1.For the only comprehensive and systematic overview of the related economic, military, population, technological, cultural, leadership, and thus political forces shaping British foreign policy from 1789 to 1815, see: William R. Nester, Titan: The Art of British Power during the Age of Revolution and Napoleon (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2016).
For an overview of Whitehall’s efforts to organize the war effort, see: Roger Knight, Britain against Napoleon: The Organization of Victory, 1793–1815 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2013). For the classic study of how Britain financed the seven coalitions against Revolutionary France then Napoleon, see: John W. Sherwig, Guineas and Gunpowder: British Foreign Aid in the Wars with France, 1793–1815 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1969). For an excellent analysis of the assertion of Britain’s financial power during an earlier era that puts the latter in perspective, see: John Brewer, The Sinews of Power: War, Money, and the English State, 1688–1783 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1988).
For British strategies against Napoleon, see: Richard Glover, Britain at Bay: Defense against Bonaparte, 1803–14 (London: Allen and Unwin, 1973); Christopher D. Hall, British Strategy in the Napoleonic War, 1803–1815 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992); Rory Muir, Britain and the Defeat of Napoleon, 1807–1815 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996). For the prequel, see: Brendan Simms, Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (New York: Basic Books, 2009).
For the British state’s origins and development, see: Brewer, The Sinews of Power; M.J. Braddick, The Nerves of State: Taxation and the Financing of the English State, 1558–1714 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996); Tony Claydon and Ian McBride, eds, Protestantism and National Identity: Britain and Ireland, 1650–1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); J.C.D. Clark, English Society, 1688–1832: Ideology, Social Structure, and Political Practice during the Ancient Regime (Cambridge: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Michael J. Turner, The Age of Unease: Government and Reform in Britain, 1782–1832 (London: Longman, 2000); Philip Harling, The Modern British State: An Historical Introduction (Oxford: Clarendon, 2001); Eric J. Evans, The Forging of the Modern State: Early Industrial Britain, 1783–1870 (New York: Pearson, 2001); H.T. Dickinson, ed., A Companion to Eighteenth Century Britain (Oxford: Blackwell, 2002); H.T. Dickinson, ed., A Companion to Eighteenth Century Britain (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2006).
For British foreign policy during straddling, or leading to this era, see: Paul Langford, Modern British Foreign Policy: The Eighteenth Century, 1688–1815 (New York: Vintage, 1976); Derek McKay and Hamish K. Scott, The Rise of the Great Powers, 1648–1815 (London: Longman, 1982); Ian R. Christie, Wars and Revolutions: Britain, 1760–1815 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982); Jeremy Black, Natural and Necessary Enemies: Anglo-French Relations in the Eighteenth Century (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986); Jeremy Black, ed., Knight Errant and True Englishmen: British Foreign Policy, 1660–1800 (Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press, 1989); C.A. Bayly, Imperial Meridian: The British Empire and the World, 1780–1830 (London: Longman, 1989); John Clarke, British Diplomacy and Foreign Policy, 1782–1865: The National Interest (Boston: Unwin, Hymen, 1989); H.M. Scott, British Foreign Policy in the Age of the American Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press,1990); Jeremy Black, A System of Ambition: British Foreign Policy, 1660–1793 (New York: Longmans, 1993); Jeremy Black, British Foreign Policy in an Age of Revolution, 1783–1793 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Wilfrid Prest, Albion Ascendant: English History, 1660–1815 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998); Jeremy Black, A System of Ambition?: British Foreign Policy, 1660–1793 (London: Longman, 2000); Linda Colley, Captives: Britain, Europe, and the World, 1600–1850 (London: Pantheon, 2002); Niall Ferguson, Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World (New York: Basic Book, 2004); Simms, Three Victories and a Defeat; Boyd Hilton, A Mad, Bad, & Dangerous People?: England, 1783–1846 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008); Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–1837 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009); Adolphus Ward and George Gooch, eds, The Cambridge History of British Foreign Policy, 1783–1919 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011).
2.For developments in early modern warfare before this era, see: Andre Corvisier, Armies and Society in Europe, 1494–1789 (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1976); John Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 1648–1789 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1982); C.B.A. Behrens, Society, Government, and the Enlightenment: The Experiences of Eighteenth Century France and Prussia (London: Harper and Row, 1985); Christopher Duffy, The Military Experience in the Age of Reason, 1715–1789 (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1987); Brent Nosworthy, The Anatomy of Victory: Battle Tactics, 1689–1763 (New York: Hippocrene Books, 1992).
For war’s continuities and changes during both eras, see: Azar Gat, The Origins of Military Thought from the Enlightenment to Clausewitz (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Russell F. Weigley, The Age of Battles: The Quest for Decisive Warfare from Brietenfeld to Waterloo (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991); Roger Chickering and Stig Forster, eds, War in an Age of Revolution, 1775–1815 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
For the French revolutionary wars, see: Samuel F. Scott, The Response of the Royal Army in the French Revolution: The Role and Development of the Line Army, 1787–1793 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978); Steven T. Ross, Quest for Victory: French Military Strategy, 1792–1799 (New York: Barnes and Company, 1978); John A. Lynn, The Bayonets of the Republic: Motivation and Tactics in the Army of Revolutionary France, 1791–1794 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984); Howard G. Brown, War, Revolution, and the Bureaucratic States: Politics and Army Administration in France, 1791–1799 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); Paddy Griffith, The Art of War of Revolutionary France, 1789–1802 (Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole Books, 1998).
For Napoleon’s wars, see: Baron Henri de Jomini, The Art of War (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1862); David Chandler, The Campaigns of Napoleon: The Mind and Method of History’s Greatest Soldier (New York: Macmillan, 1966); Gunther Rothenberg, The Art of War in the Age of Napoleon (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981); David Chandler, On the Napoleonic Wars (London: Greenhill Books, 1991); Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500–1800 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Brent Nosworthy, With Musket, Cannon, and Sword: Battle Tactics of Napoleon and His Enemies (New York: Da Capo Press, 1996); David Gates, The Napoleonic Wars, 1803–1815 (New York: Arnold Press, 1997); John R. Elting, Swords around a Throne: Napoleon’s Grande Armée (New York: Da Capo, 1997); Carl von Clausewitz, On War (New York: Wadsworth Classic, 1999); Digby Smith, The Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book: Actions and Losses in Personnel, Colours, Standards, and Artillery, 1792–1815 (London: Greenhill Books, 1998); Vincent J. Esposito and John R. Elting, A Military History and Atlas of the Napoleonic Wars (London: Greenhill Books, 1999); Owen Connelly, Blundering to Victory: Napoleon’s Military Campaigns (New York: Rowan and Littlefield, 2006); Robert Harvey, War of Wars: The Great European Conflict, 1793–1815 (New York: Carol and Graf, 2006); Jonathan Riley, Napoleon as a General (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007); Charles Esdaile, Napoleon’s Wars: An International History, 1803–1815 (New York: Viking, 2007); David Bell, The First Total War (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2007); Christy Pichichiore, The Military Enlightenment: War and Culture in the French Empire, From Louis XIV to Napoleon (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2017).
