If we could master the straits for six hours, we would be masters of the world.
Napoleon
I do not say the French cannot come. I only say they cannot come by sea.
John Jervis, Earl of Saint Vincent
Thank God I have done my duty.
Horatio Nelson
The peace of Amiens did not last long, less than fourteen months from the treaty’s signature on March 24, 1802, until Britain declared war against France on May 18, 1803.1 Ample blame can be heaped on both sides for resuming war. Each violated the Amiens treaty as British troops remained in Malta and Egypt, and French troops in Holland, Italy, and Switzerland. Each insisted that it would end its occupations only after the other departed first.
What most alarmed Whitehall were spy reports that Bonaparte had launched a naval build-up by constructing 32 ships-of-the-line at French and Dutch shipyards.2 He seemed to be preparing another Egyptian expedition. He sent special envoy General François Sebastiani on a diplomatic and intelligence-gathering mission to Egypt. Three days after Sebastiani returned to Paris on January 25, 1803, the Moniteur, the French government’s quasiofficial newspaper, published his report revealing that Britain’s occupation force was weak and could be defeated by just 6,000 French troops. The British force was indeed weak because Whitehall had ordered it steadily diminished as the Turks established a government in Cairo. The last British troops sailed from Egypt on March 17, although word did not reach Paris for a couple of months. Regardless, the redcoats stayed firmly put in Malta.
A classic ‘mirror image’ trapped Paris and London as each accused the other of violating the Amiens treaty and preparing an attack. Bonaparte summoned ambassador Charles Whitworth on March 13, 1803, and demanded why his government wanted to resume war. Whitworth replied that Britain did not want a war that French treaty violations were making increasingly likely. This enraged Bonaparte who castigated the British for bad faith. Whitworth conveyed Bonaparte’s remarks to London. Whitehall instructed Whitworth to issue Bonaparte an ultimatum to withdraw all French troops from Holland, Switzerland, and Italy; if the First Consul did not comply within a week, Whitworth was to return to London. Bonaparte angrily rejected the ultimatum. Whitworth’s carriage clattered out of Paris on May 12 and he was back in London three days later. On May 16, George III informed Parliament that diplomatic relations had ended, and, on May 18, the king formally declared war against France.
What followed for another two-and-a-half years was a ‘phony war.’ Asymmetrical power kept the enemies from each other’s throats. The French with their overwhelming land power could not attack Britain and its empire. The British with their overwhelming sea power could not attack France or its warships that mostly kept to port. All Bonaparte could do was confiscate any British ships and imprison any British subjects then in French ports, and order French forces to occupy Hanover, the British monarch’s ancestral home, and Naples, Taranto, and Brindisi in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, a British ally. Meanwhile, the Royal Navy and British privateers swept the seas of any French vessels they caught. Whitehall also backed an attempt by a group of French royalist exiles led by George Cadoudal to assassinate Bonaparte; French police learned of the plot and rounded up Cadoudal and his men before they could act.
Bonaparte hoped to break the stalemate by invading England. In all, he contrived eight distinct plans to do so, with the first expressed on July 26, 1803. To this end, he established an army headquartered at Boulogne on August 23, 1803. A successful invasion depended on the French fleet dominating the 22 miles of English Channel between Boulogne and Dover long enough for the army to cross and land safely.3 Over the next two years, he amassed more troops along the coast straddling Boulogne, accelerated a warship and landing craft building campaign, and through treaty acquired operational control over Spain’s navy.
The biggest changes in Napoleon’s plans concerned how long a successful invasion depended on his navy controlling the Channel. He was initially confident that: ‘If we could master the straits for six hours, we would be masters of the world.’4 Eventually he doubled that time to 24 hours, then extended it to days, a week, and, finally, several weeks. The longer the needed time, the more warships had to mass there to fight off the Royal Navy’s inevitable onslaught.
