NOTES

INTRODUCTION: PARTICIPANTS IN OUR OWN DESTRUCTION

 1     Lane M, Robker RL, Robertson SA. Parenting from before conception. Science. 2014;345:756–60; Dominguez-Salas P, Moore SE, Baker MS, et al. Maternal nutrition at conception modulates DNA methylation of human metastable epialleles. Nat Commun. 2014;5:3746; Lane M, Zander-Fox DL, Robker RL, McPherson NO. Peri-conception parental obesity, reproductive health, and transgenerational impacts. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2015;26:84–90; Marques AH, Bjorke-Monsen AL, Teixeira AL, Silverman MN. Maternal stress, nutrition and physical activity: impact on immune function, CNS development and psychopathology. Brain Res. 2015;1617:28–46; Prado EL, Dewey KG. Nutrition and brain development in early life. Nutr Rev. 2014;72:267–84.

 2     Heckman JJ, Lafontaine PA. The American high school graduation rate: trends and levels. The Review of Economics and Statistics. 2010;92(2):244–62; U.S. Department of Education. U.S. high school graduation rate hits new record high. http://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/us-high-school-graduation-rate-hits-new-record-high-0.

 3     Fuchs FD. Why do black Americans have higher prevalence of hypertension? An enigma still unsolved. Hypertension. 2011;57(3):379–80.

 4     Howard G, Lackland DT, Kleindorfer DO, et al. Racial differences in the impact of elevated systolic blood pressure on stroke risk. JAMA Int Med. 2013;173(1):46–51.

 5     Mozaffarian D, Benjamin EJ, Go AS, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics—2016 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2016;133:e38–e360.

 6     U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Minority Health. Diabetes and African Americans. http://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/omh/browse.aspx?lvl=4&lvlID=18.

 7     Mozaffarian D, Benjamin EJ, Go AS, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics—2016 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2016;133:e38–e360.

 8     Albain KS, Unger JM, Crowley JJ, et al. Racial disparities in cancer survival among randomized clinical trials. JNCI J National Cancer Institute. 2009;101(14):984–92; National Cancer Institute. Cancer health disparities. https://www.cancer.gov/about-nci/organization/crchd/cancer-health-disparities-fact-sheet.

 9     U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Racial and ethnic disparities in Alzheimer’s disease: a literature review. 1 February 2014. https://aspe.hhs.gov/report/racial-and-ethnic-disparities-alzheimers-disease-literature-review.

10    Aune D, Sen A, Prasad M, et al. BMI and all cause mortality: systematic review and non-linear dose-response meta-analysis of 230 cohort studies with 3.74 million deaths among 30.3 million participants. BMJ. 2016;353:i2156; Fryar CD, Gu Q, Ogden CL. Anthropometric reference data for children and adults: United States, 2007–2010. Vital Health Stat. 2012;11:1–48.

11    Ayyad C, Andersen T. Long-term efficacy of dietary treatment of obesity: a systematic review of studies published between 1931 and 1999. Obes Rev. 2000;1:113–19.

CHAPTER ONE: FAST FOOD AND DISEASE

 1    Flegal KM, Kruszon-Moran D, Carroll MD, et al. Trends in obesity among adults in the United States, 2005 to 2014. JAMA. 2016;315:2284–91.

 2    Murray CJ, Atkinson C, Bhalla K, et al. The state of US health, 1990–2010: burden of diseases, injuries, and risk factors. JAMA. 2013;310:591–608.

 3    Gallup. Tobacco and smoking, 2016. http://www.gallup.com/poll/1717/tobacco-smoking.aspx.

 4    Gallup. Fast food still major part of U.S. diet, 2013. 6 August 2013. http://www.gallup.com/poll/163868/fast-food-major-part-diet.aspx.

 5    Shikany JM, Safford MM, Newby PK, et al. Southern dietary pattern is associated with hazard of acute coronary heart disease in the Reasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke (REGARDS) study. Circulation. 2015;132:804–14.

 6    Chiuve SE, McCullough ML, Sacks FM, Rimm EB. Healthy lifestyle factors in the primary prevention of coronary heart disease among men: benefits among users and nonusers of lipid-lowering and antihypertensive medications. Circulation. 2006;114(2):160–67; Chomistek AK, Chiuve SE, Eliassen AH, et al. Healthy lifestyle in the primordial prevention of cardiovascular disease among young women. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;65:43–51.

 7    Xu J, Murphy SL, Kochanek KD, Bastian BA. Deaths: final data for 2013. Natl Vital Stat Rep. 2016;64:1–119.

 8    Odegaard AO, Koh WP, Yuan JM, et al. Western-style fast food intake and cardiometabolic risk in an Eastern country. Circulation. 2012;126:182–88.

 9    Mattes RD, Dreher ML. Nuts and healthy body weight maintenance mechanisms. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2010;19:137–41.

10    Atkinson FS, Foster-Powell K, Brand-Miller JC. International tables of glycemic index and glycemic load values: 2008. Diabetes Care. 2008;31:2281–83.

11    Hu J, La Vecchia C, Augustin LS, et al. Glycemic index, glycemic load and cancer risk. Ann Oncol. 2013;24:245–51; Mullie P, Koechlin A, Boniol M, et al. Relation between breast cancer and high glycemic index or glycemic load: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2016;56:152–59; Nagle CM, Olsen CM, Ibiebele TI, et al. Glycemic index, glycemic load and endometrial cancer risk: results from the Australian National Endometrial Cancer study and an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Nutr. 2013;52:705–15; Melkonian SC, Daniel CR, Ye Y, et al. Glycemic index, glycemic load, and lung cancer risk in non-Hispanic whites. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2016;25:532–39.

12    Fraser GE1, Shavlik DJ. Risk factors for all-cause and coronary heart disease mortality in the oldest-old: The Adventist Health Study. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157(19):2249–58.

13    Meule A, Gearhardt AN. Food addiction in the light of DSM-5. Nutrients. 2014;6:3653–71.

14    Gearhardt AN, Yokum S, Orr PT, et al. Neural correlates of food addiction. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011;68:808–16.

15    Taylor VH, Curtis CM, Davis C. The obesity epidemic: the role of addiction. Can Med Assoc J. 2009;182:327–28.

16    Burger KS, Stice E. Frequent ice cream consumption is associated with reduced striatal response to receipt of an ice cream–based milkshake. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;95:810–17; Stice E, Yokum S, Blum K, Bohon C. Weight gain is associated with reduced striatal response to palatable food. J Neurosci. 2010;30:13105–9.

17    Devaraj S, Wang-Polagruto J, Polagruto J, et al. High-fat, energy-dense, fast-food-style breakfast results in an increase in oxidative stress in metabolic syndrome. Metabolism. 2008;57:867–70.

18    Patel C, Ghanim H, Ravishankar S, et al. Prolonged reactive oxygen species generation and nuclear factor-kappaB activation after a high-fat, high-carbohydrate meal in the obese. J Clin Endo Metabol. 2007;92:4476–79; Khansari N, Shakiba Y, Mahmoudi M, et al. Chronic inflammation and oxidative stress as a major cause of age-related diseases and cancer. Recent Pat Inflamm Allergy Drug Discov. 2009;3:73–80; Federico A, Morgillo F, Tuccillo C, et al. Chronic inflammation and oxidative stress in human carcinogenesis. International J Cancer. 2007;121:2381–86; Vives-Bauza C, Anand M, Shirazi AK, et al. The age lipid A2E and mitochondrial dysfunction synergistically impair phagocytosis by retinal pigment epithelial cells. J Biol Chem. 2008;283:24770–80; Egger G, Dixon J. Inflammatory effects of nutritional stimuli: further support for the need for a big picture approach to tackling obesity and chronic disease. Obes Rev. 2010; 11:137–49; Bhosale P, Serban B, Bernstein PS. Retinal carotenoids can attenuate formation of A2E in the retinal pigment epithelium. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2009;483:175–81; Zota AR, Phillips CA, Mitro SD. Recent fast food consumption and bisphenol A and phthalates exposures among the U.S. population in NHANES, 2003–2010. Environ Health Perspect; doi:10.1289/ehp.1510803.

19    Kurokawa Y, Maekawa A, Takahashi M, et al. Toxicity and carcinogenicity of potassium bromate: a new renal carcinogen. Environ Health Perspect. 1990;87:309–35.

20    León JB, Sullivan CM, Sehgal AR. The prevalence of phosphorus containing food additives in top selling foods in grocery stores. J Ren Nutr. 2013;23(4):265–70.

21    Trasande L, Zoeller RT, Hass U, et al. Estimating burden and disease costs of exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals in the European union. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2015;100(4):1245–55; Lerner A, Matthias T. Changes in intestinal tight junction permeability associated with industrial food additives explain the rising incidence of autoimmune disease. Autoimmun Rev. 2015;14(6):479–89; Northstone K, Joinson C, Emmett P, et al. Are dietary patterns in childhood associated with IQ at 8 years of age? A population-based cohort study. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2011;66(7):624–28; doi:10.1136/jech.2010.111955.

22    Fuhrman J, Sarter B, Glaser D, Acocella S. Changing perceptions of hunger on a high nutrient density diet. Nutr J. 2010;9:51.

23    Franz MJ, VanWormer JJ, Crain AL, et al. Weight-loss outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of weight-loss clinical trials with a minimum 1-year follow-up. J Am Diet Assoc. 2007;107:1755–67.

24    Fuhrman J, Singer M. Improved cardiovascular parameter with a nutrient-dense, plant-rich diet-style: a patient survey with illustrative cases. Am J Lifestyle Med. 15 October 2015.

25    Fulgoni VL, Keast DR, Bailey RL, Dwyer J. Foods, fortificants, and supplements: where do Americans get their nutrients? J Nutr. 2011;141:1847–54; Cogswell ME, Zhang Z, Carriquiry AL, et al. Sodium and potassium intakes among US adults: NHANES 2003–2008. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;96:647–57.

26    Kearns CE, Schmidt LA, Glantz SA. Sugar industry and coronary heart disease research: a historical analysis of internal industry documents. JAMA Intern Med. 12 September 2016; doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.5394; quotation from O’Connor, A. “How the Sugar Industry Shifted Blame from Fat.” New York Times, 12 September 2016.

27    De Natale C, Annuzzi G, Bozzetto L, et al. Effects of a plant-based high-carbohydrate/high-fiber diet versus high–monounsaturated fat/low-carbohydrate diet on postprandial lipids in type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care. 2009;32(12):2168–73.

28    Lustig RH. Fructose: it’s “alcohol without the buzz.” Adv Nutr. 2013;4(2):226–35.

29    Gross LS, Li L, Ford ES, et al. Increased consumption of refined carbohydrates and the epidemic of type 2 diabetes in the United States: an ecological assessment. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;79(5):774–79.

30    Bray GA, Nielsen SJ, Popkin BM. Consumption of high-fructose corn syrup in beverages may play a role in the epidemic of obesity. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;79:537–43.

31    Akar F, Uludag O, Aydin A, et al. High-fructose corn syrup causes vascular dysfunction associated with metabolic disturbance in rats: protective effect of resveratrol. Food Chem Toxicol. 2012;50:2135–41.

32    DiNicolantonio JJ, O’Keefe JH, Lucan SC. Added fructose: a principal driver of type 2 diabetes mellitus and its consequences. Mayo Clin Proc. 2015;90(3):372–81; Stephan BC, Wells JC, Brayne C, et al. Increased fructose intake as a risk factor for dementia. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2010;65(8):809–14.

33    Dufault R, LeBlanc B, Schnoll R, et al. Mercury from chlor-alkali plants: measured concentrations in food product sugar. Environ Health. 26 January 2009;8:2.

34    Uribarri J, Woodruff S, Goodman S, et al. Advanced glycation end products in foods and a practical guide to their reduction in the diet. J Am Diet Assoc. 2010;110(6):911–16.

35    Vitek MP, Bhattacharya K, Glendening JM, et al. Advanced glycation end products contribute to amyloidosis in Alzheimer disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1994;91:4766–70; Cai W, Uribarri J, Zhu L, et al. Oral glycotoxins are a modifiable cause of dementia and the metabolic syndrome in mice and humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2014;111:4940–45.

36    Kaushik S, Wang JJ, Wong TY, et al. Glycemic index, retinal vascular caliber, and stroke mortality. Stroke. 2009;40(1):206–12.

37    George MG, Tong X, Kuklina EV, Labarthe DR. Trends in stroke hospitalizations and associated risk factors among children and young adults, 1995–2008. Ann Neurol. 2011;70:713–21; Smith SE, Fox C. Ischemic stroke in children and young adults: etiology and clinical features. UpToDate. http://www.uptodate.com/contents/ischemic-stroke-in-children-and-young-adults-etiology-and-clinical-features.

38    Griffiths D, Sturm J. Epidemiology and Etiology of Young Stroke. Stroke Res Treat 2011; doi: 10.4061/2011/209370. Smailovic D. Strokes in young adults: epidemiology and prevention Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2015;11:157–164.

39    Cawley J, Meyerhoefer C. The medical care costs of obesity: an instrumental variables approach. J Health Econ. 2012;31:219–30.