For armies, uniforms and arms, see: Philip Haythornthwaite, The Napoleonic Source Book (London: Arms and Armour, 1990); Anthony D. Darling, Red Coat and Brown Bess (Bloomfield: Museum Restoration Service, 1993); Philip Haythornthwaite and Michael Chappell, Uniforms of the Peninsular War, 1807–1814 (London: Arms and Armour, 1995); Philip Haythornthwaite and Christopher Warner, Uniforms of the French Revolutionary Wars (London: Arms and Armour, 1997).
3.Books on Britain’s early modern political economic development could fill a small library.
For a theoretical view, see: John Hatcher and Mark Bailey, Modelling the Middle Ages: The History and Theory of England’s Economic Development (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001).
For the government’s role, see: Julian Hoppit, Britain’s Political Economies: Parliament and Economic Life, 1660–1800 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017).
For agrarian power, see: Mark Overton, Agricultural Revolution in England: The Transformation of the Agrarian Economy, 1500–1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); G.E. Mingay, Parliamentary Enclosure in England: An Introduction to Its Causes, Incidence, and Improvements, 1750–1850 (London: Longman, 1997).
For financial power, see: Ralph Willard Hidy, The House of Baring in American Trade and Finance: English Merchant Bankers at Work, 1763–1861 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1949); L.S. Pressnell, Country Banking in the Industrial Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1956); Patrick K. O’Brien, ‘The Political Economy of British Taxation, 1660–1815,’ Economic History Review, Vol. 41 (1988), 1–32; Patrick O’Brien and Philip A. Hunt, ‘The Rise of a Fiscal State in England, 1485–1815,’ Historical Research, Vol. 96 (1993), 129–76; Patrick O’Brien, Power with Profit: The State and Economy, 1688–1815 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1991); Lawrence Stone, ed., An Imperial State at War: Britain from 1689 to 1815 (London: Routledge, 1994); M.J. Braddick, The Nerves of State: Taxation and the Financing of the English State, 1558–1714 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996); Niall Ferguson, The World’s Banker: The History of the House of Rothschild (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1998).
For entrepreneural, cultural, and social power, see: Sidney Pollack, The Genesis of Modern Management: A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain (New York: Penguin, 1965); Neil McKendrick, John Brewer, and J.H. Plumb, The Birth of a Consumer Society: The Commercialization of Eighteenth Century England (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1982); Julian Hoppit, The Rise and Failures of English Business, 1700–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Janet Wolfe and John Seed, eds, The Culture of Capital: Art, Power, and the Nineteenth Century Middle Class (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988); Peter Earle, The Making of the English Middle Class: Business, Society, and Family Life in London, 1660–1730 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); Peter Langford, A Polite and Commercial People: England, 1727–1783 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989); Alan J. Kidd and David Nicolls, eds, The Making of the British Middle Class?: Studies of Regional and Cultural Diversity since the Eighteenth Century (Stroud: Sutton, 1998); Penelope J. Corfield, Power and the Professions in Britain, 1700–1850 (New York: Routledge, 2000); F.M.L. Thompson, Gentrification and the Enterprise Culture: Britain, 1780–1980 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
For urbanization power, see: M.D. George, London Life in the Eighteenth Century (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966), 319; Penelope J. Corfield, The Impact of English Towns, 1700–1800 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982); Jan de Vries, European Urbanization, 1500–1800 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984), table 3.6; Peter Borsay, The English Urban Renaissance: Culture and Society in the Provincial Town, 1660–1770 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989); Jeffrey G. Williamson, Coping with City Growth during the British Industrial Revolution (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Peter Clark, ed., The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, 1540–1840 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
For transportation power, see: J.R. Ward, The Finance of Canal Building in Eighteenth Century England (London: Oxford University Press 1974); E. Pawson, Transport and Economy: The Turnpike Roads of Eighteenth Century Britain (New York: Academic Press, 1977).
For related trade and industrial power, see: C.N. Parkinson, The Trade Winds: A Study of British Overseas Trade during the French Wars, 1793–1815 (London: Allen and Unwin, 1948); Bernard Semmel, The Rise of Free Trade Imperialism: Classical Political Economy, the Empire of Free Trade, and Imperialism, 1750–1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970); Judith Blow Williams, British Commercial Policy and Trade Expansion, 1750–1850 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972); Ralph Davis, The Industrial Revolution and British Overseas Trade (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1979); Eric Hobsbawm, Industry and Empire: The Economic History of Britain since 1750 (New York: W.W. Norton, 1999); William J. Ashworth, Customs and Excise: Trade, Production, and Consumption in England, 1640–1845 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).
For industrial power, see: A.E. Munsen, and Eric Robinson, Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution (Manchester: University of Manchester Press, 1969); G.N. Tunzelman, Steam Power and British Industrialization to 1860 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978); Maxine Berg, The Age of Manufacturers: Industry, Innovation, and Work in Britain, 1700–1820 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); François Crouzet, The First Industrialists: The Problem of Origins (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); François Crouzet, Britain Ascendant: Comparative Studies in Franco-British Economic History (New York: University of Cambridge Press, 1985); N.F.R. Crafts, British Economic Growth during the Industrial Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); L.A. Clarkson, Proto-Industrialization: The First Phase of Industrialization? (London: Macmillan, 1985); E.A. Wrighley, Continuity, Chance, and Change: The Character of the Industrial Revolution in England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Pat Hudson, ed., Regions and Industries: A Perspective on the Industrial Revolution in Britain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Pat Hudson, The Industrial Revolution (London: Macmillan, 1992); Peter Mathias, The First Industrial Nation: An Economic History of Britain, 1700–1914 (New York: Routledge, 2001); Eric J. Evans, The Forging of the Modern State: Early Industrial Britain, 1783–1870 (New York: Pearson, 2001); Roderick Floud and Paul Johnson, eds, The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Britain: Industrialization, 1700–1860 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Kenneth Morgan, The Birth of Industrial Britain: Social Change, 1750–1859 (New York: Pearson, 2004); Joel Mokyr, The Enlightened Economy: Britain and the Industrial Revolution, 1700–1850 (New York: Penguin, 2011); Barrie Trinder, Britain’s Industrial Revolution: The Making of a Manufacturing People (New York: Carnegie Publishing, 2014).