Most of the invasion craft fleet harbored a fatal flaw. With no keels, the flatboats packed with troops and their weapons and equipment could only be rowed on days with no winds and calm seas. Napoleon witnessed the disastrous consequences of attempting a crossing without optimum conditions on July 20, 1804. During a visit to Boulogne, he ordered a long-planned exercise of flatboats packed with troops to proceed even through his naval officers begged him to cancel it before a worsening gale and a hovering British flotilla of two sloops and two brigs. Before his eyes 200 men drowned as the winds and waves capsized their boats or crushed them against the rocky shore as they fled before the gale and British cannon shots.5
Seemingly nonplused by the disaster, Napoleon reviewed 80,000 troops on the plain near Boulogne on August 16. His observation of 146 boats packed with troops on August 25, was interrupted as British warships approached, although at least this time no one died. The British flotilla threatened Napoleon himself on August 26, when the emperor and his entourage were aboard the imperial barge in Boulogne bay. The rowers beat a hasty retreat to the inner harbor.
Napoleon issued on September 29, 1804, the naval campaign plan that ended at Trafalgar.6 To raise the odds of dominating the Channel, he sought to divert as many British warships as far away from it as possible: ‘The English will find themselves at the same time attacked in Asia, Africa, and America.’7 The worst threat would be against Britain’s West Indian colonies. Three fleets would depart from French ports, unite in the West Indies, drop off troops in French colonies, capture any vulnerable British colonies, then sail to the Channel while leaving much of the alerted Royal Navy far behind in their wake.
Whitehall’s decision to war against Spain boosted the odds of Napoleon’s plan succeeding. The Admiralty ordered Captain Graham Moore to lead four frigates to intercept and capture Spain’s annual treasure fleet sailing from the New World to Cádiz. Moore’s flotilla spotted and closed with four Spanish frigates on October 5, 1804. When the Spanish captains refused to heed his warning shots to yield, Moore signaled his captains to attack. The battle did not last long. British broadsides sank one of the frigates and battered the others so severely that they struck their colors. Unfortunately, the frigate most packed with treasure sank, but the British took £1 million worth of silver, copper, and tin from the other three. Despite this blatant act of war, King Charles IV did not declare war against Britain until December 12, 1804. It was another month, on January 4, 1805, before Napoleon’s diplomats convinced Charles IV to accept a treaty whereby he ceded operational control of Spain’s fleet to France for the invasion of Britain.8
If the French and Spanish fleets somehow united, they would outgun the Royal Navy. This was a huge ‘if’ given how scattered two navies were. The French fleet included 21 ships-of-the-line at Brest, 6 ships-of-the-line at Rochefort, 5 ships-of-the-line at Ferrol, and, finally, 11 ships-of-the-line at Toulon. The Spanish fleet included 15 ships-of-the-line at Cádiz, 5 ships-of-the-line at Ferrol, and 6 ships-of-the-line at Cartagena.9 Spain’s alliance with France stretched the Royal Navy’s blockade to near the snapping point with flotillas led by Admirals James Montagu off Flushing and Calais, William Cornwallis off Brest, Cuthbert Collingwood off Rochefort, Edward Pellew off Ferrol, and Horatio Nelson off Toulon.
The British enjoyed more than a numerical advantage over the enemy fleets. More vital was the superiority of British admirals and captains. Napoleon recognized this, lamenting that the French navy ‘lacked men of superior merit,’ that he ‘could not find … a single enterprising, cold-blooded man.’ The man who commanded France’s main fleet, Admiral Pierre de Villeneuve, appeared the best of a mediocre lot. Was Villeneuve prudent or cowardly when he cut his cables and sailed away to safety rather than staying and fighting during the battle of the Nile? Napoleon quipped that ‘Villeneuve is one of those men who needs much more a spur than a bridle.’10
Britain eventually enjoyed another advantage in its war against France. Bonaparte’s aggressive and grandiose policies steadily alienated Saint Petersburg and Vienna to the point where they joined Whitehall in coalition against him. The first provocation was the French rendition of Louis de Bourbon, duc d’Enghien from his home in Ettenheim, Baden, and, on March 20, 1804, his execution at Vincennes chateau near Paris on charges of being a leader in a conspiracy to overthrow Bonaparte’s regime. Saint Petersburg and Vienna protested the execution but remained neutral. Then Bonaparte had the Senate declare him France’s emperor on May 18, 1804, subject to approval of the French people by a plebiscite. From now, he was technically Napoleon I and signed his orders and decrees as such, although his coronation did not take place until December 2, 1804. Napoleon had himself crowned king of Italy in Milan’s cathedral on May 26, 1805.