40    Song M, Fung TT, Hu FB, et al. Association of animal and plant protein intake with all-cause and cause-specific mortality. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176(10):1453–63; Sinha R, Cross AJ, Graubard BI, et al. Meat intake and mortality: a prospective study of over half a million people. Arch Intern Med 2009;169:562–71.

41    National Cancer Institute. Chemicals in meat cooked at high temperatures and cancer risk. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/diet/cooked-meats-fact-sheet; Niedernhofer LJ, Daniels JS, Rouzer CA, et al. Malondialdehyde, a product of lipid peroxidation, is mutagenic in human cells. J Biol Chem 2003;278:31426–33.

42    Gilsing AMJ, Fransen F, de Kok TM, et al. Dietary heme iron and the risk of colorectal cancer with specific mutations in KRAS and APC. Carcinogenesis. 2013;34:2757–66; Gilsing AMJ, Berndt SI, Ruder EH, et al. Meat-related mutagen exposure, xenobiotic metabolizing gene polymorphisms and the risk of advanced colorectal adenoma and cancer. Carcinogenesis. 2012;33:1332–39; Mourouti N, Kontogianni MD, Papavagelis C, et al. Meat consumption and breast cancer: a case-control study in women. Meat Sci. 2015;100:195–201; Inoue-Choi M, Sinha R, Gierach GL, Ward MH. Red and processed meat, nitrite, and heme iron intakes and postmenopausal breast cancer risk in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. Int J Cancer. 2016;138(7):1609–18; Aykan NF. Red meat and colorectal cancer. Oncol Rev. 2015;9:288.

43    Chan DS, Lau R, Aune D, et al. Red and processed meat and colorectal cancer incidence: meta-analysis of prospective studies. PloS One. 2011;6:e20456; Inoue-Choi M, Sinha R, Gierach GL, Ward MH. Red and processed meat, nitrite, and heme iron intakes and postmenopausal breast cancer risk in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. Int J Cancer. 2016;138:1609–18; Larsson SC, Wolk A. Red and processed meat consumption and risk of pancreatic cancer: meta-analysis of prospective studies. Br J Cancer. 2012;106:603–7; Bylsma LC, Alexander DD. A review and meta-analysis of prospective studies of red and processed meat, meat cooking methods, heme iron, heterocyclic amines and prostate cancer. Nutr J. 2015;14:125.

44    Vasan RS, Beiser A, Seshadri S, et al. Residual lifetime risk for developing hypertension in middle-aged women and men: the Framingham Heart Study. JAMA. 2002;287:1003–10.

45    Frohlich ED, Varagic J. The role of sodium in hypertension is more complex than simply elevating arterial pressure. Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med. 2004;1(1):24–30.

46    Sanders PW. Vascular consequences of dietary salt intake. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2009;297:F237–43.

47    De Wardener HE, MacGregor GA. Harmful effects of dietary salt in addition to hypertension. J Hum Hypertens. 2002;16:213–23; Harmon K. Salt linked to autoimmune diseases: nanowires show sodium chloride may cause harmful T-cell growth. 6 March 2013. Nature. http://www.nature.com/news/salt-linked-to-autoimmune-diseases-1.12555; Tsugane S, Sasazuki S. Diet and the risk of gastric cancer: review of epidemiological evidence. Gastric Cancer. 2007;10:75–83; Teucher B, Dainty JR, Spinks CA, et al. Sodium and bone health: impact of moderately high and low salt intakes on calcium metabolism in postmenopausal women. J Bone Miner Res. 2008;23:1477–85.

48    McDonald’s Nutrition Calculator, https://www.mcdonalds.com/us/en-us/about-our-food/nutrition-calculator.html.

49    Calculated on two pieces original recipe chicken, baked beans, coleslaw, and mashed potatoes and gravy, Kentucky Fried Chicken Interactive Nutrition Menu, https://www.kfc.com/nutrition/full-nutrition-guide. Last updated 18 April 2016.

50    Bolhuis DP, Costanzo A, Newman LP, Keast RSJ. Salt promotes passive overconsumption of dietary fat in humans. J Nutr. 2016; doi:10.3945/jn.115.226365.

51    Ma Y, He FJ, MacGregor GA. High salt intake: independent risk factor for obesity? Hypertension. 2015;66:843–49.

52    Carvalho JJ, Baruzzi RG, Howard PF, et al. Blood pressure in four remote populations in the INTERSALT study. Hypertension. 1989;14:238–46; Ulijaszek SJ, Koziel S, Hermanussen M. Village distance from urban centre as the prime modernization variable in differences in blood pressure and body mass index of adults of the Purari delta of the Gulf Province, Papua New Guinea. Ann Hum Biol. 2005;32:326–38; Gurven M, Blackwell AD, Rodriguez DE, et al. Does blood pressure inevitably rise with age?: longitudinal evidence among forager-horticulturalists. Hypertension. 2012;60:25–33.

53    Bibbins-Domingo K, Chertow GM, Coxson PG, et al. Projected effect of dietary salt reductions on future cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:590–99.

54    Wong K. Monterey County Herald. School lunches: fast food for thought? Cafeterias face challenge of offering balanced diet and a balanced budget. 24 February 2000. https://www.nasw.org/users/Katwong/publications/mocoherald/fastfood.html.

55    Chen G. Why fast food is “healthier” than school lunches: the shocking USDA truth. Public School Review. Updated June 21, 2016. https://www.publicschoolreview.com/blog/why-fast-food-is-healthier-than-school-lunches-the-shocking-usda-truth.

56    U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Final determination regarding partially hydrogenated oils (removing trans fat). http://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/FoodAdditivesIngredients/ucm449162.htm. Last updated 7 October 2016.

57    Allain P, Berre S, Krari N, et al. Bromine and thyroid hormone activity. J Clin Pathol. 1993;46(5):456–58.

58    Aburto NJ, Abudou M, Candeias V, Wu T. Effect and Safety of Salt Iodization to Prevent Iodine Deficiency Disorders: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analyses. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2014.

59    Micha R, Wallace SK, Mozaffarian D. Red and processed meat consumption and risk of incident coronary heart disease, stroke, and diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Circulation. 2010;121:2271–83.

60    Sheweita SA, El-Bendery HA, Mostafa MH. Novel study on N-nitrosamines as risk factors of cardiovascular diseases. BioMed Res Int. 2014;2014:817019; Kim Y, Keogh J, Clifton P. A review of potential metabolic etiologies of the observed association between red meat consumption and development of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Metabolism. 2015;64:768–79.

61    Bondy SC. Low levels of aluminum can lead to behavioral and morphological changes associated with Alzheimer’s disease and age-related neurodegeneration. Neurotoxicology. 2016;52:222–29.

CHAPTER TWO: THE BRAIN ON FAST FOOD

 1    DeWall CN, Deckman T, Gailliot MT, et al. Sweetened blood cools hot tempers: physiological self-control and aggression. Aggress Behav. 2011;37(1):73–80.

 2    DeWall CN, Pond RS, Bushman BJ. Sweet revenge: diabetic symptoms predict less forgiveness. Personality and Individual Differences. 2010;49(7):823–26.

 3    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. U.S. Diabetes Surveillance System. Division of Diabetes Translation. Diagnosed diabetes. http://gis.cdc.gov/grasp/diabetes/DiabetesAtlas.html.

 4    Diabetes in Camden. Data from a Camden City Comprehensive Health Database (July 2002–June 2008). http://www.camconnect.org/datalogue/DiabetesSummary200806Data_300906Edits.pdf.

 5    CamConnect. Know Your City: Camden City Crime Trends from 1989 to 2014. http://camconnect.org/datalogue/2015CrimeAnalysis.pdf.

 6    U.S. Census Bureau. Welcome to QuickFacts: Camden City, New Jersey. http://www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/PST045215/3410000/accessible; QuickFacts: Cherry Hill Mall CDP, New Jersey. http://www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/SBO001212/3412385,34.

 7    U.S. Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service. Food availability (per capita) data system. https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/food-availability-per-capita-data-system/. Last updated 23 November 2016.

 8    Poll reported in Barford V. Why are Americans so angry? BBC News. 4 February 2016. http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-35406324.

 9    Kumar GP, Khanum F. Neuroprotective potential of phytochemicals. Pharmacogn Rev. 2012;6(12):81-90; Kennedy DO. Polyphenols and the human brain: Plant “secondary metabolite” ecologic roles and endogenous signaling functions drive benefits. Adv Nutr. 2014;5:515-33.

10    Akbaraly TN, Brunner EJ, Ferrie JE, et al. Dietary pattern and depressive symptoms in middle age. Br J Psychiatry. 2009;195(5):408–13.

11    Grosso G, Galvano F, Marventano S, et al. Omega-3 fatty acids and depression: scientific evidence and biological mechanisms. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2014;2014:313570; Kennedy DO. B vitamins and the brain: mechanisms, dose and efficacy—a review. Nutrients 2016;8(2):68.

12    Sánchez-Villegas A, Toledo E, de Irala J, et al. Fast-food and commercial baked goods consumption and the risk of depression. Public Health Nutrition. 2011;15(3):424.

13    Gangwisch JE, Hale L, Garcia L, et al. High glycemic index diet as a risk factor for depression: analyses from the Women’s Health Initiative. Am J Clin Nutr. 2015; doi:10.3945/ajcn.114.103846.

14    Kodl CT, Seaquist ER. Cognitive dysfunction and diabetes mellitus. Endocr Rev. 2008; 29:494–511; Sommerfield AJ, Deary IJ, Frier BM, et al. Acute hyperglycemia alters mood state and impairs cognitive performance in people with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:2335–40.

15    Schopf V, Fischmeister FP, Windischberger C, et al. Effects of individual glucose levels on the neuronal correlates of emotions. Front Hum Neurosci. 2013;7:212.

16    Kodl CT, Seaquist ER. Cognitive dysfunction and diabetes mellitus. Endocr Rev. 2008;29:494–511; Starr VL, Convit A. Diabetes, sugar-coated but harmful to the brain. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2007;7:638–42.

17    Suglia SF, Slonick S, Hemenway D. Soft drinks consumption is associated with behavior problems in 5-year-olds. J Pediatr. 2013;163(5):1323–28.

18    Wiles NJ, Northstone K, Emmett P, Lewis G. “Junk food” and childhood behavioural problems: results from the ALSPAC cohort. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2009;63(4):491–98.

19    Grosso G, Galvano F, Marventano S, et al. Omega-3 fatty acids and depression: scientific evidence and biological mechanisms. Oxid Med Cell Longev 2014;2014:313570.

20    Rahal A, Kumar A, Singh V. Oxidative stress, prooxidants, and antioxidants: the interplay. BioMed Res Int. 2014; 2014: 761264.

21    Grootveld M, Silwood CJL, Addis P, Claxson A. Health effects of oxidized heated oils. FoodService Research International. 2001;13:41–55.

22    DeMar JC, Jr., Ma K, Bell JM, et al. One generation of N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid deprivation increases depression and aggression test scores in rats. J Lipid Res. 2006;47(1):172–80; Hibbeln JR, Ferguson TA, Blasbalg TL. Omega-3 fatty acid deficiencies in neurodevelopment, aggression and autonomic dysregulation: opportunities for intervention. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2006;18(2):107–18.

23    Higdon J, Drake VJ. Essential fatty acids. In: An Evidence-Based Approach to Dietary Phytochemicals and Other Dietary Factors. 2nd ed. New York: Thieme, 2013:183–208; Cole GM, Ma QL, Frautschy SA. Omega-3 fatty acids and dementia. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2009;81:213–21.

24    Simopoulos AP. The importance of the omega-6/omega-3 fatty acid ratio in cardiovascular disease and other chronic diseases. Exp Biol Med. 2008;233(6):674–88.

25    Wang DD, Li Y, Chiuve SE, et al. Association of specific dietary fats with total and all-cause mortality. JAMA Int Med. 2016;176(8):1134–45.

26    Chowdhury R, Warnakula S, Kunutsor S, et al. Association of dietary, circulating, and supplement fatty acids with coronary risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2014;160:398–406; Astrup A, Dyerberg J, Elwood P, et al. The role of reducing intakes of saturated fat in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: where does the evidence stand in 2010? Am Clin Nutr. 2011;93(4):684–88; Siri-Tarino PW, Sun Q, Hu FB, et al. Saturated fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease: modulation by replacement nutrients. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2010;12:384–90; Willett W, Sacks F, Stampfer M. Dietary fat and heart disease study is seriously misleading. Harvard School of Public Health, The Nutrition Source. 2014. https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/2014/03/19/dietary-fat-and-heart-disease-study-is-seriously-misleading/.

27    Bittman, M. “Butter Is Back.” New York Times, 25 March 2014. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/26/opinion/bittman-butter-is-back.html?_r=0.

28    Ramsden CE, Zamora D, Majchrzak-Hong S, et al. Re-evaluation of the traditional diet-heart hypothesis: analysis of recovered data from Minnesota Coronary Experiment (1968–73). BMJ. 2016;353:i1246.

