Private interpretations which repeat or amplify the official exposition just examined in the previous chapter are numerous. It is easy for scholarship to surrender to a state constraint when the latter is endowed with the vast authority of a vague and remote past, especially when such surrender is regarded as the essence of good citizenship and when childhood faith has surrounded it with the halo of sincerity. An effective official superintendence thus exercises such a rigorous directive influence over public utterances of individuals that even the best of Japanese scholarship tends to find a discreet silence the better part of valour. An example may be seen in the caution wherewith a man of the rank of the late Dr. N. Hozumi handles the matter even when not writing primarily for Japanese readers.
In discussing the subject of Japanese ancestralism in the threefold form of the worship of imperial ancestors, clan ancestors and family ancestors, Dr. Hozumi says, “The first of the three kinds of ancestor worship, namely, homage to the Imperial Ancestor, Amaterasu-Ōmikami, or ‘The Great Goddess of the Celestial Light,’ may be styled the national worship.” In the preface of his third and revised edition of Ancestor Worship and Japanese Law from which this citation is taken, Dr. Hozumi calls attention to the fact that he has been criticized for the above statement which makes Amaterasu-Ōmikami the first Imperial Ancestor. It is interesting to note that in reply he carefully avoids risking any attempt to meet this specific criticism, but, on the other hand, apparently seeks to turn attention in another direction by essaying a vindication of ancestor worship in general. No revision is made of the text which relates to the position of the Sun Goddess in the Imperial genealogies.1
This attitude is characteristic of modern Japanese writers. In general, the scholarship of the nation, far from being conscious of the existence of grounds for questioning the historical validity of the state certification of the ancestral status of Amaterasu-Ōmikami finds itself pre-committed by childhood training and social and political compulsion not only to acquiescence but, more than this, to active participation in the promotion of the official interpretation. Out of numerous possible examples there is room here for only one. This is taken from an article by Mr. Fuku-saku Yasubumi, a contemporary scholar, on the subject of “The Shrines Considered From the Standpoint of National Morality “(kokumin Dōtoku jō yori Mitaru Jinja) which appears in a series of publications issued by the Shintō Kōkyūkai (Society for the Investigation of Shintō) under the general title of Shintō Kōza (“Lectures on Shintō”).
In the course of his discussion Mr. Fukusaku finds it necessary to consider the various elements that enter into the establishment of successful governmental control over a people. He names three such elements: power, moral excellence (toku) and lineage. Regarding the first two he says that moral excellence has only internal existence and is difficult to appraise rightly, while power can be defeated by other power. Both fluctuate and are notably deficient in that they fail to reveal the quality of absoluteness.
“But not so with lineage,” he goes on. “By virtue of its very nature, no human power can affect lineage. It is above human power. This, accordingly, imparts an absolute quality to the status of ruler. The ruler is ruler forever and the subjects are subjects forever, and the great moral obligation existing between the ruler and his people is never in any way confused. Rulers of a single dynasty can direct their attention solely to the ruling of the people and a highly successful government can be attained.
“At first glance, there may seem to be nothing distinctive about our principle of legitimacy. But it should be noted that hereby not only is the Throne made secure and unchanging, but also the national life is made secure and unchanging. We cannot avoid being deeply impressed by the divine intelligence and moral excellence revealed by our national ancestress, Amaterasu-Ōmikami, in the attention which she paid to this point. She did not rely on moral excellence, nor on power, but on lineage.
“In Japan the relation between ruler and subjects is just like that existing between heaven and earth. Just as it is absolutely impossible to make earth heaven, so also is it absolutely impossible to change the relations of ruler and people….
“As just mentioned, since our national head, whom we name with deepest reverence, was a woman who was possessed of a remarkably penetrating intelligence and who saw far into the future of our empire, she did not rely on moral excellence nor on power but rather selected lineage exclusively as the principle of the transmission of the status of ruler.
“It is not by accident that the Imperial Rescript on Education says, ‘Our Imperial Ancestors have founded our Empire on a basis broad and everlasting.’ After all, it is inevitable that the foundations of a country should be shaken when the ruler of yesterday becomes the subject of today and the subject of today becomes the ruler of tomorrow.
“Only when the ruler of yesterday is also the ruler of today and the ruler of today is also the ruler of tomorrow, indeed, only when the ruler is the ruler forever and the subjects are subjects forever can the national life be stable and immovable.
