamics in the Presence of Indirect Network Effects,” International Journal of Industrial Organization 27, no. 3 (2009): 346–57.

6.    Stone, “Alibaba’s IPO.”

7.    Michael E. Porter, “How Competitive Forces Shape Strategy,” Harvard Business Review 57, no. 2 (1979): 137–45; Michael E. Porter, Competitive Strategy (New York: Free Press, 1980).

8.    Birger Wernerfelt, “A Resource-Based View of the Firm,” Strategic Management Journal 5 (1984): 171–80.

9.    Paul Zimnisky, “A Diamond Market No Longer Controlled By De Beers,” Kitco Commentary, June 6, 2013, http://www.kitco.com/ind/Zimnisky/2013-06-06-A-Diamond-Market-No-Longer-Controlled-By-De-Beers.html.

10.  Richard D’Aveni, Hypercompetition (New York: Free Press, 1994), 4.

11.  Rita Gunther McGrath, The End of Competition: How to Keep Your Strategy Moving as Fast as Your Business (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business Review Press, 2013).

12.  Steve Denning, “What Killed Michael Porter’s Monitor Group? The One Force That Really Matters,” Forbes, November 20, 2012, http://www.forbes.com/sites/stevedenning/2012/11/20/what-killed-michael-porters-monitor-group-the-one-force-that-really-matters/.

13.  Ming Zeng, “Three Paradoxes of Building Platforms,” Communications of the ACM 58, no. 2 (2015): 27–9, cacm.acm.org/magazines/2015/2/182646-three-paradoxes-of-building-platforms/abstract.

14.  Thomas Eisenmann, Geoffrey G. Parker, and Marshall Van Alstyne, “Platform Envelopment,” Strategic Management Journal 32, no. 12 (2011): 1270–85.

15.  Geoffrey G. Parker and Marshall Van Alstyne, “Platform Strategy,” New Palgrave Encyclopedia of Business Strategy (New York: Macmillan, 2014).

16.  Angel Salazar, “Platform Competition: A Research Framework and Synthesis of Game-Theoretic Studies,” Social Science Research Network, February 15, 2015, papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2565337. Mimeo: Manchester Metropolitan University, 2015; Barry J. Nalebuff and Adam M. Brandenburger, Co-opetition (London: HarperCollins Business, 1996).

17.  Steve Jobs, “Thoughts on Flash,” April 2010, http://www.apple.com/hotnews/thoughts-on-flash/.

18.  Vardit Landsman and Stefan Stremersch, “Multihoming in Two-Sided Markets: An Empirical Inquiry in the Video Game Console Industry,” Journal of Marketing 75, no. 6 (2011): 39–54.

19.  Ming Zeng, “How Will Big Data and Cloud Computing Change Platform Thinking?”, keynote address, MIT Platform Strategy Summit, July 25, 2014, http://platforms.mit.edu/2014.

20.  “Top 20 Apps with MAU Over 10 Million,” Facebook Apps Leaderboard, AppData, appdata.com/leaderboard/apps?show_na=1. Accessed October 14, 2015.

21.  Carl Shapiro and Hal R. Varian, “The Art of Standards Wars,” California Management Review 41, no. 2 (1999): 8–32.

22.  Bill Gurley, “All Revenue Is Not Created Equal: Keys to the 10X Revenue Club,” Above the Crowd, May 24, 2011, http://abovethecrowd.com/2011/05/24/all-revenue-is-not-created-equal-the-keys-to-the-10x-revenue-club/.

23.  Douglas MacMillan, “The Fiercest Rivalry in Tech: Uber vs. Lyft,” Wall Street Journal, August 11, 2014; C. Newton, “This is Uber’s Playbook for Sabotaging Lyft,” The Verge, August 26, 2014, http://www.theverge
.com/2014/8/26/6067663/this-is-ubers-playbook-for-sabotaging-lyft.

CHAPTER 11: POLICY

1.    Kevin Boudreau and Andrei Hagiu, Platform Rules: Multi-Sided Platforms as Regulators (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2009), 163–89.

2.    Malhotra and Van Alstyne, “The Dark Side of the Sharing Economy.”

3.    Felix Gillette and Sheelah Kolhatkar, “Airbnb’s Battle for New York,” Businessweek, June 19, 2014, http://www.bloomberg
.com/bw/articles/2014-06-19/airbnb-in-new-york-sharing-startup-fights-for-largest-market.