29    Vogel RA, Corretti MC, Plotnick GD. The postprandial effect of components of the Mediterranean diet on endothelial function. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;36(5):1455–60.

30    Mattes RD, Dreher ML. Nuts and healthy body weight maintenance mechanisms. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2010;19:137–41.

31    Shikany JM, Safford MM, Newby PK, et al. Southern dietary pattern is associated with hazard of acute coronary heart disease in the Reasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke (REGARDS) study. Circulation. 2015;132(9):804–14.

32    Depression: Patrick RP, Ames BN. Vitamin D and the omega-3 fatty acids control serotonin synthesis and action, part 2: relevance for ADHD, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and impulsive behavior. FASEB J. 2015;29:2207–22; Logan AC. Omega-3 fatty acids and major depression: a primer for the mental health professional. Lipids Health Dis. 2004;3:25; Osher Y, Bemaker RH. Omega-3 fatty acids in depression: a review of three studies. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2009;15(2):128–33. Cognitive decline: Schaefer EJ, Bongard V, Beiser AS, et al. Plasma phosphatidylcholine docosahexaenoic acid content and risk of dementia in Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol. 2006;63:1545–50; Beydoun MA, Kaufman JS, Satia JA, et al. Plasma n-3 fatty acids and the risk of cognitive decline in older adults: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85:1103–11.

33    Schaefer EJ, Bongard V, Beiser AS, et al. Plasma phosphatidylcholine docosahexaenoic acid content and risk of dementia and Alzheimer disease: the Framingham Heart Study. Arch Neurol.2006;63(11):1545–50.

34    U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Fact Book: Profiling Food Consumption in America. Chapter 2, pp. 14–21. https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/2461300/usda-chapter2.pdf.

35    Lewis MD, Hibbein JR, Johnson JE, et al. Suicide deaths of active duty U.S. military and omega-3 fatty acid status: a case control comparison. J Clin Psychiatry. 2011;72(12):1585–90.

36    Blasbalg TL, Hibbeln JR, Ramsden CE, et al. Changes in consumption of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in the United States during the 20th century. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;93(5):950–62.

37    Hibbeln JR, Nieminen LR, Lands WE. Increasing homicide rates and linoleic acid consumption among five Western countries, 1961–2000. Lipids. 2004;39(12):1207–13.

38    Patterson E, Wall R, Fitzgerald GF, et al. Health implications of high dietary omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Nutr Metab. 2012;2012:539426, http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/539426.

39    Patel B, Schutte R, Sporns P, et al. Potato glycoalkaloids adversely affect intestinal permeability and aggravate inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2002;8(5):340–46.

40    Montgomery P, Burton JR, Sewell RP, et al. Low blood long chain omega-3 fatty acids in UK children are associated with poor cognitive performance and behavior: a cross-sectional analysis from the DOLAB study. PloS One. 2013;8(6):366697.

41    Hamazaki T, Hamazaki K. Fish oils and aggression or hostility. Prog Lipid Res. 2008;47(4): 221–32.

42    Grosso G, Galvano F, Marventano S, et al. Omega-3 fatty acids and depression: scientific evidence and biological mechanisms. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2014;2014:313570.

43    Weiser MJ, Butt CM, Mohajeri MH. Docosahexaenoic acid and cognition throughout the lifespan. Nutrients. 2016;8(2):99.

44    Tan ZS, Harris WS, Beiser AS, et al. Red blood cell omega-3 fatty acid levels and markers of accelerated brain aging. Neurology. 2012;78:658–64; Pottala JV, Yaffe K, Robinson JG, et al. Higher RBC EPA + DHA corresponds with larger total brain and hippocampal volumes: WHIMS-MRI study. Neurology. 2014;82:435–42; Cole GM, Ma QL, Frautschy SA. Omega-3 fatty acids and dementia. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2009;81:213–21.

45    Hebert LE, Weuve J, Scherr PA, et al. Alzheimer disease in the United States (2010–2050) estimated using the 2010 census. Neurology. 2013;80(19):1778–83.

46    Eldho NV, Feller SE, Tristram-Nagle S, et al. Polyunsaturated docosahexaenoic Vs docosapentaenoic acid: differences in lipid matrix properties from the loss of one double bond. J Am Chem Soc. 2003;125(21):6409–21.

47    Milte CM, Sinn N, Street SJ, et al. Erythrocyte polyunsaturated fatty acid status, memory, cognition and mood in older adults with mild cognitive impairment and healthy controls. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2011;84:153–61.

48    Northstone K, Joinson C, Emmett P, et al. Are dietary patterns in childhood associated with IQ at 8 years of age?: a population-based cohort study. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2011;66(7):624–28; doi:10.1136/jech.2010.111955; Gale CR, Martyn CN, Marriott LD, et al. Dietary patterns in infancy and cognitive and neuropsychological function in childhood. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2009;50(7):816–23.

49    Oddy WH, Robinson M, Ambrosini GL, et al. The association between dietary patterns and mental health in early adolescence. Preventive Med. 2009;49(1):39–44; Wiles NJ, Northstone K, Emmett P, et al. “Junk Food” diet and childhood behavioural problems: results from the ALSPAC cohort. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2009;63(4):491–98.

50    Mujcic R, Oswald AJ. Evolution of well-being and happiness after increases in consumption of fruit and vegetables. Am J Public Health. 2016;106(8):1504–10.

51    Fruits and veggies give you that feel-good factor. Warwick News and Events. http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/newsandevents/news/fruit_and_veg/. Last revised 8 July 2016.

52    Johnson PM, Kenny PJ. Dopamine D2 receptors in addiction-like reward dysfunction and compulsive eating in obese rats. Nat Neurosci. 2010;13(5):635–41.

53    Stranahan AM, Norman ED, Lee K, et al. Diet-induced insulin resistance impairs hippocampal synaptic plasticity and cognition in middle-aged rats. Hippocampus. 2008;18(11):1085–88.

54    Murphy C. Nutrition and chemosensory perception in the elderly. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 1993;33(1):3–15.

55    Myers WC, Vondruska MA. Murder, minors, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, and the involuntary intoxication defense. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 1998;26(3):487–96; Patrick RP, Ames BN. Vitamin D and the omega-3 fatty acids control serotonin synthesis and action, part 2: relevance for ADHD, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and impulsive behavior. FASEB J. 2015;29(6):2207–22.

56    Williams E, Stewart-Knox B, Helander A, et al. Associations between whole-blood serotonin and subjective mood in healthy male volunteers. Biol Psychol. 2006;71(2):171–74.

57    Eppig C, Fincher CL, Thornhill R. Parasite prevalence and the worldwide distribution of cognitive ability. Proc Biol Sci. 2010;277(1701):3801–8.

58    Northstone K, Joinson C, Emmett P, et al. Are dietary patterns in childhood associated with IQ at 8 Years of Age?: a population-based cohort study. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2011;66(7):624–28; doi:10.1136/jech.2010.111955.

59    Wiles NJ, Northstone K, Emmett P, et al. “Junk food” diet and childhood behavioural problems: results from the ALSPAC cohort. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2009;63(4):491–98.

60    Rosales FJ, Reznick JS, Zeisel SH. Understanding the role of nutrition in the brain and behavioral development of toddlers and preschool children: identifying and addressing methodological barriers. Nutr Neurosci. 2009;12(5):190–202.

61    Jackson DB, Beaver KM. The role of adolescent nutrition and physical activity in the prediction of verbal intelligence during early adulthood: a genetically informed analysis of twin pairs. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2015;12(1):385–401.

62    Purtell KM, Gershoff ET. Fast food consumption and academic growth in late childhood. Clin Pediatr. 2015;54(9):871–77.

63    Garcia-Lafuente A, Guillamon E, Villares A, et al. Flavonoids as anti-inflammatory agents: implications in cancer and cardiovascular disease. Inflamm Res. 2009;58(9):537–52.

64    Gale CR, Martyn CN, Marriott LD, et al. Dietary patterns in infancy and cognitive and neuropsychological function in childhood. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2009;50(7):816–23.

65    Thaler JP, Yi C-X, Schur EA, et al. Obesity is associated with hypothalamic injury in rodents and humans. J Clin Invest. 2012;122(1):153–62.

66    Zhang J, Hebert JR, Muldoon MF. Dietary fat intake is associated with psychosocial and cognitive functioning of school-aged children in the United States. J Nutr. 2005;135(8):1967–73.

67    Karlsson H, Ahlborg B, Dalman C, et al. Association between erythrocyte sedimentation rate and IQ in Swedish males aged 18–20. Brain Behav Immun. 2010;24(6):868–73.

68    Rijlaarsdam J, Cecil C, Walton E, et al. Prenatal unhealthy diet, insulin-like growth factor 2 gene (IGF-2) methylation, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in youth with early onset conduct problems. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2017;58(1):19–27; doi:10.1111/jcpp.12589.

69    Hunchark M. Maternal intake of N-nitroso compounds from cured meat and the risk of pediatric brain tumors: a review. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol. 2010;29(3):245–53. Kwan ML, Jensen CD, Maternal Diet and Risk of Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia. Public Health Rep. 2009;124(4):503–514.

70    Li M, Fallin D, Riley A, Wang X. The association of maternal obesity and diabetes with autism and other developmental disabilities. Pediatrics. 2016;137(2):1–10; Dufault R, Lukiw WJ, Crider R, et al. A macroepigenetic approach to identify factors responsible for the autism epidemic in the United States. Clin Epigenetics. 2012;4(1):1.

71    Gesch CB. Influence of supplementary vitamins, minerals and essential fatty acids on the antisocial behaviour of young adult prisoners: randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Brit J Psychiatry. 2002;181(1):22–28.

72    Zaalberg A, Nijman H, Bulten E, et al. Effects of nutritional supplements on aggression, rule-breaking, and psychopathology among young adult prisoners. Aggress Behav. 2010;36(2):117–26.

73    Keeley J, Fields M. Case study: Appleton Central alternative charter high school’s nutrition and wellness program. December 2004. http://www.sustainlv.org/wp-content/uploads/Appleton-school-food-study.pdf.

74    Bohannon J. The theory? Diet causes violence. The lab? Prison. Science. 2009;325:1614–16.

75    Moore SC, Carter LM, van Goozen S. Confectionery consumption in childhood and adult violence. Br J Psychiatry. 2009;195:366–67.

76    Ross LJ, Wilson M, Banks M, et al. Prevalence of malnutrition and nutritional risk factors in patients undergoing alcohol and drug treatment. Nutrition. 2012;28(7–8):738–43.

77    Grant LP, Haughton B, Sachan DS. Nutrition education is positively associated with substance abuse treatment program outcomes. J Am Dietetic Assoc. 2004;104(4):604–10.

78    Liester MB, Moore-Liester JD. Is sugar a gateway drug? J Drug Abuse. 2015;1(1):8.

79    Federal Bureau of Prisons. Statistics. https://www.bop.gov/about/statistics/statistics_inmate_offenses.jsp. Last updated 28 January 2017.

80    YouTube. Eric Clapton speaks about his drug and alcohol addiction. 1999 Interview with Ed Bradley. Posted June 2013. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVPmfMDFS9A.

81    Fuchs E. Why the South is more violent than the rest of America. Business Insider. Law & Order. 18 September 2013. http://www.businessinsider.com/south-has-more-violent-crime-fbi-statistics-show-2013–9; Institute for Economics and Peace. 2012 United States Peace Index. http://economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/2012-United-States-Peace-Index-Report_1.pdf.

82    Nisbett RE. Violence and U.S. regional culture. Am Psychol. 1993;48(4),441–49.

83    Diabetes Forecast, Healthy Living Magazine. “The Diabetes Belt.” http://www.diabetesforecast.org/2013/may/the-diabetes-belt.html.

84    CDC. Adults Meeting Fruit and Vegetable Intake Recommendations—United States, 2013 Weekly. MMWR 2015;64(26):709–713.

85    Martinson ML, Reichman NE. Socioeconomic inequalities in low birth weight in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia. Am J Public Health. 2016;106(4):748–54.

86    Hillemeier MM, Weisman CS, Chase GA, Dyer AM. Individual and community predictors of preterm birth and low birth weight along the rural–urban continuum in central Pennsylvania. J Rural Health. 2007;23(1):42–48.

CHAPTER THREE: LET FOOD BE THY MEDICINE

 1    Werner H, Bruchim I. The insulin-like growth factor-I receptor as an oncogene. Arch Physiol Biochem. 2009;115:58–71; Levine ME, Suarez JA, Brandhorst S, et al. Low protein intake is associated with a major reduction in IGF-1, cancer, and overall mortality in the 65 and younger but not older population. Cell Metab. 2014;19:407–17; Key TJ, Appleby PN, Reeves GK, et al. Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1), IGF binding protein 3 (IGFBP3), and breast cancer risk: pooled individual data analysis of 17 prospective studies. Lancet Oncol. 2010;11:530–42; Rowlands MA, Gunnell D, Harris R, et al. Circulating insulin-like growth factor peptides and prostate cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Cancer. 2009;124:2416–29.

 2    Grant WR. A multicounty ecological study of cancer incidence rates in 2008 with respect to various risk-modifying factors. Nutrients. 2014;6:163–89.