“The precious principle underlying our national life is expressed in the following poem of the Emperor Meiji:
‘Kimi to tami no michi akirakeki hi no moto no
Kuni wa ugokaji yorozu yo made mo.”
(‘The Land of the Rising Sun where the Ways of ruler and subject are distinct May not be moved for all ages.’)
“Motoori Norinaga says, ‘The doctrine relating to Amaterasu-Ōmikami looks simple on the surface, but, as a matter of fact, it is to be recognized as exceedingly profound. And the doctrine of China is not sound.2 But since it was made by saintly men it appears clever and reasonable when superficially considered. Yet, after examining many instances of it we come to understand that, as a matter of fact, it results in many failures.’”3
We have reached a point in the discussion where we must turn to a more specific investigation of the original nature of Amaterasu-Ōmikami. That she is the Sun Goddess of the ancient Shintō pantheon is so apparent and so widely accepted by those who have actually examined the evidence in a spirit of free inquiry, unfettered either by official compulsion or nationalistic prejudice, as to seem to make almost unnecessary any extended attempt to justify such an interpretation here. The earliest ideas connected with her total concept grew out of a primitive worship of the sun. The old mythology is too plainly stated to be misunderstood in this matter. She is the greatest and most resplendent of the numerous children of the sky father, Izanagi no Mikoto, and his wife, the earth mother, Izanami no Mikoto. Regarding her origin the Kogoshūi says:
“According to one tradition, when Heaven and Earth began, the two gods, Izanagi (The Divine Male) and Izanami (The Divine Female), having entered into conjugal relations begat the Great-Eight-Island-Country, its mountains and rivers, the Sun Goddess, and the Moon God, and, finally, the god, Susa-no-wo, the Impetuous-Male-Deity.”4
The account in the Nihongi is essentially the same but should be examined for additional and confirmatory details. The various names of the Sun Goddess and their meaning should be carefully observed:
“After this, Izanagi-no-Mikoto and Izanami-no-Mikoto consulted together saying: ‘We have now produced the Great-Eight-Island-Country, with the mountains, rivers, herbs and trees, why should we not produce someone who shall be the lord of the universe ? ‘ They then together produced the Sun Goddess, who was called Ō-Hiru-Me-no-Muchi (‘Great-Sun-Female-Possessor’).
“Called in one writing Amaterasu-no-Ō-Kami (‘Heaven-shining-Great Deity’).
“In one writing she is called Amaterasu-Ō-Hiru-Me-no-Mikoto (‘Heaven-shining-Great-Day-Female-Deity’).
“The resplendent luster of this child shone throughout the six quarters. Therefore the two deities rejoiced saying: ‘We have had many children, but none of them has been equal to this wondrous infant. She ought not to be kept long in this land, but we ought of our own accord to send her at once to Heaven, and entrust to her the affairs of Heaven.’
“At this time Heaven and Earth were not far separated, and therefore they sent her up to Heaven by the ladder of Heaven.5
“They next produced the moon god.
“Called in one writing Tsukiyumi-no-Mikoto (‘Moon-bow-Deity’), or Tsukiyomi-no-Mikoto (‘Moon-night Possessor-Deity’).
“His radiance was next to that of the sun in splendour. This god was to be the consort of the Sun Goddess, and to share in her government. They therefore sent him also to Heaven.”6
The explicitness of the identification of the sun with Amaterasu-Ōmikami in this passage is unmistakable. The plain meaning of Amaterasu-Ōmikami is simply “Heaven-shining-Great-August-Deity,” which is clearly a title descriptive of the sun. Her various other names, listed in the text just given, connect her with the sun even more directly. Ō-Hiru-Me-no-Muchi means “Great-Sun-Female-Possessor,” that is, the great female who owns the sun. “Great-Noon-Female-Possessor,” “Great-Day-Female-Possessor” and “Great-Day-Eye-Possessor” are, however, all possible renderings. All are manifestly equally applicable to the sun. The meaning of Amaterasu-Ō-Hiru-Me-no-Mikoto is either “Heaven-shining-Great-Day-Female-Deity” or “Heaven-shining-Great-Day-Eye-Deity.” It should be especially noted that the Nihongi account, as just reviewed, states in so many words that Amaterasu-Ōmikami is the primitive Japanese Sun Goddess. In recounting the story of the creative work of the sky father and the earth mother the text relates: “They then together produced the Sun Goddess (Hi no kami), who was called Ō-Hiru-Me-no-Muchi; called also in one writing Amaterasu-Ōmikami.”