For the British empire, see:Vincent T. Harlow, The Founding of the Second British Empire, 1763–1793 (London: Longman, 1964); P.J. Cain and A.G. Hopkins, British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion, 1688–1914 (New York: Longman, 1993); Lawrence James, The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (New York: St Martin’s Griffith Press, 1994); P.I. Marshall, ed., The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Eighteenth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998); David Armitage, The Ideological Origins of the British Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
4.For the early modern relationship between Britain’s naval and national power, see: William James, Naval History of Great Britain, 1793–1820, 5 vols (London: Richard Bentley, 1822–4); R.G. Albion, Forests and Sea Power (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1926); Michael Lewis, A Social History of the Navy, 1783–1815 (London: Allen and Unwin, 1960); Otto von Pivka, Navies of the Napoleon Era (London: D. & C. Newton Abbot, 1980); N.A.M. Rodger, The Wooden World: An Anatomy of the Georgian Navy (New York: W.W. Norton, 1986); J. Coad, The Royal Dockyards, 1690–1815: Architecture and Engineering Works of the Sailing Navy (Aldershot: Scolar Press, 1989); Richard Harding, The Evolution of the Sailing Navy, 1509–1815 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1995); Jeremy Black and Philip Woodfine, eds, The British Navy and the Use of Naval Power in the Eighteenth Century (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1998); Richard Harding, Seapower and Naval Warfare, 1650–1830 (Annapolis: Naval University Press, 1999); Margarette Lincoln, Representing the Royal Navy: British Sea Power, 1750–1815 (Burlington: Ashgate, 2002); Peter Padfield, Maritime Power and the Struggle for Freedom: Naval Campaigns that Shaped the Modern World, 1788–1851 (London: John Murray, 2003); Clive Wilkinson, The British Navy and the State in the Eighteenth Century (London: Boydell Press, 2004); N.A.M. Rodger, The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815 (New York: W.W. Norton, 2006).
5.Britain’s Rise to Global Superpower is a ‘battles and leaders’ and ‘strategies and tactics’ account of Britain during the Age of Revolution and Napoleon. It presents the era’s twenty-two most important British land and sea military campaigns. Each chapter’s ‘methodology’ involves simply explaining what major events happened, why they happened, and the results. The prominent scholarly books for each campaign are presented in one or more endnotes for that chapter. The Art of Power and Requiem chapters provide comprehensive and systematic analyses for understanding the reasons for and results of the campaigns in the context of the entire era.
Astonishingly, no one has ever done this before. Of the twenty-two campaigns presented in Britain’s Rise to Global Superpower, only two were decisive, Trafalgar at sea and Waterloo on land. And, yes, the brilliant leadership of Nelson and Wellington was the most important reason why Trafalgar and Waterloo were decisive British victories. Different leaders might well have resulted in those battles either being lost or not fought. The notion that leadership – good, bad, and mediocre – can be the decisive force that determines what happens in a conflict will undoubtedly startle and even anger some ‘scholars’ schooled in the neo-marxist belief that only grand forces like ‘capitalism,’ ‘class,’ or ‘the people’ matter. But, the critical importance of leadership is as historically correct even as some believe it to be ideologically or politically incorrect.
1.John Sturgis, ed., A Boy in the Peninsular War: The Services, Adventures, and Experiences of Robert Blakeney, Subaltern in the 28th Regiment (London: John Murray, 1899), 12.
2.For British reactions to the French Revolution, see: Alfred Cobban, ed., The Debate on the French Revolution (London: N. Kaye, 1950); F. O’Gorman, The Whig Party and the French Revolution (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1967); Albert Goodwin, The Friends of Liberty: The English Democratic Movement in the Age of the French Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979); J.E. Cookson, The Friends of Peace: Anti-War Liberalism in England, 1793–1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); F. Kennedy, The Jacobin Clubs in the French Revolution: The First Years (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982); Robert Dozier, For King, Constitution, and Country: The English Loyalists and the French Revolution (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1983); Colin Jones, ed., Britain and Revolutionary France: Conflict, Subversion, and Propaganda (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1983); Marilyn Butler, ed., Burke, Paine, Godwin, and the Revolution Controversy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); H.T. Dickinson, British Radicalism and the French Revolution, 1789–1815 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); Seamus Deane, The French Revolution and Enlightenment in England, 1789–1832 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988); Gwyn A. Williams, Artisans and Sans Culottes: Popular Movements in France and Britain during the French Revolution (London: Edward Arnold, 1989); H.T. Dickinson, Britain and the French Revolution (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1989); Derek Jarrett, Three Faces of Revolution: Paris, London, New York in 1789 (London: G. Philip, 1989); Mark Philp, ed., The French Revolution and British Popular Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Marilyn Morris, The British Monarchy and the French Revolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998).
3.Archives Parlementaires, 15:510.
4.William Pitt speech, February 17, 1792, Parliamentary History, 29:826.
5.For nineteenth-century accounts by people who either themselves or their descendants knew Pitt, see: George Tomline Pretyman, Memoirs of the Life of the Right Hon. William Pitt, 3 vols (London: John Murray, 1821); Philip Henry, Lord Stanhope, Life of the Right Honorable William Pitt, 4 vols (London: John Murray, 1867).
For the most detailed and wordy biography, see the trilogy: John Ehrman, The Younger Pitt: The Years of Acclaim (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1969); John Ehrman, The Younger Pitt: The Reluctant Transition (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1983); John Ehrman, The Younger Pitt: The Consuming Struggle (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996). For good one-volume biographies, see Robin Reilly, William Pitt the Younger: A Biography (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1978); Eric Evans, William Pitt the Younger (New York: Routledge, 1999); William Hague, William Pitt the Young (New York: Harper Perennial, 2004). For Pitt and the French Revolution, see: Jennifer Mori, William Pitt and the French Revolution, 1785–1795 (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1997).
6.For the French Revolution, see: Will and Ariel Durant, Rousseau and Revolution (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1967); William Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Simon Schama, Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989; Jeremy Popkin, A Short History of the French Revolution (New York: Routledge, 2014); Lynn Hunt and Jack Censer, The French Revolution and Napoleon: Crucible of the Modern World (New York: Bloomsbury, 2017); Ian Davidson, The French Revolution: From Enlightenment to Tyranny (New York: Pegasus, 2017); Timothy Tackett, The Coming of the French Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2017).
7.Schama, Citizens, 640.