 3    Song M, Fung TT, Hu FB, et al. Association of animal and plant protein intake with all-cause and cause-specific mortality. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176(10):1453–63; doi:10.1001/jama internmed.2016.4182.

 4    Fung TT, Van Dam RM, Harkinson SE, et al. Low-carbohydrate diets and all-cause and cause-specific mortality: two cohort studies. Ann Intern Med. 2010;153:289–98.

 5    Lagiou RP, Sandin S, Lof M, et al. Low carbohydrate, high protein diet and incidence of cardiovascular disease in Swedish women: prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2012;344:e4026.

 6    Levine ME, Suarez JA, Brandhorst S, et al. Low protein intake is associated with a major reduction in IGF-1, cancer, and overall mortality in the 65 and younger but not older population. Cell Metab. 2014;19(3):407–7.

 7    Wang X, Ouyang Y, Liu J, et al. Fruit and vegetable consumption and mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. BMJ. 2014;349:g4490.

 8    Chuang YF, An Y, Bilgel M, et al. Midlife adiposity predicts earlier onset of Alzheimer’s dementia, neuropathology and presymptomatic cerebral amyloid accumulation. Mol Psychiatry. 2015;21(7):910–15.

 9    WHO Health Status Statistics: Mortality. Healthy Life Expectancy (HALE) http://www.who.int/healthinfo/statistics/indhale/en/.

10    Fuhrman J. Dietary protocols to maximize disease reversal and long term safety. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine. 2015;9(5):343–53.

11    Fuhrman J, Singer M. Improved cardiovascular parameter with a nutrient-dense, plant-rich diet-style: a patient survey with illustrative cases. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine. 7 July 2016; doi:10.1177/1559827615611024.

12    Dunaief DM, Fuhrman J, Dunaief JL, Ying G. Glycemic and cardiovascular parameters improved in type 2 diabetes with the high nutrient density (HND) diet. Open Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2012;2(3):364–71.

13    Buettner, D. The Blue Zones: Lessons for Living Longer from the People Who’ve Lived the Longest, 2nd ed. Washington, DC: National Geographic, 2012.

14    Lindeberg S, Berntorn E, Nilsson-Ehie P, et al. Age relations of cardiovascular risk factors in a traditional Melanesian society: the Kitava study. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997;66(4):845–52; Lindeberg S, Eliasson M, Lindhal B, Ahren D. Low serum insulin in traditional Pacific Islanders—the Kitava study. Metabolism. 1999:48(10):1216–19; Lindeberg S, Nilsson-Ehie P, Terent A, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors in a Melanesian population apparently free from stroke and ischaemic heart disease: the Kitava study. J Intern Med. 1994;236(3):331–40.

15    Higdon J, Delage B, Williams D, Dashwood R. Cruciferous vegetables and human cancer risk: epidemiologic evidence and mechanistic basis. Pharmacol Res. 2007;55:224–36.

16    Higdon J, Drake VJ. Cruciferous vegetables. In: An Evidence-Based Approach to Phytochemicals and Other Dietary Factors. 2nd ed. New York: Thieme, 2013; Higdon J, Delage B, Williams D, Dashwood R. Cruciferous vegetables and human cancer risk: epidemiologic evidence and mechanistic basis. Pharmacol Res. 2007;55:224–36.

17    Yuan F, Chen DZ, Liu K, et al. Anti-estrogenic activities of indole-3-carbinol in cervical cells: implication for prevention of cervical cancer. Anticancer Res. 1999;19:1673–80; Meng Q, Yuan F, Goldberg ID, et al. Indole-3-carbinol is a negative regulator of estrogen receptor-alpha signaling in human tumor cells. J Nutr. 2000;130:2927–31; Ramirez MC, Singletary K. Regulation of estrogen receptor alpha expression in human breast cancer cells by sulforaphane. J Nutr Biochem. 2009;20:195–201.

18    Zhang CX, Ho SC, Chen YM, et al. Greater vegetable and fruit intake is associated with a lower risk of breast cancer among Chinese women. Int J Cancer. 2009;125:181–88.

19    Bosetti C, Filomeno M, Riso P, et al. Cruciferous vegetables and cancer risk in a network of case-control studies. Ann Oncol. 2012;23(8):2198–203.

20    Nechuta SJ, Lu W, Cai H, et al. Cruciferous vegetable intake after diagnosis of breast cancer and survival: a report from the Shanghai Breast Cancer Survival study. Cancer Res. 2012(suppl);72(8): abstract LB-322.

21    Cohen JH, Kristal AR, Stanford JL. Fruit and vegetable intakes and prostate cancer risk. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2000;92:61–68.

22    Larsson SC, Hakansson N, Naslund I, et al. Fruit and vegetable consumption in relation to pancreatic cancer risk: a prospective study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2006;15:301–5.

23    Papanikolaou Y, Fulgoni VL III. Bean consumption is associated with greater nutrient intake, reduced systolic blood pressure, lower body weight, and a smaller waist circumference in adults: results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999–2002. J Am Coll Nutr. 2008;27:569–76; Muir JG, O’Dea K. Measurement of resistant starch: factors affecting the amount of starch escaping digestion in vitro. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992;56:123–27.

24    Aune D, De Stefani E, Ronco A, et al. Legume intake and the risk of cancer: a multisite case-control study in Uruguay. Cancer Causes Control. 2009;20:1605–15; Singh PN, Fraser GE. Dietary risk factors for colon cancer in a low-risk population. Am J Epidemiol. 1998;148:761–74; O’Keefe SJ, Ou J, Aufreiter S, et al. Products of the colonic microbiota mediate the effects of diet on colon cancer risk. J Nutr. 2009;139:2044–48.

25    Bazzano LA, Thompson AM, Tees MT, et al. Non-soy legume consumption lowers cholesterol levels: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2011;21:94–103.

26    Powolny A, Singh S. Multitargeted prevention and therapy of cancer by diallyl trisulfide and related Allium vegetable-derived organosulfur compounds. Cancer Lett. 2008;269:305–14; Ginter E, Simko V. Garlic (Allium sativum L.) and cardiovascular diseases. Bratisl Lek Listy. 2010;111:452–56; Taj Eldin IM, Ahmed EM, Elwahab HMA. Preliminary study of the clinical hypoglycemic effects of Allium cepa (red onion) in type 1 and type 2 diabetic patients. Environ Health Insights. 2010;4:71–77; Galeone C, Pelucchi C, Levi F, et al. Onion and garlic use and human cancer. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;84:1027–32; Zhou Y, Zhuang W, Hu W, et al. Consumption of large amounts of Allium vegetables reduces risk for gastric cancer in a meta-analysis. Gastroenterology. 2011;141:80–89.

27    Cao QZ, Lin ZB. Antitumor and anti-angiogenic activity of Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides peptide. Acta Pharmacol Sin. 2004;25:833–38.

28    Borchers AT, Krishnamurthy A, Keen CL, et al. The immunobiology of mushrooms. Exp Biol Med. 2008;233:259–76; Yu L, Fernig DG, Smith JA, et al. Reversible inhibition of proliferation of epithelial cell lines by Agaricus bisporus (edible mushroom) lectin. Cancer Res. 1993;53:4627–32; Carrizo ME, Capaldi S, Perduca M, et al. The antineoplastic lectin of the common edible mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) has two binding sites, each specific for a different configuration at a single epimeric hydroxyl. J Biol Chem. 2005;280:10614–23; Fang N, Li Q, Yu S, et al. Inhibition of growth and induction of apoptosis in human cancer cell lines by an ethyl acetate fraction from shiitake mushrooms. J Altern Complement Med. 2006;12:125–32; Ng ML, Yap AT. Inhibition of human colon carcinoma development by lentinan from shiitake mushrooms (Lentinus edodes). J Altern Complement Med. 2002;8:581–89; Adams LS, Phung S, Wu X, et al. White button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) exhibits antiproliferative and proapoptotic properties and inhibits prostate tumor growth in athymic mice. Nutr Cancer. 2008;60:744–56; Lakshmi B, Ajith TA, Sheena N, et al. Antiperoxidative, anti-inflammatory, and antimutagenic activities of ethanol extract of the mycelium of Ganoderma lucidum occurring in South India. Teratog Carcinog Mutagen. 2003;Suppl 1:85–97; Lin ZB, Zhang HN. Anti-tumor and immunoregulatory activities of Ganoderma lucidum and its possible mechanisms. Acta Pharmacol Sin. 2004;25:1387–95; Patel S, Goyal A. Recent developments in mushrooms as anti-cancer therapeutics: a review. 3 Biotech. 2012;2:1–15.

29    Grube BJ, Eng ET, Kao YC, et al. White button mushroom phytochemicals inhibit aromatase activity and breast cancer cell proliferation. J Nutr. 2001;131:3288–93; Chen S, Oh SR, Phung S, et al. Anti-aromatase activity of phytochemicals in white button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus). Cancer Res. 2006;66(24):12026–34.

30    Zhang M, Huang J, Xie X, Holman CD, et al. Dietary intakes of mushrooms and green tea combine to reduce the risk of breast cancer in Chinese women. Int J Cancer. 2009;124:1404–8.

31    Schulzova V, Hajslova J, Peroutka R, et al. Influence of storage and household processing on the agaritine content of the cultivated Agaricus mushroom. Food Addit Contam. 2002;19:853–62.

32    Higdon J, Drake VJ. Flavonoids. In: An Evidence-Based Approach to Dietary Phytochemicals and Other Dietary Factors. 2d ed. New York: Thieme, 2012:83–108; Erdman JW, Jr., Balentine D, Arab L, et al. Flavonoids and heart health: proceedings of the ILSI North America Flavonoids Workshop, 31 May–1 June 2005, Washington, DC. J Nutr. 2007;137:718S–37S.

33    Bazzano LA, Li TY, Joshipura KJ, et al. Intake of fruit, vegetables, and fruit juices and risk of diabetes in women. Diabetes Care. 2008;31:1311–17; Cassidy A, O’Reilly EJ, Kay C, et al. Habitual intake of flavonoid subclasses and incident hypertension in adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;93:338–47; Hannum SM. Potential impact of strawberries on human health: a review of the science. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2004;44:1–17; Joseph JA, Shukitt-Hale B, Willis LM. Grape juice, berries, and walnuts affect brain aging and behavior. J Nutr. 2009;139:1813S–17S; Roy S, Khanna S, Alessio HM, et al. Anti-angiogenic property of edible berries. Free Radic Res. 2002;36:1023–31; Stoner GD, Wang LS, Casto BC. Laboratory and clinical studies of cancer chemoprevention by antioxidants in berries. Carcinogenesis. 2008;29:1665–74; Bickford PC, Shukitt-Hale B, Joseph J. Effects of aging on cerebellar noradrenergic function and motor learning: nutritional interventions. Mech Ageing Dev. 1999;111:141–54; Krikorian R, Shidler MD, Nash TA, et al. Blueberry supplementation improves memory in older adults. J Agric Food Chem. 2010;58:3996–4000.

34    Huxley RR, Neil HA. The relation between dietary flavonol intake and coronary heart disease mortality: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2003;57:904–8; Knekt P, Kumpulainen J, Jarvinen R, et al. Flavonoid intake and risk of chronic diseases. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76:560–68; Mursu J, Voutilainen S, Nurmi T, et al. Flavonoid intake and the risk of ischaemic stroke and CVD mortality in middle-aged Finnish men: the Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor study. Br J Nutr. 2008;100:890–95; Mink PJ, Scrafford CG, Barraj LM, et al. Flavonoid intake and cardiovascular disease mortality: a prospective study in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85:895–909.

35    Erdman JW, Jr., Balentine D, Arab L, et al. Flavonoids and heart health: proceedings of the ILSI North America Flavonoids Workshop, 31 May–1 June 2005, Washington, DC. J Nutr. 2007;137:718S–37S; Martin KR, Bopp J, Burrell L, et al. The effect of 100% tart cherry juice on serum uric acid levels, biomarkers of inflammation and cardiovascular disease risk factors. In: Experimental Biology 2011. Washington, DC: Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, 2011; Kelley DS, Rasooly R, Jacob RA, et al. Consumption of Bing sweet cherries lowers circulating concentrations of inflammation markers in healthy men and women. J Nutr. 2006;136:981–86; Aviram M, Dornfeld L. Pomegranate juice consumption inhibits serum angiotensin converting enzyme activity and reduces systolic blood pressure. Atherosclerosis. 2001;158:195–98; Aviram M, Dornfeld L, Rosenblat M, et al. Pomegranate juice consumption reduces oxidative stress, atherogenic modifications to LDL, and platelet aggregation: studies in humans and in atherosclerotic apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71:1062–76; Aviram M, Rosenblat M, Gaitini D, et al. Pomegranate juice consumption for 3 years by patients with carotid artery stenosis reduces common carotid intima-media thickness, blood pressure and LDL oxidation. Clin Nutr. 2004;23:423–33; Aviram M, Volkova N, Coleman R, et al. Pomegranate phenolics from the peels, arils, and flowers are antiatherogenic: studies in vivo in atherosclerotic apolipoprotein e-deficient (E 0) mice and in vitro in cultured macrophages and lipoproteins. J Agric Food Chem. 2008;56:1148–57.