The Russian and Austrian monarchies did more than sneer at Bonaparte’s presumption to elevate himself to their ranks. Tsar Alexander severed diplomatic relations with France on October 5, 1804, and allied defensively with Vienna on November 6, 1804, with Whitehall on April 11, 1805, and with Berlin on May 4, 1805. Although the Prussians opted out, the British, Russians, and Austrians intensified talks over transforming their defensive alliance into an offensive alliance after learning that Napoleon dissolved the Republic of Liguria and annexed it to the kingdom of Italy on June 4. Russia and Austria jointly declared war against France and openly joined the coalition on August 9, 1805. Although tempted, Prussian king Frederick William III resisted entreaties by the British, Russians, and Austrians to link arms.
The allies developed a two-stage plan to defeat Napoleon by first conquering his satellites then France itself. An Austrian army, led by Archduke Ferdinand, seconded by General Karl Mack, would overrun Bavaria, then wait as Russian armies marched to reinforce it. Meanwhile, the allies would invade France’s Kingdom of Italy from two directions, Archduke Charles’s Austrian army from the east, and a mixed army of Russians, British, and Neapolitans from the south. In the Tyrol a third Austrian army led by Archduke John would march to either front as needed. Britain would underwrite much of the expense of these campaigns with monthly payments to Saint Petersburg, Vienna, and Naples. Meanwhile, although Neapolitan King Ferdinand IV and Queen Maria Carolina had publicly signed a neutrality treaty with France on September 23, 1804, they secretly signed an alliance treaty against France on September 11, 1805. After the war erupted, British and Russian troops would land at Naples, then, with the Neapolitan army, march north to join the Austrians in driving the French from Italy. Ideally, the allied victories would entice Prussia to join them. Once Bavaria and Italy were secured, the allies would march against France itself.
Until the Russian and Austrian war declarations against him, Napoleon remained committed to his plan to invade Britain. The French admirals received orders to implement Napoleon’s plan as soon as possible after New Year’s Day 1805.11 The first French fleet to venture forth was Admiral Edouard de Missiessy’s 3 ships-of-the-line, 3 frigates, and 2 transports packed with 3,500 troops from Rochefort on January 11, 1805. After reaching Martinique on February 20, and after dropping off the troops, Missiessy headed back to Rochefort. Villeneuve sailed with 11 ships-of-the-line, 7 frigates, and transports packed with 6,330 troops from Toulon on January 17, but storms battered his vessels so badly that he had to return to port. Honore Ganteaume led his 21 ships-of-the-line from Brest on January 18, then abruptly turned back before Admiral Alan Gardner’s 21 ships-of-the-line.
Villeneuve sailed again on March 30, chased away the British flotilla blockading Cádiz on April 9, and there joined Admiral Frederico Gravina’s 16 ships-of-the-line. The combined fleet reached Martinique on May 14. During his month in the West Indies, Villeneuve did win one battle, although it was on land. He sent a force ashore to capture the British fort atop Diamond Rock on Martinique on June 2.