4.    Ron Lieber, “A Liability Risk for Airbnb Hosts,” New York Times, December 6, 2014.

5.    Georgios Zervas, Davide Proserpio, and John W. Byers, “The Rise of the Sharing Economy: Estimating the Impact of Airbnb on the Hotel Industry,” Boston University School of Management Research Paper 2013-16, http://ssrn.com/abstract=2366898.

6.    Brad N. Greenwood and Sunil Wattal, “Show Me the Way to Go Home: An Empirical Investigation of Ride Sharing and Motor Vehicle Homicide,” Platform Strategy Research Symposium, Boston, MA, July 9, 2015, http://ssrn.com/abstract=2557612.

7.    John Coté, “SF Cracks Down on ‘MonkeyParking’ Mobile App,” SF Gate, June 23, 2014, http://blog.sfgate.com/cityinsider/2014/06/23/sf-cracks-down-on-street-parking-cash-apps/.

8.    Kevin Roose, “Does Silicon Valley Have a Contract-Worker Problem?” New York, September 18, 2014, http://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2014/09/silicon-valleys-contract-worker-problem.html.

9.    George J. Stigler, “The Theory of Economic Regulation,” Bell Journal of Economics and Management Science 2, no. 1 (Spring 1971): 3–21.

10.  Jean-Jacques Laffont and Jean Tirole, “The Politics of Government Decision-Making: A Theory of Regulatory Capture,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 106, no. 4 (1991): 1089–1127.

11.  Conor Friedersdorf, “Mayors of Atlanta and New Orleans: Uber Will Beat the Taxi Industry,” Atlantic, June 29, 2014, http://www.theatlantic
.com/business/archive/2014/06/mayors-of-atlanta-and-new-orleans-uber-will-beat-the-taxi-cab-industry/373660/.

12.  Don Boudreaux, “Uber vs. Piketty,” Cafe Hayek, August 1, 2015, http://cafehayek.com/2015/08/uber-vs-piketty.html.

13.  Andrei Shleifer, “Understanding Regulation,” European Financial Management 11, no. 4 (2005): 439–51.

14.  Jean-Jacques Laffont and Jean Tirole, Competition in Telecommunications (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000).

15.  Ben-Zion Rosenfeld and Joseph Menirav, “Methods of Pricing and Price Regulation in Roman Palestine in the Third and Fourth Centuries,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 121, no. 3 (2001): 351–69; Geoffrey E. Rickman, “The Grain Trade under the Roman Empire,” Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 36 (1980): 261–75.

16.  Jad Mouawad and Christopher Drew, “Airline Industry Is at Its Safest Since the Dawn of the Jet Age,” New York Times, February 11, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/12/business/2012-was-the-safest-year-for-airlines-globally-since-1945.html.

17.  Simeon Djankov, Edward Glaeser, Rafael La Porta, Florencio Lopez-de-Silanes, and Andrei Shleifer, “The New Comparative Economics,” Journal of Comparative Economics 31, no. 4 (2003): 595–619.

18.  Shleifer, “Understanding Regulation.”

19.  KPMG, “China 360: E-Commerce in China, Driving a New Consumer Culture,” https://www.kpmg.com/CN/en/IssuesAndInsights/ArticlesPublications/Newsletters/China-360/Documents/China-360-Issue15-201401-E-commerce-in-China.pdf.

20.  S. Shankland, “Sun Brings Antitrust Suit Against Microsoft,” CNET News, July 20, 2002, http://www.cnet.com/news/sun-brings-antitrust-suit-against-microsoft-1/.

21.  Carl Shapiro, “Exclusivity in Network Industries,” George Mason Law Review 7 (1998): 673.

22.  Neil Gandal, “Compatibility, Standardization, and Network Effects: Some Policy Implications,” Oxford Review of Economic Policy 18, no. 1 (2002): 80–91.

23.  Parker and Van Alstyne, “Innovation, Openness, and Platform Control.”

24.  Parker and Van Alstyne, “Internetwork Externalities and Free Information Goods”; Parker and Van Alstyne, “Two-Sided Network Effects.”

25.  David S. Evans and Richard Schmalensee, “The Antitrust Analysis of Multi-Sided Platform Businesses,” in The Oxford Handbook of International Antitrust Economics, vol. 1, edited by Roger D. Blair and D. Daniel Sokol (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015).

26.  Tom Fairless, Rolfe Winkler, and Alistair Barr, “EU Files Formal Antitrust Charges Against Google,” Wall Street Journal, April 15, 2015.

27.  “Statement of the Federal Trade Commission Regarding Google’s Search Practices: In the Matter of Google, Inc.,” FTC File Number 111-0163, January 3, 2013, https://www.ftc.gov/public-statements/2013/01/statement-federal-trade-commission-regarding-googles-search-practices.