This conclusion is borne out by the close association established in the Nihongi text between Amaterasu-Ōmikami, either as the deity of the sun or as the sun itself, and the moon. In the passage from the Nihongi just cited the radiance of the moon god is declared to have been second only to that of the sun and he is sent up into Heaven to rule the firmament in companionship with the Sun Goddess, Amaterasu-Ōmikami. The worship of Tsukiyomi-no-Mikoto at the Ise shrines has been carefully purged of all elements that suggest the commemoration of the moon, but this is not universally true in Japan. At the famous shrine of Tsukiyomi-no-Mikoto in Yamagata Prefecture, he is still remembered as the ruler of the night, and the mountain on which his shrine stands is Gassan—“The Mountain of the Moon.”
The additional fact that the Nihongi account sets forth a Japanese version of the widely diffused myth of the separation of the sun and the moon in the persons of Amaterasu-Ōmikami and Tsukiyomi-no-Mikoto supplies further important evidence showing that we are dealing here with solar mythology and not with genuine ancestralism. The story follows:
“Now when Amaterasu-Ōmikami was already in Heaven, she said: ‘I hear that in the Central Country of Reed-plains there is the deity Uke-Mochi-no-Kami [the goddess of food]. Do thou, Tsukiyomi-no-Mikoto, go and wait upon her.’ Tsukiyomi-no-Mikoto, on receiving this command, descended and went to the place where Uke-Mochi-no-Kami was. Thereupon Uke-Mochi-no-Kami turned her head toward the land, and forthwith from her mouth there came boiled rice. She faced the sea, and again there came from her mouth things broad of fin and things narrow of fin. She faced the mountains and again there came from her mouth things rough of hair and things soft of hair. These things were all prepared and set out on one hundred tables for his entertainment. Then Tsukiyomi-no-Mikoto became flushed with anger, and said: ‘Filthy ! Nasty ! That thou should dare to feed me with things disgorged from thy mouth.’ So he drew his sword and slew her, and then returned and made his report, relating all the circumstances. Upon this Amaterasu-Ōmikami was exceedingly angry, and said ‘Thou art a wicked deity. I must not see thee face to face.’ So they were separated by one day and one night, and dwelt apart.”7
We have already observed that in the account of the origin of Amaterasu-Ōmikami given in the Kojiki, she is born from the purified left eye of the sky father, while the moon god, her illustrious brother, is produced from the father’s right eye.8 One of the variant records of the Nihongi also presents this same story. The text recites the efforts of Izanagi to wash away the pollutions of Hades:
“Thereafter, a deity was produced by his washing his left eye, which was called Amaterasu-Ōmikami. Then he washed his right eye, producing thereby a deity who was called Tsuki-yomi-no-Mikoto. Then he washed his nose, producing thereby a god who was called Susa-no-Wo-no-Mikoto. In all there were three deities. Then Izanagi-no-Mikoto gave charge to his three children, saying, ‘Do thou, Amaterasu-Ōmikami, rule the plain of high heaven; do thou, Tsukiyomi-no-Mikoto, rule the eight-hundred-fold tides of the ocean plain; do thou, Susa-no-Wo-no-Mikoto, rule the world.”9
The similarity of the Polynesian mythology which makes the sky father the possessor of two wonderful eyes, to this Japanese account of the origin of the Sun Goddess and the Moon God from the purified eyes of Izanagi has already been pointed out.