Nelson learned of Villeneuve’s escape and direction on April 19, but was unable to unite 15 ships-of-the-line at Gibraltar and pursue until May 10. Nelson’s fleet reached Barbados on June 4. This same day Villeneuve received Napoleon’s orders that he sail to Ferrol, attach those warships to his fleet, then on to Brest, collect the warships there, and, finally, head to the straits between Boulogne and Dover and hold it as long as possible.12 Villeneuve turned his fleet eastward. Upon getting word of Villeneuve’s direction, Nelson pursued. Napoleon ordered Admiral Zacherie Allemand, who had replaced Missiessy as the Rochefort fleet’s commander, to join Villeneuve at Ferrol. Allemand’s 5 ships-of-the-line and 3 frigates sailed from Rochefort on July 14, but eventually turned back after sighting Admiral Robert Calder’s fleet of 10 ships-of-the-line.13
The Royal Navy squadrons on the French and Spanish Atlantic coasts included Admiral George Keith’s 21 ships-of-the-line off Dover; Admiral William Cornwallis’s 25 ships-of-the-line off Brest; Admiral Charles Stirling’s six ships-of-the-line off Rochefort; Admiral Robert Calder’s 10 ships-of-the-line off Ferrol; and Captain Cuthbert Collingwood’s 6 ships-of-the-line off Cádiz. Learning of Villeneuve’s approach, Calder intercepted and attacked the strung-out allied fleet as it neared the Spanish coast on July 22. Two Spanish ships-of-the-line struck their colors as the rest of Villeneuve’s fleet safely reached Ferrol. After leaving some frigates to observe Ferrol, Calder sailed north to join Cornwallis. Together they had 35 ships-of-the-line to pummel any attempt by Villeneuve to sail to Brest and join Ganteaume.
Villeneuve dutifully sailed northward with a combined fleet of 29 ships-of-the-line on August 11. A swift blockade vessel at Ferrol took word to Cornwallis who stayed with 17 ships-of-the-line at station off Brest, while he sent Calder with 18 ships-of-the-line to seek out and ideally destroy Villeneuve. Learning of Calder’s approach, Villeneuve reversed course and fled to Cádiz, entering that safe haven on August 22. Collingwood and Calder blockaded him there. It seemed that the French naval campaign for 1805 had ended without a major battle.
Napoleon left Paris on August 2, and the following day reached his headquarters at Boulogne. There he mulled the threats facing France and the options for thwarting them. Spies reported that the Austrians and Russians were massing and marching armies that would invade Bavaria and Italy. He heard the news of Calder’s attack on the allied fleet and Villeneuve’s refuge in Ferrol. He ordered Villeneuve to attack ‘wherever the enemy appears before you with less than 24 ships-of-the-line.’14 Yet he figured the odds of ever seizing the Strait of Dover even briefly were a chimera. Britain did not directly threaten France but the Austrians and Russians posed a worsening threat eastward. The emperor finally abandoned his dream of invading England, and instead, on August 26, decreed that henceforth the Army of England would be known as the Grand Army. On August 29, he ordered his troops to march toward the Danube River valley.15
Nelson, meanwhile, had sailed to Portsmouth for a well-deserved leave. He enjoyed only 25 days ashore before receiving orders that would carry him to his final and greatest triumph. He sailed aboard the 110-gun Victory on September 14, and joined the fleet before Cádiz on September 28.
Napoleon sent his latest orders to Villeneuve on September 14. His mission now was to ready his fleet to sail into the Mediterranean, join with Spain’s Cartagena fleet, head to Naples, land his 4,000 troops there, then sail to Toulon and await further orders. Napoleon sent Admiral François Rosily-Mesros to replace Villeneuve in command and actually fulfill this mission.16
Villeneuve typically dallied after getting Napoleon’s orders on September 27. He was not eager to sortie against the blockading British fleet. Atop this the quality of the French and Spanish crews was even worse than usual. Disease and desertion had devoured their ranks. Tallies of the French fleet alone listed 1,731 hospitalized and over 300 deserters. Gravina was also short a couple thousand men. This loss severely affected the fleet’s seamanship and rate of fire in the battle ahead.17 It was the unofficial word on October 11 that Rosily was at Madrid and coming to replace him that finally spurred Villeneuve to action.