28.  Jeremy Greenfield, “How the Amazon–Hachette Fight Could Shape the Future of Ideas,” Atlantic Monthly, May 28, 2014.

29.  Helen F. Ladd, “Evidence on Discrimination in Mortgage Lending,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 12, no. 2 (1998): 41–62.

30.  Noel Capon, “Credit Scoring Systems: A Critical Analysis,” Journal of Marketing 46, no. 2 (1982): 82–91.

31.  Jim Puzzangher, “Obama to Push Cybersecurity, Identity Theft and Online Access Plans,” Los Angeles Times, January 10, 2015, http://www
.latimes.com/nation/politics/politicsnow/la-pn-obama-cybersecurity-20150110-story.html.

32.  Steve Kroft, “The Data Brokers: Selling Your Personal Information,” CBS News, March 9, 2014, http://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-data-brokers-selling-your-personal-information/.

33.  Federal Trade Commission, “Data Brokers: A Call for Transparency and Accountability,” May 2014, http://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/reports/data-brokers-call-transparency-accountability-report-federal-trade-commission-may-2014/140527databrokerreport.pdf.

34.  Lee Rainie and Janna Anderson, “The Future of Privacy,” Pew Research Center, December 18, 2014, http://www.pewinternet.org/2014/12/18/future-of-privacy/.

35.  “Who Owns Your Personal Data? The Incorporated Woman,” Economist, June 27, 2014, http://www.economist.com/blogs/schumpeter/2014/06/who-owns-your-personal-data.

36.  Lee Rainie and Janna Anderson, “The Future of Privacy: Other Resounding Themes,” Pew Research Center, December 18, 2014, http://www.pewinternet.org/2014/12/18/other-resounding-themes/.

37.  Charles Arthur, “Tech Giants May Be Huge, But Nothing Matches Big Data,” Guardian, August 23, 2013, http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/aug/23/tech-giants-data.

38.  James Cook, “Sony Hackers Have Over 100 Terabytes Of Documents. Only Released 200 Gigabytes So Far,” Business Insider, December 16, 2014, http://www.businessinsider.com/the-sony-hackers-still-have-a-massive-amount-of-data-that-hasnt-been-leaked-yet-2014-12.

39.  Lisa Beilfuss, “Target Reaches $19 Million Settlement with MasterCard Over Data Breach,” Wall Street Journal, April 15, 2015.

40.  Andrew Nusca, “Who Should Own Farm Data?” Fortune, December 22, 2014.

41.  We thank Peter Evans, former head of analytics for GE, for his counsel on this topic.

42.  Email to Marshall Van Alstyne from Peter Evans, Center for Global Enterprise, using 2015 Crunchbase data.

43.  Avi Goldfarb and Catherine E. Tucker, “Privacy Regulation and Online Advertising,” Management Science 57, no. 1 (2011): 57–71.

44.  Robert W. Wood, “Amazon No Longer Tax-Free: 10 Surprising Facts As Giant Loses Ground,” Forbes, August 22, 2013, http://www.forbes.com/sites/robertwood/2013/08/22/amazon-no-longer-tax-free-10-surprising-facts-as-giant-loses-ground.

45.  Bob Egelko, “Court Rules FedEx Drivers in State Are Employees, Not Contractors,” SF Gate, August 28, 2014, http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Court-to-FedEx-Your-drivers-are-full-time-5717048.php.

46.  Google search results, “Internet sweatshop,” accessed January 28, 2015.

47.  Krishnadev Calamur, “Uber’s Troubles Mount Even As Its Value Grows,” The Two-Way, NPR, December 10, 2014, http://www
.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2014/12/10/369922099/ubers-troubles-mount-even-as-its-value-grows.

48.  Jeffrey A. Trachtenberg and Greg Bensinger, “Amazon, Hachette
End Publishing Dispute,” Wall Street Journal, November 13, 2014, http://www.wsj.com/articles/amazon-hachette-end-publishing
-dispute-1415898013.

49.  Robinson Meyer, “Everything We Know About Facebook’s Secret Mood Manipulation Experiment,” Atlantic, June 28, 2014, http://www
.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/06/everything-we
-know-about-facebooks-secret-mood-manipulation-experiment/
373648/.

50.  Robert M. Bond, Christopher J. Fariss, Jason J. Jones, Adam D. I. Kramer, Cameron Marlow, Jaime E. Settle, and James H. Fowler, “A 61-Million-Person Experiment in Social Influence and Political Mobilization,” Nature 489, no. 7415 (2012): 295–8.