8.Charles François Doumouriez, La Vie et les Mémoires du Général Dumouriez, Avec des notes et éclairissements historiques par M. M. Berville et Barière, 4 vols (Paris: Baudoins Frères, 1822–3), 1:405–6.
9.For overviews of British policy during the first years of war, see: Ehrman, The Younger Pitt: The Reluctant Transition.
10.Peter Jupp, Lord Grenville, 1759–1834 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Holden Furber, Henry Dundas, First Viscount Melville, 1741–1811: Political Manager of Scotland, Statesman, Administrator of British India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1931); Cyril Matheson, The Life of Henry Dundas, First Viscount Melville, 1742–1811 (London: Constable and Company, 1933).
11.King George III to William Pitt, September 14, 1793, Ehrman, Younger Pitt, 1:318.
12.For the best books, see note 2 above.
13.Archives Parlementaires, 10:472–4.
14.Archives Parlementaires, 10:520–2.
15.Archives Parlementaires, 10:674.
16.For British military organization, policies, and power, see: Richard Glover, Peninsular Preparation: The Reform of the British Army, 1795–1809 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988; J.A. Houlding, Fit for Service: The Training of the British Army, 1715–1795 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981); Alan James Guy, The Road to Waterloo: The British Army and the Struggle against Revolutionary and Napoleonic France (London: National Army Museum, 1990); Philip J. Haythornthwaite, The Armies of Wellington (London: Brockhampton Press, 1996); J.E. Cookson, The British Armed Nation, 1793–1815 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997); Jeremy Black, Britain as a Military Power, 1688–1815 (London: Routledge, 1999); Edward J. Coss, All the King’s Shilling: The British Soldier under Wellington, 1808–1814 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2010); Andrew Bamford, Sickness, Suffering, and the Sword: The British Regiment on Campaign, 1808–1815 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2013).
17.Wellington to Liverpool, January 2, 1810, Wellington Dispatches, 5:404.
18.Haythornthwaite, Armies of Wellington, 17–18.
19.Haythornthwaite, Armies of Wellington, 23.
20.Charles J. Esdaile, Fighting Napoleon: Guerrillas, Bandits, and Adventurers in Spain, 1808–1814 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 78.
21.Haythornthwaite, Armies of Wellington, 28.
22.Haythornthwaite, Armies of Wellington, 32.
23.Philip Haythornthwaite, Wellington: The Iron Duke (Washington DC: Potomac Books,2007), 42.
24.William Grattan, Adventure with the Connaught Rangers, 1809–1814 (London: Henry Colburn, 1847), 50.
25.For British cavalry, see: Bryan Fosten, Wellington’s Heavy Cavalry (London: Osprey Books, 1982); Bryan Fosten, Wellington’s Light Cavalry (London: Osprey Books, 1982); Philip Hayhornthwaite, British Cavalrymen, 1792–1815 (London: Osprey Books, 1994); Ian Fletcher, Galloping at Everything: The British Cavalry in the Peninsular War and at Waterloo, 1808–15 (Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books, 1999).
26.August Schaumann, On the Road with Wellington: The Diary of a War Commissary in the Peninsular Campaign (London: Naval and Military Press, 2009), 219.
27.Fletcher, Galloping at Everything, 19.
28.Haythornthwaite, Armies of Wellington, 114.
29.Haythornthwaite, Armies of Wellington, 48.
30.Haythornthwaite, Armies of Wellington, 21.
31.Haythornthwaite, Armies of Wellington, 44.
32.Haythornthwaite, Armies of Wellington, 43.
33.John R. Western, The English Militia in the Eighteenth Century: The Story of a Political Issue, 1660–1802 (London: Routledge, 1965).
34.Haythornthwaite, Armies of Wellington, 183.
35.J.E. Cookson, The British Armed Nation, 1793–1815 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997); Austin Gee, The British Volunteer Movement, 1794–1814 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).
36.Haythornthwaite, Armies of Wellington, 145, 150.
37.Haythornthwaite, Armies of Wellington, 148.
38.Otto von Pivka, The Black Brunswickers (London: Osprey Publishing, 1973).
39.Stanhope Conversations, 14. For analyses of the British army during this era, see: Haythornthwaite, Armies of Wellington; Edward J. Coss, All the King’s Shilling: The British Soldier under Wellington, 1808–1814 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2010); Andrew Bamford, Sickness, Suffering, and the Sword: The British Regiment on Campaign, 1808–1815 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2013).
40.Eileen Hathaway, ed., Benjamin Harris: A Dorset Rifleman (London: Shinglepicker Press, 1995), 92.
41.Cobbett’s Weekly Political Register, June 13, 1812, 741–2, NYPL.
42.Schaumann, Diary, 269.
43.Haythornthwaite, Armies of Wellington, 88.
44.Wellington to Rowland Hill, June 18, 1812, Wellington Dispatches, 9: 238.
45.David Gates, The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War (New York: Da Capo Press, 1986), 23.
46.For the overview of British naval strategy and operations during this era, see: William James, Naval History of Great Britain, 1793–1820, 5 vols (London: Richard Bentley, 1822–4); G.J. Marcus, The Age of Nelson (London: Allen and Unwin, 1971); C. Northcote Parkinson, Britannia Rules: The Classic Age of Naval History, 1793–1815 (London: Alan Sutton Publishing, 1994); James Henderson, The Frigates: An Account of the Lighter Warships of the Napoleonic Wars, 1793–1815 (London: Leo Cooper, 1994); Robert Woodman, The Victory of Sea Power: Winning the Napoleonic War, 1806–1814 (London: Chatham Publishing, 1998); Peter Padfield, Maritime Power and the Struggle for Freedom: Naval Campaigns that Shaped the Modern World, 1788–1851 (London: John Murray, 2003); Richard Harding, British Admirals of the Napoleonic Wars: The Contemporaries of Nelson (London: Chatham, 2005); Roy Adkins and Lesley Adkins, The War for all the Oceans: From Nelson at the Nile to Napoleon at Waterloo (New York: Viking, 2006); Noel Mostert, The Line Upon a Wind: The Great War at Sea, 1793–1815 (New York: W.W. Norton, 2007); Sam Willis, In the Hour of Victory: The Royal Navy at War in the Age of Nelson (New York: W.W. Norton, 2014).
For naval shipbuilding and resources, see: R.G. Albion, Forests and Sea Power (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1926); Roger Morriss, The Royal Dockyards during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1983); J. Coad, The Royal Dockyards, 1690–1815: Architecture and Engineering Works of the Sailing Navy (Aldershot: Scolar Press, 1989).