Again, the most striking episode in the entire cycle of stories relating to Amaterasu-Ōmikami is to be interpreted as having origin in early ceremonies connected with the eclipse of the sun or in rites motivated by an interest in restoring the sun after protracted obscuration by storm clouds. The Nihongi account of this episode—one of the most animated in all the early liter ature—follows:
“After this Susa-no-Wo-no-Mikoto’s behaviour was exceedingly rude. In what way ? Amaterasu-Ōmikami had made august rice fields of heavenly narrow rice fields and heavenly long rice fields. Then Susa-no-Wo-no-Mikoto, when the seed was sown in spring, broke down the divisions between the plots of rice, and in autumn let loose the heavenly piebald colts, and made them lie down in the midst of the rice fields. Again when he saw that Amaterasu-Ōmikami was about to celebrate the feast of first fruits, he secretly voided excrement in the new palace. Moreover, when he saw that Amaterasu-Ōmikami was in her sacred weaving hall, engaged in weaving garments of the gods, he flayed a piebald colt of heaven, and breaking a hole in the roof-tiles of the hall, flung it in. Then Amaterasu-Ōmikami, startled with alarm, wounded herself with the shuttle. Indignant at this, she straightway entered the Rockcave of Heaven, and having fastened the Rock-door, dwelt there in seclusion. Therefore constant darkness prevailed on all sides, and the alternation of day and night was unknown.
“Then the eighty myriads of gods met on the banks of the tranquil River of Heaven, and considered in what manner they should supplicate her. Accordingly, Omohi-Kane-no-Kami, with profound device and far-reaching thought, at length gathered long-singing birds of the Eternal Land and made them utter their prolonged cry to one another. Moreover, he made Tajikara-Wo-no-Mikoto to stand beside the Rock-door. Then Ame-no-Koyane-no-Mikoto, ancestor of the Nakatomi-no-Muraji, and Futo-Dama-no-Mikoto, ancestor of the Imibe-no-Ōbito, dug up a five-hundred branched true sakaki tree of the heavenly Mount Kagu. On its upper branches they hung an august five-hundred string of Yasaka Curved Jewels. On the middle branches they hung a Yata Mirror. On its lower branches they hung white soft offerings and blue soft offerings. Then they recited their liturgy together.
“Moreover, Ama-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto, ancestress of the Sarume-no-Kimi, took in her hand a spear wreathed with eulalia grass, and standing before the door of the Rock-cave of Heaven, skillfully performed a mimic dance. She took the true sakaki tree of the heavenly Mount Kagu, she kindled fires, she placed a tub bottom upwards, and gave forth a divinely inspired utterance.
“Now Amaterasu-Ōmikami heard this, and said: ‘Since I have shut myself up in the Rock-cave, there ought surely to be continual night in the Central Land of Fertile Reed-plains. How then can Ama-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto be so jolly ?’ So with her august hand she opened for a narrow space the Rock-door and peeped out. Then Tajikara-Wo-no-Mikoto forthwith took Amaterasu-Ōmikami by the hand and led her out. Upon this the gods, Nakatomi-no-Kami and Imibe-no-Kami, at once drew a, limit by means of a bottom-tied rope and begged her not to return again (into the cave).”10
That we are dealing here with a mythological statement of a ritual used by the early Japanese for the restoration of the darkened sun seems certain. The fact that the darkness was remembered as so intense that it effaced the alternation of day and night—to borrow the words of the old story itself—favours an interpretation that finds the original causal situation in a solar eclipse. When she retires to the Rock-cave of Heaven, great darkness prevails in heaven and on earth; when she again shows her face, both the central Land of Reed-plains and the Plain of High Heaven (the firmament) once more become light.11 Consistent with this is the fact that her shintai, i.e., her representation or dwelling-place in the Grand Shrine of Ise and elsewhere, is a mirror, that is, a sun symbol. The total record, along with the evidence previously given, makes it very difficult to do other than identify Amaterasu-Ōmikami with the sun completely.
This connection with nature mythology is further confirmed by the closeness of the relationship which the early accounts establish between Amaterasu-Ōmikami and the storm god, Susa-no-Wo-no-Mikoto. The modern Japanese textbooks on ethics and history published by the national Department of Education make Susa-no-Wo-no-Mikoto a legitimate flesh-and-blood historical brother of Àmaterasu-Ōmikami. Critical students of the subject make him a mythological storm god.
Buckley was the first among modern writers to present convincing proof of the storm god character of Susa-no-Wo-no-Mikoto.12 Florenz later added his authority to this interpretation13 and Aston eventually came to adopt a similar point of view.14 Since then various Japanese scholars have favoured this explanation of the original character of this god, in spite of difficulties of adjustment with the approved nationalistic educational scheme.15 The storm god nature of Susa-no-Wo-no-Mikoto is readily apparent on examination of the evidence.