36    Smart RC, Huang MT, Chang RL, et al. Disposition of the naturally occurring antimutagenic plant phenol, ellagic acid, and its synthetic derivatives, 3-O-decylellagic acid and 3,3’-di-O-methylellagic acid in mice. Carcinogenesis. 1986;7:1663–67; Smart RC, Huang MT, Chang RL, et al. Effect of ellagic acid and 3-O-decylellagic acid on the formation of benzo[a]-pyrenederived DNA adducts in vivo and on the tumorigenicity of 3-methylcholanthrene in mice. Carcinogenesis. 1986;7:1669–75.

37    Stoner GD, Wang LS, Casto BC. Laboratory and clinical studies of cancer chemoprevention by antioxidants in berries. Carcinogenesis. 2008;29:1665–74.

38    Shukitt-Hale B. Blueberries and neuronal aging. Gerontology. 2012;58:518–23.

39    Krikorian R, Shidler MD, Nash TA, et al. Blueberry supplementation improves memory in older adults. J Agric Food Chem. 2010;58:3996–4000.

40    Brown MJ, Ferruzzi MG, Nguyen ML, et al. Carotenoid bioavailability is higher from salads ingested with full-fat than with fat-reduced salad dressings as measured with electrochemical detection. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;80:396–403.

41    Nash SD, Nash DT. Nuts as part of a healthy cardiovascular diet. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2008;10:529–35; Sabate J, Ang Y. Nuts and health outcomes: new epidemiologic evidence. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;89:1643S–48S; Mattes RD, Dreher ML. Nuts and healthy body weight maintenance mechanisms. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2010;19:137–41; Kendall CW, Josse AR, Esfahani A, et al. Nuts, metabolic syndrome and diabetes. Br J Nutr. 2010;104:465–73.

42    Saarinen NM, Warri A, Airio M, et al. Role of dietary lignans in the reduction of breast cancer risk. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2007;51:857–66; Coulman KD, Liu Z, Hum WQ, et al. Whole sesame seed is as rich a source of mammalian lignan precursors as whole flaxseed. Nutr Cancer. 2005;52:156–65.

43    Higdon J. Lignans. In: An Evidence-Based Approach to Dietary Phytochemicals, 2nd ed. New York: Thieme, 2006:155–61; Milder IE, Arts IC, van de Putte B, et al. Lignan contents of Dutch plant foods: a database including lariciresinol, pinoresinol, secoisolariciresinol and matairesinol. Br J Nutr. 2005;93:393–402; Coulman KD, Liu Z, Hum WQ, et al. Whole sesame seed is as rich a source of mammalian lignan precursors as whole flaxseed. Nutr Cancer. 2005;52:156–65.

44    Higdon J. Lignans. In: An Evidence-Based Approach to Dietary Phytochemicals, 2nd ed. New York: Thieme, 2006:155–61; Adlercreutz H. Lignans and human health. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci. 2007;44:483–525.

45    Adlercreutz H, Bannwart C, Wahala K, et al. Inhibition of human aromatase by mammalian lignans and isoflavonoid phytoestrogens. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1993;44:147–53; Brooks JD, Thompson LU. Mammalian lignans and genistein decrease the activities of aromatase and 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in MCF-7 cells. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2005;94:461–67.

46    Adlercreutz H, Hockerstedt K, Bannwart C, et al. Effect of dietary components, including lignans and phytoestrogens, on enterohepatic circulation and liver metabolism of estrogens and on sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG). J Steroid Biochem. 1987;27:1135–44; Low YL, Dunning AM, Dowsett M, et al. Phytoestrogen exposure is associated with circulating sex hormone levels in postmenopausal women and interact with ESR1 and NR1I2 gene variants. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2007;16:1009–16.

47    Sturgeon SR, Heersink JL, Volpe SL, et al. Effect of dietary flaxseed on serum levels of estrogens and androgens in postmenopausal women. Nutr Cancer. 2008;60:612–18.

48    Thompson LU, Chen JM, Li T, et al. Dietary flaxseed alters tumor biological markers in postmenopausal breast cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2005;11:3828–35.

49    Buck K, Vrieling A, Zaineddin AK, et al. Serum enterolactone and prognosis of postmenopausal breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2011;29:3730–38; Buck K, Zaineddin AK, Vrieling A, et al. Estimated enterolignans, lignan-rich foods, and fibre in relation to survival after postmenopausal breast cancer. Br J Cancer. 2011;105:1151–57.

50    McCann SE, Thompson LU, Nie J, et al. Dietary lignan intakes in relation to survival among women with breast cancer: the Western New York Exposures and Breast Cancer (WEB) study. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2010;122:229–35.

51    Shardell MD, Alley DE, Hicks GE, et al. Low-serum carotenoid concentrations and carotenoid interactions predict mortality in US adults: the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Nutr Res. 2011;31:178–89.

52    Krinsky NI, Johnson EJ. Carotenoid actions and their relation to health and disease. Mol Aspects Med. 2005;26:459–516.

53    Van Breemen RB, Pajkovic N. Multitargeted therapy of cancer by lycopene. Cancer Lett. 2008;269:339–51; Rizwan M, Rodriguez-Blanco I, Harbottle A, et al. Tomato paste rich in lycopene protects against cutaneous photodamage in humans in vivo. Br J Dermatol. 2011;164(1):154–62; Petyaev IM. Lycopene deficiency in ageing and cardiovascular disease. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2016;2016:3218605.

54    Rissanen TH, Voutilainen S, Nyyssonen K, et al. Low serum lycopene concentration is associated with an excess incidence of acute coronary events and stroke: the Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor study. Br J Nutr. 2001;85:749–54; Rissanen T, Voutilainen S, Nyyssonen K, et al. Lycopene, atherosclerosis, and coronary heart disease. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2002;227:900–907; Rissanen TH, Voutilainen S, Nyyssonen K, et al. Serum lycopene concentrations and carotid atherosclerosis: the Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;77:133–38.

55    Sesso HD, Buring JE, Norkus EP, et al. Plasma lycopene, other carotenoids, and retinol and the risk of cardiovascular disease in women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;79:47–53.

56    Hak AE, Ma J, Powell CB, et al. Prospective study of plasma carotenoids and tocopherols in relation to risk of ischemic stroke. Stroke. 2004;35:1584–88.

57    Canene-Adams K, Campbell JK, Zaripheh S, et al. The tomato as a functional food. J Nutr. 2005;135:1226–30.

58    Van het Hof KH, de Boer BC, Tijburg LB, et al. Carotenoid bioavailability in humans from tomatoes processed in different ways determined from the carotenoid response in the triglyceride-rich lipoprotein fraction of plasma after a single consumption and in plasma after four days of consumption. J Nutr 2000;130:1189–96; US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, USDA Food Composition Databases. http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list.

59    American Cancer Society, Global Cancer Facts & Figures, 2nd ed. Atlanta: American Cancer Society, 2011. http://www.cancer.org/acs/groups/content/@epidemiologysurveilance/documents/document/acspc-027766.pdf.

60    Kantor ED, Udumyan R, Signorello LB, et al. Adolescent body mass index and erythrocyte sedimentation rate in relation to colorectal cancer risk. Gut. 2016;65:1289–95; Pulgaron ER. Childhood obesity: a review of increased risk for physical and psychological comorbidities. Clin Ther. 2013;35:A18–32.

61    Steingraber S. The falling age of puberty in U.S. girls: what we know, what we need to know. Breast Cancer Fund: 2007; McDowell MA, Brody DJ, Hughes JP. Has age at menarche changed? Results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 1999–2004. J Adolesc Health. 2007;40:227–31; Anderson SE, Must A. Interpreting the continued decline in the average age at menarche: results from two nationally representative surveys of U.S. girls studied 10 years apart. J Pediatr. 2005;147:753–60.

62    Vandeloo MJ, Bruckers LM, Janssens JP. Effects of lifestyle on the onset of puberty as determinant for breast cancer. Eur J Cancer Prev. 2007;16:17–25; Leung AW, Mak J, Cheung PS, et al. Evidence for a programming effect of early menarche on the rise of breast cancer incidence in Hong Kong. Cancer Detect Prev. 2008;32:156–61; Pike MC, Pearce CL, Wu AH. Prevention of cancers of the breast, endometrium and ovary. Oncogene. 2004;23:6379–91.

63    Baanders AN, de Waard EL. Breast cancer in Europe and factors operating at an early age. Eur J Cancer Prev. 1993;2:1–89.

64    Berkey CS, Gardner JD, Frazier AL, Colditz GA. Relation of childhood diet and body size to menarche and adolescent growth in girls. Am J Epidemiol. 2000;152:446–52.

65    Rogers IS, Northstone K, Dunger DB, et al. Diet throughout childhood and age at menarche in a contemporary cohort of British girls. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13(12):2052–63; Berkey CS, Gardner JD, Frazier AL, Colditz GA. Relation of childhood diet and body size to menarche and adolescent growth in girls. Am J Epidemiol. 2000;152:446–52; Wiley AS. Milk intake and total dairy consumption: associations with early menarche in NHANES 1999–2004. PloS One 2011;6:e14685.

66    Dorgan JF, Hunsberger SA, McMahon RP, et al. Diet and sex hormones in girls: findings from a randomized controlled clinical trial. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2003;95(2):132–41.

67    Wolfswinkel EM, Lemaine V, Weathers WM, et al. Hyperplastic breast anomalies in the female adolescent breast. Semin Plast Surg. 2013;27(1):49–55.

68    Cho E, Spiegelman D, Hunter DJ, et al. Premenopausal fat intake and risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2003;95(14):1079–85.

69    Sutcliffe S, Colditz GA. Prostate cancer: is it time to expand the research focus to early-life exposures? Nat Rev Cancer 2013;13:208–518.

70    Liu RH. Potential synergy of phytochemicals in cancer prevention: mechanism of action. J Nutr. 2004;134(12 suppl):3479S–85S; Weiss JF, Landauer MR. Protection against ionizing radiation by antioxidant nutrients and phytochemicals. Toxicology. 2003;189 (1–2):1–20; Carratu B, Sanzini E. [Biologically-active phytochemicals in vegetable food.] Ann 1st Super Sanita. 2005;41(1):7–16; Liu RH. Health benefits of fruit and vegetables are from additive and synergistic combinations of phytochemicals. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;78:517S–520S; Davinelli S, Maes M, Corbi G, et al. Dietary phytochemicals and neuro-inflammaging: from mechanistic insights to translational challenges. Immun Ageing 2016;13:16; Banudevi S, Swaminathan S, Maheswari KU. Pleiotropic role of dietary phytochemicals in cancer: emerging perspectives for combinational therapy. Nutr Cancer 2015;67:1021–48.

71    Hanau C, Morre DJ, Morre DM. Cancer prevention trial of a synergistic mixture of green tea concentrate plus Capsicum (CAPSOL-T) in a random population of subjects ages 40–84. Clin Proteomics. 2014;11:2.

72    https://lifestylemedicine.org/What-is-Lifestyle-Medicine.

CHAPTER FOUR: THE LESSONS OF HISTORY

 1    Stewart DO: Impeached: The Trial of President Andrew Johnson and the Fight for Lincoln’s Legacy: Simon & Schuster; 2009. https://books.google.com/books?id=DHdhbBfNnlgC&dq=%22Freedmen%27s+bureau%22+and+murders+and+texas+and+1865&q=44+murders#v=onepage&q=44%20murders&f=false.

 2    Hegyl J, Schwartz RA, Hegyl V. Pellagra: dermatitis, dementia, and diarrhea. Int J Dermatol. 2004;43(1):1–5.

 3    Savitt TL. Medicine and Slavery: The Diseases and Health Care of Blacks in Antebellum Virginia. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978, 201.

 4    Chambers DB. Murder at Montpelier: Igbo Africans in Virginia. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2009.

 5    Covey HC, Eisnach D. What the Slaves Ate: Recollections of African American Foods and Foodways from the Slave Narratives. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO/Greenwood, 2009, 29.

 6    Washington BT. Frederick Douglass. G. W. Jacobs, 1907, 252.

 7    National Assessment of Adult Literacy. 120 years of Literary, Literacy from 1870 to 1979. National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/naal/lit_history.asp.

 8    Baker RS: Following the Color Line: An Account of Negro Citizenship in the American Democracy: Doubleday, 1908, 53.

 9    Baker RS: Following the Color Line: An Account of Negro Citizenship in the American Democracy: Doubleday, 1908, 248.

10    Washington BT: The Negro Problem: A Series of Articles by Representative American Negroes of Today: James Pott; 1903, 10. (Contains republished article “Industrial education for the Negro”).

11    Washington BT. Frederick Douglass. G. W. Jacobs, 1907.

12    Litwack LF: Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group; 1999. Page xiii.

13    Du Bois WEB: The Negro: Cosimo, Incorporated; 2007, 130.

14    Baker RS. Following the Color Line: An Account of Negro Citizenship in the American Democracy. New York: Doubleday, 1908, 247.