For naval administration, manpower, and ship-life, see: Michael Lewis, A Social History of the Navy, 1783–1815 (London: Allen and Unwin, 1960); N.A.M. Rodger, The Wooden World: An Anatomy of the Georgian Navy (New York: W.W. Norton, 1986); Brian Lavery, Nelson’s Navy: The Ships, Men, and Organization, 1793–1815 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press,1989).
For overviews of the French navy, see: Martine Acerra and Jean Meyer, Marine et Revolution (Rennes: Edition Ouest France, 1988); J. Martray, La Destruction de la marine Française par la Révolution (Paris: France Empire, 1988 ); Patrick Crowhurst, The French War on Trade: Privateering, 1793–1815 (London: Scolar Press, 1989); William S. Cormack, Revolution and Political Conflict in the French Navy, 1789–1793 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Michel Verge Franceschi, La Marine Française au XVIIIe Siècle (Paris: Sede, 1996); J.M. Humbert and B. Ponsonnet, Napoléon et la Mer: Un Rêve d’Empire (Paris: Seuil, 2004); J.J. Ségéric, Napoléon Face à la Royal Navy (Paris: Marine Editions, 2008); Jean-Claude Gillet, La Marine impériale: Le Grand Rêve de Napoléon (Paris: Bernard Giovanangeli Editeur, 2010).
47.Horatio Nelson to William Nelson, February 8, 1782, Nelson Dispatches, 1:57.
48.Rodger, Wooden World, 256.
49.Edward Brenton, ed., The Life and Correspondence of John, Earl of St. Vincent (1838, repr. London: Elibron Classics, 2005), 1:432.
50.Brenton, ed., St. Vincent Correspondence, 1:455.
51.Mostert, Line Upon a Wind, 36–43.
52.Mostert, Line Upon a Wind, 132–3.
53.Geoffrey Bennett, Nelson the Commander (New York: Scribners’ Sons, 1972), 84.
54.Bennett, Nelson, 69.
55.Mostert, Line Upon a Wind, 64.
56.For the classic work on the dilemma, see Albion, Forests and Sea Power.
57.Mostert, Line Upon a Wind, 64.
58.Gillet, La Marine impériale, 68.
59.David Sobel, Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time (New York: Penguin, 2006).
60.Parkinson, Britannia Rules, 9.
61.Gillet, La Marine Impériale, 17
62.G.F. Mainwaring, and Bonamy Dobree, Mutiny: The Floating Republic (London: Pen & Sword, 2004); Ann Veronica Coats and Philip Macdonald, The Naval Mutinies of 1797: Unity and Perseverance (London: Boydell Press, 2011).
63.Parkinson, Britannia Rules, 10.
64.Rodger, Wooden World, 205–51.
65.Voltaire, Candide (New York: Dover Publications, 1991), 64.
66.Anonymous, The Proceedings of the Court Martial of Admiral Byng (London: Gale, 2012).
67.Bennett, Nelson, 66.
68.For the best biographies, see: Elizabeth Longford, Wellington: Years of the Sword (New York: Harper and Row, 1969); Arthur Bryant, The Great Duke or the Invincible General (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1972); Jac Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula (Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books, 1992); Christopher Hibbert, Wellington: A Personal History (Reading, Mass.: Perseus Books, 1997); Michael Glover, Wellington as Military Commander (New York: Penguin, 2001); John Severn, Architects of Empire: The Duke of Wellington and His Brothers (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007); Huw J. Davies, Wellington’s Wars: The Making of a Military Genius (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012); Rory Muir, Wellington: The Path to Victory (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014).
69.George Robert Gleig, The Life of Arthur, Duke of Wellington (London: Longman Green, 1889), 4.
70.Gleig, Wellington, 1:6.
71.Stanhope Conversations, 182.
72.For the best biographies, see: Bennett, Nelson ; Terry Coleman, The Nelson Touch: The Life and Legend of Horatio Nelson (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002); Oliver Warner, Nelson’s Battles (London: Pen & Sword Books, 2003); David Cannadine, ed., Admiral Lord Nelson: Context and Legacy (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).
73.Brenton, ed., St. Vincent Correspondence, 2:42.
74.Horatio Nelson to Emma Hamilton, 16, 1801, Thomas Pettigrew, ed., Memoirs of the Life of Vice-Admiral Lord Viscount Nelson, 2 vols (London: T and W. Boone, 1849), 1:444.
75.Horatio Nelson to George Rose, October 6, 1805, Nelson Dispatches, 7:80.
76.John Jervis to Gilbert Elliot, August 22, 1796, Brenton, ed., St. Vincent Correspondence, 1:213.
1.For the allied takeover and siege of Toulon, see: Robert Forczyk, Toulon 1793: Napoleon’s First Great Victory (London: Osprey Books, 2005); Bernard Ireland, The Fall of Toulon: The Last Opportunity to Defeat the French Revolution (London: Cassell Military Paperbacks, 2005); Charles James Fox, Napoleon Bonaparte and the Siege of Toulon: The First Victory of a Future Emperor of France, 1793 (London: Leonaur, 2010).
2.Ireland, Fall of Toulon, 143.
3.Horatio Nelson to Fanny Nelson, August 4, 1793, Nelson Dispatches, 1:316.
4.For the Terror, see: R.R. Palmer, Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of Terror in the French Revolution (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1941); David Andress, The Terror: The Merciless War for Freedom in Revolutionary France (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2006).
5.Horatio Nelson to Fanny Nelson, September 11, 1793, Nelson Dispatches, 1:324.
6.Bonaparte to Committee of Public Safety, October 25, 1793, Napoléon Correspondance, 1:139.
7.For Bonaparte’s initial plan, see Bonaparte to Committee of Public Safety, October 25, 1793,
Napoléon Correspondance, 1:139; For his extensive plan, see Bonaparte to Bouchotte, November 14, 1793, Napoléon Correspondance, 1:142–7. For other revealing letters of Napoleon Bonaparte’s activities during the siege, see: Bonaparte to Gassendi, September 18, 1793; Bonaparte to Carteaux, October [n.d.], 1793; Napoleon Bonaparte to Chauvet, October [n.d.], 1793; Napoleon Bonaparte to Government Representatives, October 16, 1793; Bonaparte to unknown, October [n.d.], 1793; Bonaparte to Gassendi, October 18, 1793; Bonaparte to Government Representatives, October 22, 1793; Bonaparte to unknown, October 24,1793; Bonaparte to Sucy, November 3, 1793; Bonaparte to Gassendi, November 4, 1793;
Bonaparte to Dupin, November 30, 1793; Bonaparte to Gassendi, December 7, 1793; Bonaparte to Dupin, December 24, 1793; Napoléon Correspondance, 1:129; 131–2;132–3; 133–4; 134–5; 136; 137; 138; 140; 140–1; 148–9; 149; 154.