51.  Dominic Rushe, “Facebook Sorry—Almost—For Secret Psychological Experiment on User,” Guardian, October 2, 2012, http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/oct/02/facebook-sorry-secret-psychological-experiment-users.

52.  Alex Rosenblat, “Uber’s Phantom Cars,” Motherboard, July 27, 2015, http://motherboard.vice.com/read/ubers-phantom-cabs.

53.  Nick Grossman, “Regulation, the Internet Way: A Data-First Model for Establishing Trust, Safety, and Security—Regulatory Reform for the 21st Century City,” Harvard Kennedy School, ASH Center for Democratic Governance and Innovation, April 8, 2015, http://datasmart.ash.harvard.edu/news/article/white-paper-regulation-the-internet-way-660.

54.  Ibid.

55.  Tim O’Reilly, Government as a Platform (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010), 11–40.

56.  The social impact of mandated transparency rules has been thoroughly analyzed by three experts from Harvard’s Kennedy School of Government; see Archon Fung, Mary Graham, and David Weil, Full Disclosure: The Perils and Promise of Transparency (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007).

57.  See, for example, Richard Stallman, “Why Open Source Misses the Point of Free Software,” GNU Operating System, Free Software Foundation, http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/open-source-misses-the-point
.en.html.

58.  Carlota Perez, Technological Revolutions and Financial Capital: The Dynamics of Bubbles and Golden Ages (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2003).

59.  Heli Koski and Tobias Kretschmer, “Entry, Standards and Competition: Firm Strategies and the Diffusion of Mobile Telephony,” Review of Industrial Organization 26, no. 1 (2005): 89–113.

60.  David Evans, “Governing Bad Behavior by Users of Multi-Sided Platforms,” Berkeley Technology Law Journal 27, no. 12 (Fall 2012), http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/cgi/viewcontent
.cgi?article=1961&context=btlj.

61.  Benjamin Edelman, “Digital Business Models Should Have to Follow the Law, Too,” Harvard Business Review, January 6, 2015, https://hbr.org/2015/01/digital-business-models-should-have-to-follow-the-law-too.

CHAPTER 12: TOMORROW

1.    Brandon Alcorn, Gayle Christensen, and Ezekiel J. Emanuel, “The Real Value of Online Education,” Atlantic Monthly, September 2014.

2.    Luis Von Ahn, “Crowdsourcing, Language and Learning,” presentation, MIT Platform Strategy Summit, July 10, 2015, available at http://platforms.mit.edu/agenda.

3.    Graeme Wood, “The Future of College?” Atlantic Monthly, September 2014.

4.    “There’s an App for That,” Economist, January 3, 2015.

5.    Hemant Taneja, “Unscaling the Healthcare Economy,” TechCrunch, June 28, 2014, http://techcrunch.com/2014/06/28/software-defined-healthcare/.

6.    Vince Kuraitis, “Patient Digital Health Platforms (PDHPs): An Epicenter of Healthcare Transformation?” Healthcare Information and Management Systems Society, June 18, 2014, http://blog.himss
.org/2014/06/18/patient-digital-health-platforms-pdhps-an-epicenter-of-healthcare-transformation/.

7.    Josh Dzieza, “Why Tesla’s Battery for Your Home Should Terrify Utilities,” The Verge, February 13, 2015, http://www.theverge
.com/2015/2/13/8033691/why-teslas-battery-for-your-home-should-terrify-utilities.

8.    Daniel Roberts, “How MasterCard became a Tech Company,” Fortune, July 24, 2014.

9.    William D. Cohan, “Bypassing the Bankers,” Atlantic Monthly, September 2014.

10.  Matina Stevis and Patrick McGroarty, “Banks Vie for a Piece of Africa’s Mobile Banking Market,” Wall Street Journal, August 15, 2014.

11.  Daniel Fisher, “Legal-Services Firm’s $73 Million Deal Strips the Mystery from Derivatives Trading,” Forbes, February 12, 2015; “There’s an App for That,” Economist.

12.  San Francisco Mayor’s Office of Civic Innovation, “Announcing the First-Ever San Francisco Datapalooza,” blog post, October 12, 2013; San Francisco Mayor’s Office of Civic Innovation, “Data Jam, 100 Days to Tackle Housing,” blog post, June 7, 2013, http://innovatesf.com.

13.  David Mount, “The Industrial Awakening: The Internet of Heavier Things,” March 3, 2015, http://www.kpcb.com/blog/the-industrial-awakening-the-internet-of-heavier-things.

14.  Jeremy Rifkin, “Capitalism Is Making Way for the Age of Free,” Guardian, March 31, 2014.