Villeneuve sailed with 33 ships-of-the-line, including 18 French and 15 Spanish, along with 5 frigates and 2 brigs, with 2,568 cannons, on October 18. The two fleets met 21 miles northeast of Cape Trafalgar on October 21, 1805. Nelson’s fleet included 27 ships-of-the-line, 4 frigates, a schooner, and a cutter, with 2,148 cannons. Nelson split his fleet into 2 parallel columns, with Collingwood commanding one with 14 ships-of-the-line to cut into the enemy line’s center, and Nelson the other with 13 ships-of-the-line to sail toward its head. He had signal flags hoisted first declaring ‘Close for action,’ then ‘England confides that every man will do his duty.’18
The battle of Trafalgar lasted 6½ hours. When the smoke cleared, the French and Spanish fleet had suffered 5,860 killed and wounded, and 4,799 captured of the 29,000 allied sailors, including 16,000 French and 12,900 Spaniards. The British captured 17 ships-of-the-line and sank one; much to his regret, Collingwood ordered the 130-gun Santissima Trinidad, the second largest warship, sunk as the pumps failed to keep up with the water pouring through all the holes in its hull. In all, the French lost 10 of their 18 ships-of-the-line, and the Spaniards 9 of their 15 ships-of-the-line or 55 percent of the allied fleet. The British lost 449 killed and 1,214 wounded or 10 percent of the 17,256 men present. No ships sank but eight were bashed so severely they had to be towed to Gibraltar repairs.19 Nelson was among the dead; a musket ball tore down through his shoulder, severed an artery, and shattered his spine, and he slowly bled to death. Upon hearing of the British victory and prizes taken, Nelson muttered, ‘Thank God I have done my duty.’20
Only nine French and six Spanish ships-of-the-line sailed away. Ten of these warships reached Cádiz. In the pursuit, Commodore Richard Strachan’s flotilla of 5 ships-of-the-line and 2 frigates caught up to Pierre Le Pellet’s 4 ships-of-the-line off Cape Finistere on November 4, and battered all of them into surrender, bringing the enemy fleet’s losses to 23 ships-of-the-line. Villeneuve was among the Trafalgar prisoners. He was taken to England, treated well, and exchanged in April 1806. Villeneuve was found dead with a knife in his chest on April 22. Whether it was suicide or murder will probably never be known.
Napoleon did not learn of Trafalgar until November 17. The tragedy briefly darkened what had been an unbroken string of French victories. An army of 40,000 Austrian troops led by Archduke Ferdinand and General Karl Mack invaded Bavaria on September 8 and overran the realm. Napoleon’s corps encircled most of the Austrian army at Ulm. Ferdinand escaped but Mack surrendered 25,000 troops on October 18. Napoleon then sent his corps down the Danube valley. The Austrian and Russian armies withdrew before the French onslaught. Francis II abandoned Vienna and joined Alexander I at Olmutz in Moravia. Napoleon triumphantly entered Vienna on November 13, and began preparing his campaign’s next phase against the allied armies in Moravia. The decisive battle came at Austerlitz on December 2, when Napoleon’s army devastated the Russians and Austrians, inflicting nearly 30,000 casualties while suffering around 10,000. Alexander withdrew his army’s remnants to Russia while, on December 26, Francis signed the Treaty of Pressburg, whereby he ceded Tyrol, Voralberg, Venetia, Istria, and Dalmatia.
After Austerlitz, Britain essentially faced France alone for the next ten months. Francis had signed a humiliating peace treaty with France. Alexander led his army back to Russia. Frederick William clung to neutrality. Faced with overwhelming French forces marching against them, the British and Russian troops that landed in Naples hastily reembarked and sailed away; Ferdinand, Maria, and their court fled to Palermo.
Yet, Britain remained secure. Without Trafalgar, Napoleon could have swiftly massed another army on the Channel and threatened Britain with invasion. With his navy devastated, Napoleon riveted most of his attention on Germany and Prussia. Nonetheless, Whitehall needed four years to figure out how to exploit its naval hegemony. The answer came with Napoleon’s attempt to conquer the Iberian Peninsula. British naval power kept Portugal and Spain in the fight, and, most vitally, General Arthur Wellesley’s army in the field. The result was to transform Napoleon’s ambitions into a cancer that steadily devoured his empire.