8.Sidney Smith to William, Lord Auckland, Auckland Correspondence, 3:157.
9.Ireland, Fall of Toulon, 232–3.
10.Ireland, Fall of Toulon, 210.
11.Bonaparte to Dupin, November 30, 1793, Napoléon Correspondance, 1:148–9.
12.Ireland, Fall of Toulon, 251.
13.Ireland, Fall of Toulon, 261–2, 249.
14.Bonaparte to Dupin, December 24, 1793, Napoléon Correspondance, 1:154.
15.Jean-Claude Gillet, La Marine impériale: Le Grand Rêve de Napoléon (Paris: Bernard Giovanangeli Editeur, 2010), 8.
16.Bonaparte to Dupin, December 24, 1793, Napoléon Correspondance, 1:154.
1.For the Low Countries, see: E.H. Kossman, The Low Countries, 1780–1940 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978); J.H.C. Bloom and E. Lamberts, eds, History of the Low Countries (New York: Berghahn Books, 2006); Paul Arblaster, A History of the Low Countries (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012).
For Holland’s rise and decline as a great power, see: Simon Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age (New York: Knopf, 1987); C.R. Boxer, The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600–1800 (New York: Penguin, 1991); Jonathan Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); Wim Klooster, The Dutch Moment: War, Trade, and Settlement in the Seventeenth Century Atlantic World (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2016).
For the seventeenth-century Anglo-Dutch wars, see: D.R. Hainsworth, The Anglo-Dutch Wars, 1652–1674 (London: Sutton, 1998); J.R. Jones, The Anglo-Dutch Wars of the Seventeenth Century (New York: Routledge, 2015).
For overviews of the French Revolutionary Wars of which most are fought in the Low Countries, see: Steven T. Ross, The Quest for Victory: French Military Strategy, 1792–1799 (New York: Barnes and Company, 1978); T.C.W. Blanning, The French Revolutionary Wars, 1787–1802 (London: Arnold, 1996); Paddy Griffith, The Art of War of Revolutionary France, 1789–1802 (Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books, 1998).
For an excellent overview of British operations in the Low Countries during this era, see: Andrew Limm, Walcheren to Waterloo: The British Army in the Low Countries during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, 1793–1815 (London: Pen & Sword, 2018).
2.Ehrman, Younger Pitt, 1:269.
3.Ross, Quest for Victory, 45.
4.Alfred H. Burne, The Noble Duke of York: The Military Life of Frederick Duke of York and Albany (London: Staples Press, 1948).
5.Unless otherwise noted, all force strength and casualty statistics for this chapter were culled from Digby Smith, The Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book: Actions and Losses in Personnel, Colours, Standards, and Artillery, 1792–1815 (London: Greenhill Books, 1998).
6.Burne, Noble Duke of York, 46.
7.Charles Crauford to William, lord Auckland, September 23, 1794, Auckland Correspondence, 3:243.
8.Charles Crauford to William, lord Auckland, May 9, 1794, Auckland Correspondence, 3:210–12.
9.Charles Crauford to William, lord Auckland, August 8, 1794, Auckland Correspondence, 3:224–6.
10.Charles Crauford to William, lord Auckland, August 8, 1794, Auckland Correspondence, 3:226–7.
11.Charles Crauford to William, lord Auckland, September 26, 1794, Auckland Correspondence, 3:245–6.
12.Wellington Reminiscences, 161.
13.Stanhope Conversations, 182.
14.Horatio Nelson to Fanny Nelson, February 25, 1795, Nelson Dispatches, 2:8.
1.For overviews of naval warfare, see: Alfred Thayer Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History: The French Revolution and Empire, 1793–1812, 2 vols (Boston: Little, Brown, 1892); Roger Morriss, The Royal Dockyards during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1983); Martine Acerra and Jean Meyer, Marines et Révolution (Rennes: Ouest France, 1988); C. Northcote Parkinson, Britannia Rules: The Classic Age of Naval History, 1793–1815 (London: Alan Sutton Publishing, 1994); Peter Padfield, Maritime Power and the Struggle for Freedom: Naval Campaigns that Shaped the Modern World, 1788–1851 (Woodstock: Overlook Press, 2003); Roy Adkins and Lesley Adkins, The War for all the Oceans: From Nelson at the Nile to Napoleon at Waterloo (New York: Viking, 2006); Noel Mostert, The Line Upon a Wind: The Great War at Sea, 1793–1815 (New York: W.W. Norton, 2007); Sam Willis, In the Hour of Victory: The Royal Navy at War in the Age of Nelson (New York: W.W. Norton, 2014).
For French naval power and strategy, see: Acerra and Meyer, Marines et Révolution; J. Martray, La Destruction de la marine Française par la Révolution (Paris: France Empire, 1988); Patrick Crowhurst, The French War on Trade: Privateering, 1793–1815 (London: Scolar Press, 1989); William S. Cormack, Revolution and Political Conflict in the French Navy, 1789–1793 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Michel Verge Franceschi, La Marine Française au XVIIIe Siècle (Paris: Sede, 1996); J.M. Humbert and B. Ponsonnet, Napoléon et la Mer: Un Rêve d’Empire (Paris: Seuil, 2004); J.J. Ségéric, Napoléon Face à la Royal Navy (Paris: Marine Editions, 2008); Jean-Claude Gillet, La Marine impériale: Le Grand Rêve de Napoléon (Paris: Bernard Giovanangeli, 2010).
For the classic work on the West Indies and British strategy during this era, see: Michael Duffy, Soldiers, Sugar, and Seapower: The British Expeditions to the West Indies and the War against Revolutionary France (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987). See also: Frances Armytage, The Free Port System in the British West Indies (London: Longmans, 1953); E.L. Cox, The Free Coloreds in the Slave Societies of St. Kitts and Grenada, 1763–1833 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee, 1984); Martin Howard, Death Before Glory: The British Soldier in the West Indies in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, 1793–1815 (London: Pen & Sword, 2015).
For the Mediterranean, see: Gareth Glover, The Forgotten War against Napoleon: Conflict in the Mediterranean (London: Pen & Sword, 2017).
2.Henri Lémery, La Révolution française à la Martinique (Paris: Larose, 1936); T.O. Ott, The Haitian Revolution, 1789–1801 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1973); Jeremy Popkin, A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution (New York: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011).
3.D. Geggus, ‘The British Government and the Saint Domingue Slave Revolt, 1791–1793,’ English Historical Review, Vol. 96 (1981), 285–305; ‘Digest of the Proceedings in the ... Home Department with respect to the West Indies from December 1792 to December 1793,’ BL add. mss 59239.