The full title of Susa-no-Wo-no-Mikoto, as given in the early mythological accounts, is Takehaya-Susa-no-Wo-no-Mikoto, which means “Brave-Swift-Impetuous-Male-Deity.” The title may be taken as descriptive of his main characteristics from the standpoint of the original myth-makers. According to the Kojiki, as stated earlier in the discussion, he sprang from the nostrils of the sky father, Izanagi, as the latter purified himself after his return from the lower world, although in one of the Nihongi accounts he is represented as having been born from Izanagi and his wife, Izanami, the earth mother, by the ordinary generative process.16 His stormy character is indicated in the statement that he was ever weeping, wailing and fuming with rage.17 There exists direct evidence in the early literature showing that at least a portion of the functions assigned to Susa-no-Wo-no-Mikoto had their original basis in experiences with heavy rain-bearing winds. At the time of his banishment from heaven he went down to earth in a violent storm of wind and rain.18 One of the Nihongi accounts clothes him in the characteristic rain hat and grass rain coat of the oriental farmer.19 He destroys rice fields “in the spring time” by breaking away the pipes and troughs used in irrigation, by filling up water channels and by breaking down the divisions between fields.20 Behind this can be discerned primitive agricultural experiences during a season of heavy rain. The rainstorm interpretation does not seem so self-evident, however, when we attempt to make it account for the plain statement of the Kojiki that his weeping was such as “to wither the green mountains into withered mountains” and to “dry up all the rivers and seas.”21 Rather, the formative experience here would appear to have been with hot, drying wind. The inference that ancient Japanese myth referred the devastation caused by both rainy wind and drought-bringing wind to the ravages of Susa-no-Wo-no Mikoto is also suggested in a description which the Nihongi gives of a paddy field which this god owned—“In the rains, the soil was swept away, and in droughts it was parched up.”22 Experience with seasonal storm, alternating between hot, parching winds and stormy, wet winds, may well lie back of this story.
Merged with the mythology of this nature god, and constituting the interpretative material wherewith his deeds are humanized, can be discerned a dimly remembered maze of remote social activities of a part of the ancient Japanese peoples. These events, lying like far-off summer clouds on the low horizon of their history, relate mainly to early settlements in the Izumo district,23 to ancient journeys back and forth to the Korean peninsula24 and to recollections of certain more specific activities such as boatbuilding25 and the planting of useful trees.26 To capture this distant cloud material, however, bring it down to earth and congeal it into the form of a great Imperial Ancestor who is to be sent out over the nation to inspire its moral life and bring conviction to its faith in an absolute and unchanging State requires a species of official legerdemain that is altogether beyond the reach of those who possess even a moderate respect for historical veracity.
When we adjust such data to an understanding of Amatera-su-Ōmikami we arrive at a form of existence very different from that which dominates the ancestral theory of the official textbooks. Her father is the sky, her mother is the earth, and her brothers are the moon and the storm.
It must be recognized, of course, that this ancient nature mythology is fully socialized even in the earliest accounts. Amatera-su-Ōmikami wears clothes and ornaments like other women, carries weapons like an Amazon warrior and cultivates fields like a good farmer.27 She weaves cloth,28 celebrates festivals,29 teaches agriculture to man,30 and presides over the councils of the gods with matriarchal dignity.31 None of these human associations could have been attached to the deity without the existence of corresponding patterns in the social life of the early Japanese. The establishing of the probable date of the formation of these social patterns is an important and difficult problem of historical research. All of these social and political usages are probably as old as Japanese tribal life and can be dated roughly from the beginning of the Christian era. Records relating to them are too indefinite, however, to make possible anything other than the most general sort of history. Also, in this connection we should never lose sight of the fact that both the Kojiki and the Nihongi, which furnish us with the major source material for the study of early Japanese institutions, were not completed until the first quarter of the eighth century of the western era, and that in the compilation of these two books earlier Japanese traditions were deliberately reconstructed on the basis of Chinese models and in the interests of imperialistic centralization and that in this centralization scheme the myth of a solar ancestry for the Yamato rulers was deliberately exploited as a means of strengthening the dynasty.