15    King ML, “Address at Conclusion of the Selma to Montgomery March” in Carson C, Shepard K, Young A: A Call to Conscience: The Landmark Speeches of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr: Grand Central Publishing; 2001.

16    Frankenburg, FR. Vitamin Discoveries and Disasters: History, Science & Controversies. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger/ABC-CLIO; The pellagra epidemic of the southern United States in the early 20th century. ActForLibraries.org. 2017. http://www.actforlibraries.org/the-pellagra-epidemic-of-the-southern-united-states-in-the-early-20th-century.

17    Harris HF. Pellagra. New York: Macmillan, 1919, 255.

18    Wheeler G. A note on the history of pellagra in the United States. Public Health Rep. 1931;46(6):2223.

19    National Association for the Study of Pellagra. Transactions of the National Association for the Study of Pellagra. R. L. Bryan: 1914, 391–92.

20    Ibid., 254.

21    Yarbrough JF. Pellagra: its etiology, symptomalogy, and treatment. Medical Record. 1917; 92:893.

22    DeWall CN, Deckman T, Gailliot MT, et al. Sweetened blood cools hot tempers: physiological self-control and aggression. Aggress Behav. 2011;37(1):73–80.

23    Lytle LD, Messing RB, Fisher L, et al. Effects of long-term corn consumption on brain serotonin and the response to electric shock. Science. 1975;190(4215):692–94.

24    Patrick RP, Ames BN. Vitamin D and the omega-3 fatty acids control serotonin synthesis and action, part 2: relevance for ADHD, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and impulsive behavior. FASEB J. 2015;29(6):2207–22.

25    Birger M, Swartz M, Cohen D, et al. Aggression: the testosterone-serotonin link. Isr Med Assoc. 2003;5(9):653–58.

26    Wheeler G. A note on the history of pellagra in the United States. Public Health Rep. 1931(46):6.

27    Goldberger quoted in Etheridge EW. The Butterfly Caste: A Social History of Pellagra in the South. Greenwood, 1972, 77.

28    “South Resents Federal Alarm over Pellagra,” New York Times, 27 July 1921.

29    Etheridge, EW. The Butterfly Caste.

30    New York Department of Mental Hygiene. The Psychiatric Quarterly: Supplement. State Hospitals Press, 1964, 207.

31    Kemble F. Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839. New York: Knopf, 1961; Cash WJ. The Mind of the South. New York: Knopf, 1941, 204.

32    Davenport CB. The hereditary factor in pellagra. Arch Intern Med. 1916;18(1):4–31.

33    Spencer HG, Paul DB. The failure of a scientific critique: David Heron, Karl Pearson and Mendelian eugenics. Br J Hist Sci. 1998;31(4):441–52.

34    Popenoe P, Johnson RH. Applied Eugenics. New York: Macmillan, 1918, 184.

35    Grant, M. The Passing of the Great Race: Or, the Racial Basis of European History. 4th rev ed. New York: Scribner’s, 1922, 50–51.

36    Laughlin, HH, Deposition in Circuit Court Proceedings-Buck v. Bell 274 U.S. 200. Paragraph II.

37    Buck v. Bell, 274 U.S. 200 (May 7, 1927). Page 207. Opinion written by Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.

38    Kuhl S: The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism: Oxford University Press; 2002, 58.

39    Kuhl S: The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism: Oxford University Press; 2002. Page 37.

40    Proctor RN. Why did the Nazis have the world’s most aggressive anti-cancer campaign? Endeavour. 1999;23(2):76–79.

41    Basil H. Preventive nutrition in Nazi Germany: a public health commentary. Online Journal of Health Ethics. 2013;9(1):10.

42    Shiva quoted in Pollan M. What’s eating America. Smithsonian. July 2006. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/presence-jul06.html?c=y&story=fullstory.

43    Stark KD, Van Elswyk ME, Higgins MR, et al. Global survey of the omega-3 fatty acids, docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid in the blood stream of healthy adults. Prog Lipid Res. 2016;63:132–52.

44    Daniel CR, Cross AJ, Koebnick C, Sinha R. Trends in meat consumption in the United States. Public Health Nutr. 2011;14(4):575–583.

45    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Long-Term Trends in Diabetes, April 2016.

46    World Health Organization. Lead poisoning and health. Fact sheet. Reviewed September 2016 http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs379/en/.

47    Nevin R. How lead exposure relates to temporal changes in IQ, violent crime, and unwed pregnancy. Environ Res. 2000;83(10):1–22.

48    Shy CM. Lead in petrol: the mistake of the XXth century. World Health Stat Q. 1989;43(3): 168–76.

49    Page IH, Allen EV, Chamberlain FL, et al. Dietary fat and its relation to heart attacks and strokes. Circulation. 1961;23(1):133–36.

50    Blasbalg TL, Hibbeln JR, Ramsden CE, et al. Changes in consumption of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in the United States during the 20th century. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;93(5):950–62.

51    Hibbeln JR, Nieminen LR, Lands WE. Increasing homicide rates and linoleic acid consumption among five Western countries, 1961–2000. Lipids. 2004;39(12):1207–13.

52    Iribarren C, Markovitz JH, Jacobs DR, Jr., et al. Dietary intake of N-3, N-6 fatty acids and fish: relationship with hostility in young adults—the CARDIA study. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2004;58(1):24–31.

53    Hibbeln JR. Seafood consumption and homicide mortality. In: Fatty Acids and Lipids—New Findings. Vol. 88. Basel: Karger, 2001, 41–46.

CHAPTER FIVE: DNA, SOCIAL ENERGY, AND FAST FOOD

 1    Bygren LO, Kaati G, Edvinsson S. Longevity determined by paternal ancestors’ nutrition during their slow growth period. Acta Biotheoretica. 2001;49(1):53–59.

 2    O’Donoghue M, Boutin S, Krebs CJ, et al. Functional responses of coyotes and lynx to the snowshoe hare cycle. Ecology. 1998;79(4):1193–208.

 3    Closs G, Watterson G, Donnelly P. Constant predator-prey ratios: an arithmetical artifact? Ecology. 1993;74(1):238–43.

 4    Holzenberger M, Dupont J, Ducos B, et al. Igf-1 receptor regulates lifespan and resistance to oxidative stress in mice. Nature. 2003;421(6919):182–87. Altintas O, Park S, V. Lee S. The role of insulin/IGF-1 signaling in the longevity of model invertebrates, C. elegans and D. melanogaster. BMP Rep.2016;49(2):81–92.

 5    Goldstein MS. Human paleopathology. J Natl Med Assoc. 1963;55(2):100–106.

 6    Levine ME, Suarez JA, Brandhorst S, et al. Low protein intake is associated with a major reduction in IGF-1, cancer, and overall mortality in the 65 and younger but not older population. Cell Metab. 2014;19(3):407–17.

 7    Fraser GE, Shavlik DJ. Ten years of life: is it a matter of choice? Arch Intern Med. 2001;161:1645–52; Song M, Fung TT, Hu FB, et al. Association of animal and plant protein intake with all-cause and cause-specific mortality. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176(10):1453–63; Pan A, Sun Q, Bernstein AM, et al. Red meat consumption and mortality: results from 2 prospective cohort studies. Arch Intern Med. 2012;172(7):555–63; Sinha R, Cross AJ, Graubard BI, et al. Meat intake and mortality: a prospective study of over half a million people. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169:562–71; Rohrmann S, Overvad K, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, et al. Meat consumption and mortality: results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. BMC Med. 2013;11:63.

 8    Zhang N. Epigenetic modulation of DNA methylation by nutrition and its mechanisms in animals. ScienceDirect. 2015;1(3):144–51; Bishop KS, Ferguson LR. The interaction between epigenetics, nutrition and the development of cancer. Nutrients. 2015;7(2):922–47.

 9    Cacioppo S, Cacioppo JT. Decoding the invisible forces of social connections. Front Integr Neurosci. 2012;6:51.

10    Arce M, Michopoulos V, Shepard KN, et al. Diet choice, cortisol reactivity, and emotional feeding in socially housed rhesus monkeys. Physiol Behav. 2010;101(4):446–55.

11    Tung J, Barreiro LB, Johnson ZP, et al. Social environment is associated with gene regulatory variation in the rhesus macaque immune system. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2012;109(17):6490–95.

12    Holt-Lunstad J, Smith TB, Layton JB. Social relationships and mortality risk: a meta-analytic review. PLoS Med. 2010;7(7):e1000316.

13    Giles LC, Glonek GFV, Luszcz MA, Andrews GR. Effect of social networks on 10 year survival in very old Australians: the Australian longitudinal study of aging. J Epidemiol Commun Health 2005;59:574–79.

14    Holt-Lunstad J, Smith TB, Layton JB. Social relationships and mortality risk: a meta-analytic review. PLoS Med. 2010;7(7):e1000316.

15    Murphy ML, Slavich GM, Rohleder N, et al. Targeted rejection triggers differential pro-and anti-inflammatory gene expression in adolescents as a function of social status. Clin Psychol Sci. 2013;1(1):30–40.

16    Gibson EL. Emotional influences on food choice: sensory, physiological and psychological pathways. Physiol Behav. 2006;89(1):53–61.

17    Fontana L. The scientific basis of caloric restriction leading to longer life. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2009;25:144–50; Canto C, Auwerx J. Caloric restriction, SIRT1 and longevity. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2009;20:325–31.

18    Anton S. Leeuwenburgh C. Fasting or caloric restriction for healthy aging. Exp Gerontol. 2013;48(10):1003–5; Longo VD, Mattson MP. Fasting: molecular mechanisms and clinical applications. Cell Metab. 2014;19:181–92; Fontana L. The scientific basis of caloric restriction leading to longer life. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2009;25:144–50.

19    Slavich GM, Cole SW. The emerging field of human social genomics. Clin Psychol Sci. 2013;1(3):331–48.

20    Turrell G, Hewitt B, Patterson C, et al. Socioeconomic differences in food purchasing behaviour and suggested implications for diet-related health promotion. J Hum Nutr Dietetics. 2002;15(5):355–64.

21    Hosking DE, Nettelbeck T, Wilson C, Danthiir V. Retrospective lifetime dietary patterns predict cognitive performance in community-dwelling older Australians. Br J Nutr. 2014;112:228–37; Jones DE, Greenberg M, Crowley M. Early social-emotional functioning and public health: the relationship between kindergarten social competence and future wellness. Am J Public Health. 2015;105:2283–90.

22    Kandel ER. A new intellectual framework for psychiatry. Am J Psychiatry. 1998;155(4):457–69, see p. 461.

23    Kuhn TS, Hacking I. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. 50th anniversary ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012.

24    Cited in ibid.

25    Van den Bree MB, Przybeck TR, Cloninger CR. Diet and personality: associations in a population-based sample. Appetite. 2006;46(2):177–88.

26    Levinson CA, Rodebaugh TL. Social anxiety and eating disorder comorbidity: The role of negative social evaluation fears. Eat Behav 2012;13(1):27–35.

27    Padilla A, Hogan R, Kaiser RB. The toxic triangle: destructive leaders, susceptible followers, and conducive environments. Leadership Quarterly. 2007;18(3):176–94.

28    Nansel TR, Overpeck M, Pilla RS, et al. Bullying behaviors among US youth: prevalence and association with psychosocial adjustment. JAMA. 2001;285(16):2094–100.

29    Faris R, Felmlee D. Status struggles: network centrality and gender segregation in same- and cross-gender aggression. Am Soc Rev. 2011;76(1):48–73.

30    Warden D, Mackinnon S. Prosocial children, bullies and victims: an investigation of their sociometric status, empathy and social problem-solving strategies. Br J Dev Psychol. 2003;21(3):367–85.

31    Zahedi H, Kelishadi R, Heshmat R, et al. Association between junk food consumption and mental health in a national sample of Iranian children and adolescents: The Caspian-IV study. Nutrition. 2014;30(11–12):1391–97.

32    Fleming LC, Jacobsen KH. Bullying among middle-school students in low and middle income countries. Health Promot Int. 2009;25(1):73–84.

33    United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Intentional Homicide Count and Rate Per 100,000 Population, by Country/Territory (2000–2012). 2012. https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/statistics/GSH2013/2014_GLOBAL_HOMICIDE_BOOK_web.pdf

34    World Infozone. Tajikistan Information. http://worldinfozone.com/countryphp?country=Tajikistan.

35    FAO. Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department, Nutrition and Consumer Protection. Nutrition country profiles, Republic of Zambia. http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/nutrition/Zmb_en.stm.

36    Bee HL, Van Egeren LF, Pytkowicz Streissguth A, et al. Social class differences in maternal teaching strategies and speech patterns. Dev Psychol. 1969;1(6p1):726.

37    Neumark-Sztainer D, Wall M, Fulkerson JA, et al. Changes in the frequency of family meals from 1999 to 2010 in the homes of adolescents: trends by sociodemographic characteristics. Journal Adolescent Health. 2013;52(2):201–6.

38    Hammons AJ, Fiese BH. Is frequency of shared family meals related to the nutritional health of children and adolescents? Pediatrics. 2011;127(6):e1565–74.