4.Edward Brenton, ed., The Life and Correspondence of John, Earl of St. Vincent (1838, repr. London: Elibron Classics, 2005), 1:93–4.
5.Duffy, Soldiers, Sugar, and Seapower, 88.
6.Duffy, Soldiers, Sugar, and Seapower, 94–5, 100; Brenton, ed., St. Vincent Correspondence, 1:116.
7.Duffy, Soldiers, Sugar, and Seapower, 103–4.
8.Duffy, Soldiers, Sugar, and Seapower, 124.
9.For the Glorious First of June, see: Michael Duffy, ed., The Glorious First of June, 1794: A Naval Battle and Its Aftermath (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2001). See also: David Syrett, Admiral Lord Howe: A Biography (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2005).
10.Pasquale Paoli to George III, September 1, 1793, PRO FO 79/9. See also: Peter Thrasher, Pasquale Paoli: An Enlightenment Hero (New York: Anchon books, 1970).
11.Horatio Nelson to Fanny Nelson, April 1, 1795, Nelson Letters, 2:26.
12.Horatio Nelson to George Keith, June 6, 1800, Nelson Dispatches, 4:248.
13.Horatio Nelson to Dixon Hoste, December 12, 1795, Nelson Dispatches, 2:116.
14.Horatio Nelson to Gilbert Elliot, December 4, 1795, Nelson Dispatches, 2:113.
15.Gillet, La Marine impériale, 61.
16.James Davidson, Admiral Lord St. Vincent – Saint or Tyrant?: The Life of Sir John Jervis, Nelson’s Patron (London: Pen & Sword, 2006).
17.Mostert, Line Upon a Wind, 175.
18.Bernton, ed., St. Vincent Correspondence, 1:137–40.
19.For Napoleon’s first Italian campaign, see: Martin Boycott-Brown, The Road to Rivoli: Napoleon’s First Campaign (London: Cassell, 2001). See also: Carl von Clauswitz, Napoleon’s 1796 Campaign (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2018). For Bonaparte’s account, see: Napoleon Bonaparte, Mémoires de Napoléon: La Campagne d’Italie (Paris: Tallandier, 2010).
20.Henry Dundas to George Spencer, September 16, 1796, Spencer Papers, 1:321–2.
21.Cuthbert Collingwood to Blackett, December 5, 1796, Brenton, ed., St. Vincent Correspondence, 1:264–5.
22.John Jervis to Gilbert Elliot, August 22, 1796, Brenton, ed., St. Vincent Correspondence, 1:213.
23.Carole Divall, General Sir Ralph Abercromby and the French Revolutionary Wars, 1792–1801 (London: Pen & Sword, 2019).
24.Duffy, Sugar, Soldiers, and Seapower, 196, 203, 206, 211, 215.
25.Duffy, Sugar, Soldiers, and Seapower, 218, 219, 221–2.
26.Duffy, Sugar, Soldiers, and Seapower, 235–6.
27.Phillippe Girard, Toussaint Louverture: A Revolutionary Life (New York: Basic Books, 2016).
28.Duffy, Sugar, Soldiers, and Seapower, 258.
29.Duffy, Sugar, Soldiers, and Seapower, 288–90.
30.James, Lord Dunfermline, Lieutenant-General Sir Ralph Abercromby, 1793–1801: A Memoir by his Son (London: Naval & Military Press, 1861), 58–9.
31.For the battle of St Vincent, see: John Jervis official account, February 16, 1797, Brenton, ed., St. Vincent Correspondence, 1:315–18; Christopher Lloyd, St. Vincent and Camperdown (London: Macmillan, 1963).
32.Mostert, Line Upon a Wind, 194.
33.G.F. Mainwaring, and Bonamy Dobree, Mutiny: The Floating Republic (London: Pen & Sword, 2004); Ann Veronica Coats and Philip Macdonald, The Naval Mutinies of 1797: Unity and Perseverance (London: Boydell Press, 2011).
34.Parkinson, Britannia Rules, 44.
35.John Jervis to William Parker, September 4, 1797, Brenton, ed., St. Vincent Correspondence, 1:369.
36.Brenton, ed., St. Vincent Correspondence, 1:376–9, 390–2.
37.Lloyd, St. Vincent and Camperdown.
38.Horatio Nelson to John Jervis, July 27, 1797, Nelson Dispatches, 2:130.
39.Henry Dundas to William Grenville, March 31, 1799, Fortescue Manuscripts, 4:513.
40.Duffy, Sugar, Soldiers, and Seapower, 302; Mary Beacock Frye and Christopher Dracott, John Graves Simcoe, 1752–1806: A Biography (London: Dundern, 1998).
1.For the classic study of the 1798 rebellion and invasion, see: Thomas Pakenham, The Year of Liberty: The Story of the Great Irish Rebellion of 1798 (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1969).
For Ireland, see: Edith M. Johnston, Ireland in the Eighteenth Century (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1974); M.R. O’Connell, Irish Politics and Social Conflict in the Age of the American Revolution (Westport: Greenwood, 1976); R.B. McDowell, Ireland in the Age of Imperialism and Revolution, 1760–1801 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979); T.W. Moody and W.E. Vaughan, A New History of Ireland: Eighteenth Century Ireland, 1691–1800 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986); Gerard O’Brien, Anglo-Irish Politics in the Age of Grattan and Pitt (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1987); Thomas Bartlett, The Fall and Rise of the Irish Nation: The Catholic Question, 1691–1830 (New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 1992); James Kelly, Prelude to Union: Anglo-Irish Politics in the 1780s (Cork: Cork University Press, 1992).
2.Cornwallis to William Pitt, October 17, 1798, Cornwallis Correspondence, 2:418.
3.Marianne Elliot, Wolfe Tone: The Prophet of Irish Independence (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990). For the United Irishmen and the revolutionary movement, see: Richard Madden, The United Irishmen: Their Lives and Times, 4 vols (Dublin: J. Madden and Company, 1857–60); Marianne Elliot, Partners in Revolution: The United Irishmen and France (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); Hugh Gough and David Dickson, eds, Ireland and the French Revolution (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1990); Jim Smyth, The Men of No Property: Irish Radicals and Popular Politics in the Late Eighteenth Century (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1992); A.T.Q. Stewart, A Deeper Silence: The Hidden Origins of the United Irishmen (Belfast: Blackstaff Press, 1993); David Dickson, Daire Keogh, and Kevin Whelan, eds, The United Irishmen: Republicanism, Radicalism, and Rebellion (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1993); Daire Keogh, The French Disease: The Catholic Church and Irish Radicalism, 1790–1800 (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1993); Nancy J. Curtain, The United Irishmen: Popular Politics in Ulster and Dublin, 1791–1798 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994).