To say, therefore, that Amaterasu-Ōmikami was once an actual human being and an authentic ancestor is either to misunderstand the early mythological and religious history completely or else to surrender entirely to official constraint. On the basis of the evidence it is no more admissible to find in Amaterasu-Ōmikami an actual historical person than it is to find a real human king in Zeus of the Greeks because the latter wore clothes, sat on a throne, ruled over a people, and was associated with a tradition of a definite burial site. Or again, it is no more legitimate to euhemerize Amaterasu-Ōmikami, on the Japanese side, than it is historically valid to find an actual Semitic ancestor in Jahveh of the Jews because the latter is depicted as having walked in the Garden of Eden in the cool of the day.
A Lintel Talisman for Protection against Earthquakes—
The large central ideograms read, Kashima no Kaname-ishi, “the rivet-stone of Kashima;” the script to the left, jisbin yoke, “protection against earthquakes.” The device pictured at the bottom is mainly responsible for the magical influence imparted to the charm. It consists of a representation of a sacred inclosure, in the center of which is the head of an elongated stone (the “rivet-stone”) which according to local legend pins down a giant cat-fish which causes earthquakes by his wriggling about. The stone is probably a buried phallus.
From the Great Kashima Shrine of Hitachi
1. See Hozumi, N., Ancestor Worship and Japanese Law, pp. 34, VI–XIV; Tōkyō, 1913.
2. According to the teaching of Confucianism any righteous man who is obedient to the doctrine of Heaven (Jōtei) and who follows the principles of the first five sacred emperors may become ruler.
3. Kokumin Dōtoku Jō yori Mitaru Jinja, Shintō Kōza (“The Shrines Considered from the Standpoint of National Morality”), Vol. 2, pp. 102–105; Tōkyō, 1929.
4. Katō, Gcnchi, The Kogoshūi or Gleanings from Ancient Stories, p. 16. “Sun-Goddess” is given by Dr. Katō as his rendering of Amaterasu-Ōmikami. In a more literal translation he writes, “Heaven-shining-great-august-goddess” (Kogoshūi, p. 55, note 2).
Regarding the moon god Dr. Katō writes: “In ancient Japanese mythology the name of the Moon-god is Tsukiyomi-no-Mikoto or His Augustness-Night-dominion.” (Ibid., note 3).
In explanation of Susa-no-Wo, Dr. Katō says: “Correctly expressed, Take-haya-Susa-no-Wo-no-Mikoto or His-Brave-Swift-Impetuous-Male-Augustness is simply the deification of the rainstorm, although we can admit that there are also in him some traces of a historical human being.” Ibid., note 4.
5. A myth, telling how in the beginning of things Heaven rested close down over the earth, is widespread in Oceania. Consult Dixon, Oceanic Mythology, pp. 30–36; p. 322, note 93; Tregear, Maori-Polynesian-Comparative Dictionary, pp. 391 ff.; White, Ancient History of the Maori, Vol. I, p. 46.
6. Literally, this final paragraph reads: “‘The brightness of his light is next to the sun. Therefore he should rule in companionship with the sun.’ [Said by Izanagi and Izanami]. Accordingly they sent him also to Heaven.” See Aston, Nihongi, I, pp. 18–19.
7. Aston, Nihongi, I, p. 32.
8. See above p. 108.
9. Aston, Nihongi, I, p. 28.
10. Aston, Nihongiy I, pp. 40–45.
11. See Holtom, The Japanese Enthronement Ceremonies, pp. 18–21, Tōkyō, 1928.
12. “The Shintō Pantheon,” New World, Dec, 1896, pp. 13–14.
13. Japanische Mythologies, Nihongi, Zeitalter der Götter, p. 29, note 19.
14. Aston, Shintō, pp. 136 ff.
15. Katō, Genchi, Kogoshūi, p. 55, note 4; Tsuda, N., Shintō Kigen Ron (“An Essay on the Origin of Shintō”), p. 61.
16. Aston, Nihongi I, p. 19.
17. Op cit., pp. 19–20.
18. Op. cit., p. 50.
19. Op. cit., p. 50.
20. Op. cit., p. 48.
21. Chamberlain, Kojiki, p. 44.
22. Aston, Nihongi, I, p. 48.
23. Op. cit., pp. 52, 53, 56, etc.; Kogoshūi, p. 23.
24. Nihongi, I, p. 58.
25. Ibid.
26. Ibid.
27. Cf., Aston, Nihongi, I, p. 34.
28. Op. cit., pp. 41, 45.
29. Op. cit., pp. 40, 47.
30. Op. cit., pp. 33, 48.
31. Op. cit., pp. 73–79.