39    Hunt G, Fazio A, MacKenzie K, et al. Food in the family: bringing young people back in. Appetite. 2011;56(2):394–402.

40    Muñiz EI, Silver EJ, Stein R. Family Routines and Social-Emotional School Readiness Among Preschool-Age Children. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 2014; 35 (2): 93.

41    Walker?Barnes CJ, Mason CA. Ethnic differences in the effect of parenting on gang involvement and gang delinquency: a longitudinal, hierarchical linear modeling perspective. Child Dev. 2001;72(6):1814–31.

42    Conklin AI, Forouhi NG, Surtees P, et al. Social relationships and healthful dietary behaviour: evidence from over-50s in the EPIC cohort, UK. Social Sci Med. 2014;100:167–75.

43    Cacioppo JT, Hawkley LC. Perceived social isolation and cognition. Trends Cog Sci. 2009;13(10):447–54.

44    Cortright J. City Report: Less in common. June 2015. http://cityobservatory.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/CityObservatory_Less_In_Common.pdf.

45    Rosenwald MS. “Can Gardening Transform Convicted Killers and Carjackers? Prison Officials Get Behind the Bloom.” Washington Post, 7 June 2015.

46    Gesch CB. Influence of supplementary vitamins, minerals and essential fatty acids on the antisocial behaviour of young adult prisoners: randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Br J Psychiatry. 2002;181(1):22–28.

47    Zaalberg A, Nijman H, Bulten E, et al. Effects of nutritional supplements on aggression, rule-breaking, and psychopathology among young adult prisoners. Aggress Behav. 2010;36(2):117–26.

48    Frazee-Walker D. Vegan diet impacts recidivism. Zoukis Prisoner Resources. 20 May 2013. http://www.prisonlawblog.com/blog/vegan-diet-impacts-recidivism.

49    Nelson L, Lind D. The school to prison pipeline, explained. Justice Policy Institute.24 February 2015. http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775.

50    Keeley J, Fields M. Case study: Appleton Central alternative charter high school’s nutrition and wellness program. December 2004. http://www.sustainlv.org/wp-content/uploads/Appleton-school-food-study.pdf.

51    Ibid.

52    Boone-Heinonen J, Gordon-Larsen P, Kiefe CI, et al. Fast food restaurants and food stores: longitudinal associations with diet in young to middle-aged adults. The Cardia study. Arch Intern Med. 2011;171(13):1162–70.

CHAPTER SIX: MAKING DESERTS GREEN AGAIN

 1    The State of Obesity. Food insecure children. http://stateofobesity.org/food-insecurity/.

 2    Schmitz N, Nitka D, Gariepy G, et al. Association between neighborhood-level deprivation and disability in a community sample of people with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2009;32(11):1998–2004.

 3    Brownlee S, Ohri-Vachaspati P, Lloyd K, et al. New Jersey Childhood Obesity Survey. Chartbook/Camden. Rutgers University Center for State Health Policy, 2010. http://www.cshp.rutgers.edu/downloads/8640.pdf.

 4    The State of Obesity. Food insecure children. http://stateofobesity.org/food-insecurity/.

 5    Mari Gallagher Research and Consulting Group. Examining the impact of food deserts on public health in Chicago. 2006:6–7. http://www.marigallagher.com/site_media/dynamic/project_files/Chicago_Food_Desert_Report.pdf.

 6    Gardner JW, Sanborn JS. Years of potential life lost (YPLL)—what does it measure? Epidemiology. 1990;1(4):322–29.

 7    Drewnowski A, Darmon N. Food choices and diet costs: an economic analysis. J Nutr. 2005;135(4):900–904.

 8    Semuels A. A potato-chip-shaped hole in ex-Detroiters’ hearts. LA Times Oct 5 2014. http://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-better-made-chips-20141005-story.html.

 9    Lane SD, Keefe RH, Rubinstein R, et al. Structural violence, urban retail food markets, and low birth weight. Health & Place. 2008;14(3):415–23.

10    Levine TA, Grunau RE, McAuliffe FM, et al. Early childhood neurodevelopment after intrauterine growth restriction: a systematic review. Pediatrics. 2015;135(1):126–41.

11    Geva R, Eshel R, Leitner Y, Valevski AF, Harel S. Neuropsychological outcome of children with intrauterine growth restriction: a 9-year prospective study. Pediatrics 2006;118(1): 91–100. doi:10.1542/peds.2005–2343; Poehlmann J, Schwichtenberg AJ, Shlafer RJ, et al. Emerging self-regulation in toddlers born preterm or low birth weight: differential susceptibility to parenting? Dev Psychopathol. 2011;23(1):177–93.

12    Rao S, Yajnik CS, Kanade A, et al. Intake of micronutrient-rich foods in rural Indian mothers is associated with the size of their babies at birth: Pune Maternal Nutrition Study. J Nutr. 2001;131(4):1217–24.

13    Lozoff B, Beard J, Connor J, et al. Long-lasting neural and behavioral effects of iron deficiency in infancy. Nutr Rev. 2006;64(suppl 2):S34–S43.

14    Andersson M, De Benoist B, Darnton-Hill I, et al. Iodine Deficiency in Europe: A Continuing Public Health Problem. Genva: World Health Organization Geneva, 2007.

15    Delange F. Iodine deficiency as a cause of brain damage. Postgrad Med J. 2001;77(906):217–20.

16    Lee S, Leung A, He X, et al. Iodine content in fast foods: comparison between two fast-food chains in the United States. Endocr Pract. 2010: 16(6):1071–72.

17    NEMO Study Group. Effect of a 12-mo micronutrient intervention on learning and memory in well-nourished and marginally nourished school-aged children: 2 parallel, randomized, placebo-controlled studies in Australia and Indonesia. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86(4):1082–93.

18    Sanger-Katz M. “The Decline in Big Soda.” New York Times, 5 October 2015.

19    Campanile C. “Bloomberg Health Crusade Saved New Yorkers’ Lives.” New York Post, 11 May 2015, http://nypost.com/2015/05/11/new-yorkers-life-spans-improved-during-bloombergs-tenure-study/.

20    As of 2017; see “Food Retail Expansion to Support Health (FRESH).” NYCEDC, Financing and Incentives. https://www.nycedc.com/program/food-retail-expansion-support-health-fresh.

21    Decker H. “America’s Most Obese State Passes ‘Anti-Bloomberg Bill’ to Ban Portion Control.” National Memo, 13 March 2013. http://www.nationalmemo.com/americas-most-obese-state-passes-anti-bloomberg-bill-to-ban-portion-control/.

22    World Health Organization. Global Status Report on Noncommunicable Diseases 2014. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2014. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/148114/1/9789241564854_eng.pdf?ua=1.

23    “‘Lifestyle’ Diseases Linked to Unhealthy Habits Kill Millions of People Prematurely: WHO.” Daily News, Lifestyle. 19 January 2015. http://www.nydailynews.com/life-style/health/lifestyle-diseases-kill-millions-prematurely-article-1.2083946.

24    Ibid.

25    Morland K, Wing S, Diez Roux A. The contextual effect of the local food environment on residents’ diets: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Am J Public Health. 2002;92(11):1761–67.

26    Wrigley N, Warm D, Margetts B, Whelan A. Assessing the impact of improved retail access on diet in a “food desert:” a preliminary report. Urban Studies. 2002;39:2061–82.

27    American Heart Association. Food Access. https://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/Advocate/Voices-for-Healthy-Kids–Food-Access_UCM_460609_SubHomePage.jsp.

28    For more on these efforts, see the Voices for Healthy Kids 2016 progress report, Building a Culture of Health for All Children. http://voicesforhealthykids.org/2016progressreport/.

29    A Review of Food Marketing to Children and Adolescents: Follow-Up Report. Federal Trade Commission, 2012. https://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/documents/reports/review-food-marketing-children-and-adolescents-follow-report/121221foodmarketingreport.pdf.

30    Walsh B. “It’s Not Just Genetics.” Time. June 12, 2008. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1813984,00.html.

31    Stewart H, Hyman J, Carlson A, Frazao E. The cost of satisfying fruit and vegetable recommendations in the dietary guidelines. USDA Economic Research Service. Economic Brief # 27 Feb. 2016.

32    Eckel RH, Jakicic JM, Ard JD, et al. 2013 AHA/ACC guideline on lifestyle management to reduce cardiovascular risk. Circulation. 2014;129(25 Suppl 2):S76–99.

CHAPTER SEVEN: FOOD FOR THE HEART AND SOUL

 1    Halberg O, Johansson O. Cancer trends during the 20th century. J Aust Coll Nutr Environ Med. 2002;21(1):3–8.

 2    Nguyen B, Bauman A, Gale J, et al. Fruit and vegetable consumption and all-cause mortality: evidence from a large Australian cohort study. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2016;13:9; doi:10.1186/s12966–016–0334–5; Link LB, Potter JD. Raw versus cooked vegetables and cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2004;13(9):1422–35; Oyebode O, Gordon-Dseagu V, Walker A, et al. Fruit and vegetable consumption and all-cause, cancer and CVD mortality: analysis of Health Survey for England data. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2014;68(9):856–62; doi:10.1136/jech-2013–203500.

 3    World Cancer Research Fund International. Our cancer prevention recommendations. http://www.wcrf.org/int/research-we-fund/our-cancer-prevention-recommendations.

 4    Orlich MJ, Singh PN, Sabaté J, et al. Vegetarian dietary patterns and mortality in Adventist Health Study 2. AMA Intern Med. 2013;173(13):1230–38; Li D. Effect of the vegetarian diet on non-communicable diseases. J Sci Food Agric. 2014;94(2):169–73.

 5    Hightower JM, Moore D. Mercury levels in high-end consumers of fish. Environ Health Perspect. 2003;111(4):604–8; Mahaffey KR, Clickner RP, Bodurow CC. Blood organic mercury and dietary mercury intake: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999 and 2000. Environ Health Perspect. 112(5):562–70.

 6    Stripp C, Overvad K, Christensen J, et al. Fish intake is positively associated with breast cancer incidence rate. J Nutr. 2003;133(11):3664–69.

 7    Guillén MD, Uriarte PS. Aldehydes contained in edible oils of a very different nature after prolonged heating at frying temperature: presence of toxic oxygenated αβ, unsaturated aldehydes. Food Chem. 2012;131(3):915; doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.09.079; Marnett LJ. Oxy radicals, lipid peroxidation and DNA damage. Toxicology. 2002;181–182:219–22.

 8    Linos E, Willet WC, Cho E, Frazier L. Adolescent diet in relation to breast cancer risk among premenopausal women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2010;19(3):689–96.

 9    Michels KB, Rosner BA, Chumlea WC, et al. Preschool diet and adult risk of breast cancer. Int J Cancer. 2006;118(3):749–54.

10    Alkaabi JM, Al-Dabbagh B, Ahmad S, et al. Glycemic indices of five varieties of dates in healthy and diabetic subjects. Nutr J. 2011;10:59.

CHAPTER NINE: FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

 1    Fortmann SP, Burda BU, Senger CA, et al. Vitamin and mineral supplements in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer: an updated systematic evidence review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2013;159(120):824–34; Grodstein F, O’Brien J, Kang JH, et al. Long-term multivitamin supplementation and cognitive function in men: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2013;159(12):806–14.

 2    Manshadi S, Ishiguro L, Sohn K, et al. Folic Acid Supplementation Promotes Mammary Tumor Progression in a Rat Model. PLoS One. January 21, 2014; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0084635.

 3    Charles D, Ness AR, Campbell D, et al. Taking folate in pregnancy and the risk of maternal breast cancer. BMJ. 2004;329(7479):1375–76.

 4    Larsson SC, Akesson A, Bergkvist L, et al. Multivitamin use and breast cancer incidence in a prospective cohort of Swedish women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91:1268–72.

 5    Stolzenberg-Solomon RZ, Chang SC, Leitzmann MF, et al. Folate intake, alcohol use, and postmenopausal breast cancer risk in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian Cancer Screening trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;83:895–904.

 6    Fife J, Raniga S, Hider PN, et al. Folic acid supplementation and colorectal cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Colorectal Dis. 2011;13(2):132–37; Baggott JE, Oster RA, Tamura T. Meta-analysis of cancer risk in folic acid supplementation trials. Cancer Epidemiol. 2012;36(1):78–81.

 7    Figueiredo JC, Grau MV, Haile RW, et al. Folic acid and risk of prostate cancer: results from a randomized clinical trial. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2009;101:432–35.

 8    Wien TN, Pike E, Wisloff T, et al. Cancer risk with folic acid supplements: a systemic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2012;2(1):e000653; doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2011–000653.

 9    Haberg SE, London SJS, Stigum H, et al. Folic acid supplements in pregnancy and early childhood respiratory health. Arch Dis Child. 2009;94(3):180–84.

10    Raghaven R, Riley A, Caruso DM, et al. Maternal plasma folate, vitamin B12 levels and multivitamin supplement during pregnancy and the risk of autism spectrum disorder in the Boston Birth Cohort. Paper presented at the International Society of Autism Research meeting, Baltimore, 13 May 2016.

11    Pogoda JM, Preston-Martin S, Howe G, et al. An international case-control study of maternal diet during pregnancy and childhood brain tumor risk: a histology-specific analysis by food group. Ann Epidemiol. 2009;19:148–60; Kwan ML, Jensen CD, Block G, et al. Maternal diet and risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Public Health Rep. 2009;124:503–14; Petridou E, Ntouvelis E, Dessypris N, et al. Maternal diet and acute lymphoblastic leukemia in young children. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2005;14:1935–39; Jensen CD, Block G, Buffler P, et al. Maternal dietary risk factors in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (United States). Cancer Causes Control. 2004;15:559–70.

12    Bjelkaovic G, Nikolava D, Gluud LL, et al. Mortality in randomized trials of antioxidant supplements for primary and secondary prevention. JAMA. 2007;297:842–57.

13    Melhus H, Michaelson K, Kindmark A, et al. Excessive dietary intake of vitamin A is associated with reduced bone mineral density and increased risk of hip fracture. Ann Intern Med. 1998;129(10):770–78.

14    Oregon State University, Linus Pauling Institute Micronutrient Information Center. Vitamin A. http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/vitaminA/. Last updated January 2015.

15    Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Gluud LL, et al. Antioxidant supplements for prevention of mortality in healthy participants and patients with various diseases. Cochrane Database Syst Re. 2012;3:CD007176; doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007176.pub2.

16    Barnett JB, Hamer DH, Meydani SN. Low zinc status: a new risk factor for pneumonia in the elderly? Nutr Rev. 2010;68:30–37; Meydani SN, Barnett JB, Dallal GE, et al. Serum zinc and pneumonia in nursing home elderly. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86:1167–73; Prasad AS, Beck FW, Bao B, et al. Zinc supplementation decreases incidence of infections in the elderly: effect of zinc on generation of cytokines and oxidative stress. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85:837–44; Barnett JB, Dao MC, Hamer DH, et al. Effect of zinc supplementation on serum zinc concentration and T cell proliferation in nursing home elderly: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2016;103:942–51.

17    Bolland MJ, Grey A, Avenell A, et al. Calcium supplements with or without vitamin D and risk of cardiovascular events: reanalysis of the Women’s Health Initiative limited access dataset and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2011:342:d2040; Bolland MJ, Avenell A, Baron JA, et al. Effect of calcium supplements on risk of myocardial infarction and cardiovascular events: meta-analysis. BMJ. 2010;341:c3691.

18    Reid IR, Bolland MJ, Grey A. Does calcium supplementation increase cardiovascular risk? Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2010;74(6):689–95.

19    Holick MF. Sunlight and vitamin D for bone health and prevention of autoimmune diseases, cancers, and cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;80:1678S–88S; Bjelakovic G, Gluud LL, Nikolova D, et al. Vitamin D supplementation for prevention of mortality in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;1:CD007470.

20    Rossini M, Gatti D, Viapiana O, et al. Short-term effects on bone turnover markers of a single high dose of oral vitamin D(3). J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012;97:E622–26; Zheng YT, Cui QQ, Hong YM, Yao WG. A meta-analysis of high dose, intermittent vitamin D supplementation among older adults. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0115850.

21    Foster M, Chu A, Petocz P, Samman S. Effect of vegetarian diets on zinc status: a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies in humans. J Sci Food Agric. 2013;93: 2362–71; Hunt JR. Bioavailability of iron, zinc, and other trace minerals from vegetarian diets. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;78:633S–39S; Miller LV, Krebs NF, Hambidge KM. A mathematical model of zinc absorption in humans as a function of dietary zinc and phytate. J Nutr. 2007;137:135–41.

22    Prasad AS, Fitzgerald JT, Hess JW, et al. Zinc deficiency in elderly patients. Nutrition. 1993;9:218–24; Pepersack T, Rotsaert P, Benoit F, et al. Prevalence of zinc deficiency and its clinical relevance among hospitalised elderly. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2001;33:243–53.

23    Beulens JW, Booth SL, van den Heuvel EG, et al. The role of menaquinones (vitamin K(2)) in human health. Br J Nutr. 2013;110:1357–68; Cockayne S, Adamson J, Lanham-New S, et al. Vitamin K and the prevention of fractures: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166:1256–61.

24    Sarter B, Kelsey KS, Schwartz TA, Harris WS. Blood docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid in vegans: Associations with age and gender and effects of an algal-derived omega-3 fatty acid supplement. Clinical Nutrition 2015 <http://www.clinicalnutritionjournal.com/issue/S0261-5614(15)X0003-3">>34(2):212-18.

25    Pottala JV, Yaff K, Robinson JG, et al. Higher RBC EPA + DHA corresponds with larger total brain and hippocampal volumes. Neurology. 2014;82(5):435–42.

26    Pena-Rosas JP, De-Regil LM, Garcia-Casal MN, et al. Daily oral iron supplementation during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;12:CD004736; Scholl TO. Iron status during pregnancy: setting the stage for mother and infant. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;81:1218S–22S; Song QY, Luo WP, Zhang CX. High serum iron level is associated with an increased risk of hypertensive disorders during pregnancy: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Nutr Res. 2015;35:1060–69.

27    Mei Z, Cogswell ME, Looker AC, et al. Assessment of iron status in US pregnant women from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 1999–2006. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;93:1312–20.

28    Murray-Kolb LE, Beard JL. Iron deficiency and child and maternal health. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;89:946S–50S; Armony-Sivan R, Kaplan-Estrin M, Jacobson SW, et al. Iron-deficiency anemia in infancy and mother-infant interaction during feeding. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2010;31:326–32; Lozoff B, Georgieff MK. Iron deficiency and brain development. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2006;13:158–65; Gautam CS, Saha L, Sekhri K, et al. Iron deficiency in pregnancy and the rationality of iron supplements prescribed during pregnancy. Medscape J Med. 2008;10:283.

29    Jáuregui-Lobera I. Iron deficiency and cognitive functions. J Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2014;10: 2087–95; Beard JL. Why iron deficiency is important in infant development. J Nutr. 2008;138:2534–36.

30    Waldmann A, Koschizke JW, Leitzmann C, et al. Dietary iron intake and iron status of German female vegans: results of the German vegan study. Ann Nutr Metab. 2004;48:103–8.

31    Stokowski LA. No amount of alcohol is safe. Medscape. 30 April 2014. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/824237.

32    See https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/pubhealth/roc/index-1.html. Last updated 3 November 2016.

33    Nelson DE, Jarman DW, Rehm J, et al. Alcohol-attributable cancer deaths and years of potential life lost in the United States. Am J Public Health. 2013;103(4):641–48.

34    Bagnardi V, Rota M, Botteri E, et al. Alcohol consumption and site-specific cancer risk: a comprehensive dose-response meta-analysis. Br J Cancer. 2015;112:580–93.

35    Connor J. Alcohol consumption as a cause of cancer. Addiction 2016;112(2):222–28.

36    Hashibe M, Brennan P, Chuang SC, et al. Interaction between tobacco and alcohol use and the risk of head and neck cancer: pooled analysis in the International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2009;18(2):541–50; Grewal P, Viswanathen VA. Liver cancer and alcohol. Clin Liver Disease. 2012;16(4):839–50; Fedirko V, Tramacere I, Bagnardi V, et al. Alcohol drinking and colorectal cancer risk: an overall and dose-response meta-analysis of published studies. Annals Oncol. 2011;22(9):1958–72; Bellocco R, Pasquali E, Rota M, et al. Alcohol drinking and risk of renal cell carcinoma: results of a meta-analysis. Annals Oncol. 2012;23(9):2235–44; Tramacere I, Pelucchi C, Bonifazi M, et al. A meta-analysis on alcohol drinking and the risk of Hodgkin lymphoma. Eur J Cancer Prev. 2012;21(3):268–73; Turati F, Garavello W, Tramacere I, et al. A meta-analysis of alcohol drinking and oral and pharyngeal cancers: results from subgroup analyses. Alcohol Alcoholism. 2013;48(1):107–18; Rehm J, Patra J, Popova S. Alcohol drinking cessation and its effect on esophageal and head and neck cancers: a pooled analysis. Int J Cancer. 2007;121(5):1132–37; Kanda J, Matsuo K, Suzuki T, et al. Impact of alcohol consumption with polymorphisms in alcohol-metabolizing enzymes on pancreatic cancer risk in Japanese. Cancer Sci. 2009;100(2):296–302; Yokoyama A, Omori T. Genetic polymorphisms of alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenases and risk for esophageal and head and neck cancers. Alcohol. 2005;35(3):175–85.

37    Allen NE, Beral V, Casabonne D, et al. Moderate alcohol intake and cancer incidence in women. J Natl Cancer Institute. 2009;101(5):296–305; Hamajima N, Hirose K, Tajima K, et al. Alcohol, tobacco and breast cancer: collaborative reanalysis of individual data from 53 epidemiological studies, including 58,515 women with breast cancer and 95,067 women without the disease. Br J Cancer. 2002;87(11):1234–45; Chen WY, Rosner B, Hankinson SE, et al. Moderate alcohol consumption during adult life, drinking patterns, and breast cancer risk. JAMA. 2011;306:1884–90.

38    Stokowski LA. No amount of alcohol is safe. Medscape. 30 April 2014. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/824237.

39    Daniel S, Bereczki D. Alcohol as a risk factor for hemorrhagic stroke. Ideggyogy Sz. 2004;57:247–56.

40    George A, Figueredo VM. Alcohol and arrhythmias: a comprehensive review. J Cardiovasc Med. 2010;11:21–228; Klatsky AL. Alcohol and cardiovascular health. Physiol Behav. 2010;100:76–81.

41    Global status report on alcohol and health 2014. World Health Organization. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/112736/1/9789240692763_eng.pdf.

42    Athar M, Back JH, Tang X, et al. Resveratrol: a review of preclinical studies for human cancer prevention. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2007;224(3):274–83; Patel KR, Scott E, Brown VA, et al. Clinical trials of resveratrol. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2011;1215:161–69.

43    Fuhrman J, Singer M. Improved cardiovascular parameter with a nutrient-dense, plant-rich diet-style: a patient survey with illustrative cases. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine. 7 July 2016; doi:10.1177/1559827615611024.

44    Dunaief DM, Fuhrman J, Dunaief JL, Ying G. Glycemic and cardiovascular parameters improved in type 2 diabetes with the high nutrient density (HND) diet. Open J Prev Med. 2012;2(3):364–71.

45    Dickenson BD, Havas S. Reducing the population burden of cardiovascular disease by reducing sodium intake: a report of the Council on Science and Public Health. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167(14):1460–68.

46    Karppanen H, Mervaala E. Sodium intake and hypertension. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2006;49(2):59–75; Cutler JA, Roccell E. Salt reduction for preventing hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Hypertension. 2006;48(5):818–19.

47    Cook N, Cutler J, Obarzanek E, et al. Long term effects of dietary sodium reduction on cardiovascular disease outcomes: observational follow-up of the trails of hypertension prevention (TOHP). BMJ. 2007;334:885.

48    Havas S, Roccella EJ, Lenfant C. Reducing the public health burden from elevated blood pressure levels in the United States by lowering intake of dietary sodium. Am J Public Health. 2004;94(1):19–22.

49    Prospective Studies Collaboration. Age specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a meta analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet. 2002;360:1903–13.

50    Weinberger MH. Salt sensitivity is associated with an increased mortality in both normal and hypertensive humans. J Clin Hypertens. 2002;4(4):274–76.

51    Tuomilehto J, Jousilahti P, Rastenyte D, et al. Urinary sodium excretion and cardiovascular mortality in Finland: a prospective study. Lancet. 2001;357: 848–51.

52    Cook NR, Appel LJ, Whelton PK. Sodium intake and all-cause mortality over 20 years in the Trials of Hypertension Prevention. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2016;68(15):1609–17.

53    Luke R. President’s address. Trans Am Clin Climatol Assoc. 2007;118: 1–22.

54    Freis E. The role of salt in hypertension. Blood Pressure. 1991;1:196–200.

55    National High Blood Pressure Education Program, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. National Institutes of Health. National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group report on primary prevention of hypertension. Arch Intern Med. 1993;153:186–208.

56    Sonnenberg A. Dietary salt and gastric ulcer. Gut. 1986;27(10):1138–42; Tsugane S, Sasazuki S. Diet and the risk of gastric cancer: review of epidemiological evidence. Gastric Cancer. 2007;10(2):75–83.

57    De Wardener HE, MacGregor GA. Harmful effects of dietary salt in addition to hypertension. J Hum Hypertens. 2002;16(4):213–23.

58    Paddock C. CDC: 90 percent of Americans consume too much salt. Published Jan 8 2016 Medical News Today. http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/304833.php. Where’s the sodium? CDC Vital Signs Feb 2012. https://www.cdc.gov/vitalsigns/sodium/.

59    McCann SE, Thompson LU, Nie J, et al. Dietary lignan intakes in relation to survival among women with breast cancer: the Western New York Exposures and Breast Cancer (WEB) study. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2010;122:229–35.