4.E.H. Stuart Jones, An Invasion that Failed: The French Expedition to Ireland, 1796 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1950).
5.Stephen Taylor, Commander: The Life and Exploits of Britain’s Greatest Frigate Commander (New York: W.W. Norton, 2012).
6.Chaim Rosenberg, Losing America, Conquering America: Lord Cornwallis and the Remaking of the British Empire (Jefferson: McFarland, 2017).
7.G.A. Hayes-McCoy, Irish Battles: A Military History of Ireland (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1969), 274, 276.
8.General Order, February 26, 1798, James, Lord Dunfermline, Lieutenant-General Sir Ralph Abercromby, 1793–1801: A Memoir by His Son (London: Naval & Military Press, 1861), 93–4.
9.Proclamation [1798], Auckland Correspondence, 3:420.
10.Pakenham, Year of Liberty, 84.
11.Cornwallis to Portland, July 8, 1798, Cornwallis Correspondence, 2:356.
12.Cornwallis to Portland, July 8, 1798, Cornwallis Correspondence, 2:356-57.
13.Cornwallis to Portland, July 8, 1798, Cornwallis Correspondence, 2:357.
14.John Fitzgibbon, Earl Clare to William, lord Auckland, May 21, 1798, Auckland Correspondence, 3:422–3.
15.John Beresford to William, lord Auckland, May 30, 1798, Auckland Correspondence, 3:433.
16.Cornwallis to Portland, June 28, 1798, Cornwallis Correspondence, 2:355.
17.John Fitzgibbon, Earl Clare to William, lord Auckland, [June 1798], Auckland Correspondence, 3:436.
18.For a vivid account of Edward’s capture, see John Beresford to William, lord Auckland, May 20, 1798, Auckland Correspondence, 3:413–17.
19.Cornwallis to Portland, June 28, 1798, Cornwallis Correspondence, 2:358.
20.Cornwallis to Portland, September 16, 1798, Cornwallis Correspondence, 2:405.
21.Cornwallis to Portland, June 28, 1798, Cornwallis Correspondence, 2:355.
22.Pakenham, Year of Liberty, 314.
23.Pakenham, Year of Liberty, 292–3, 342–3.
1.A.B. Rodger, The War of the Second Coalition, 1798 to 1801: A Strategic Commentary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964); Piers Mackesy, The Strategy of Overthrow, 1798–1799 (London: Longman, 1974); Piers Mackesy, War without Victory: The Downfall of Pitt, 1799–1802 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984); For the Mediterranean, see: Gareth Glover, The Forgotten War against Napoleon: Conflict in the Mediterranean (London: Pen & Sword, 2017).
2.George Spencer to John Jervis, May 19, 1798, Nelson’s Dispatches, 3:24.
3.George Spencer to John Jervis, May 19, 1798, Nelson’s Dispatches, 3:24.
4.Horatio Nelson to George Spencer, June 15, 1798, Nelson’s Dispatches, 3:31.
5.For the Egyptian campaign, see: Jean-Joël Brégeon, L’Egypte Française au Jour le Jour (Paris: Perrin, 1991); Henry Laurens, Les Origines Intellectuelles de l’Expédition d’Egypte: L’Orientalisme Islamisant en France, 1698–1798 (Paris: Editions Isis, 1987); Patrice Bret, L’Egypte: Au Temps de l’Expédition Bonaparte, 1798–1801 (Paris: Hachette, 1998); Henry Laurens et al., L’Expédition d’Egypte, 1798–1801 (Paris: A. Collins, 1989); Jean-Jacques Luthi, Regards sur l’Egypte au Temps de Bonaparte (Paris: Harmattan, 1999); J. Christopher Herold, Bonaparte in Egypt (New York: Pen & Sword, 2005); Juan Cole, Napoleon’s Egypt: Invading the Middle East (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008); Nina Burleigh, Mirage: Napoleon’s Scientists and the Unveiling of Egypt (New York: Harper, 2008); Paul Strathern, Napoleon in Egypt (New York: Bantam, 2009).
6.Bregeon, L’Egypte Française, 97; Jean-Claude Gillet, La Marine impériale: Le Grand Rêve de Napoléon (Paris: Bernard Giovanangeli Editeur, 2010), 99–103.
7.Laurens, Les Origines Intellectuelles de l’Expédition d’Egypte; Bret, L’Egypte: Au Temps de l’Expédition Bonaparte, 1798–1801 (Paris: Hachette, 1998) ; Luthi, Regards sur l’Egypte au Temps de Bonaparte.
8.Gillet, La Marine impériale, 105.
9.Napoleon Bonaparte to Jean Baptiste Perree, July 5, 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte to the Directory, July 6, 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte to Paul Brueys, July 27, 30 (2 letters), 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte to Honore Ganteaume, August 15 (2 letters), 1798, Napoléon Correspondance, 2:173, 175–7, 207–8, 216, 217, 277–8, 278.
10.For Nelson’s campaign that climaxed with the battle of the Nile, see: Brian Lavery, Nelson and the Nile: The Naval War against Napoleon Bonaparte, 1798 (London: Caxton Editions, 2003); Gregory Fremont-Barnes and Howard Gerrard, Nile 1778: Nelson’s First Great Victory (London: Osprey, 2011).
11.Horatio Nelson to John Jervis, July 20, 1798, Nelson Dispatches, 3:45.
12.Michèle Battesti, La Bataille d’Aboukir (Paris: Economica, 1998).
13.Horatio Nelson to William Wyndham, August 21, 1798, Nelson Dispatches, 3:109.
14.Kate Williams, England’s Mistress: The Infamous Life of Emma Hamilton (New York: Ballantine Books, 2006); Quintin Colville, Emma Hamilton: Seduction and Celebrity (London: Thames and Hudson, 2016).
15.Terry Coleman, The Nelson Touch: The Life and Legend of Horatio Nelson (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 179.
16.Kevin McCranie, Admiral Lord Keith and the Naval War against Napoleon (Tallahassee: University Press of Florida, 2006).
17.Norman E. Saul, Russia, and the Mediterranean, 1797–1807 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964).
18.For Paul, see: Hugh Ragsdale, Paul I: A Reassessment of His Life and Reign (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1979); Hugh Ragsdale, Tsar Paul and the Question of Madness: An Essay in History and Psychology (New York: Praeger, 1988); Roderick Macgrew, Paul I of Russia, 1754–1801 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Angelo Rappoport, The Curse of the Romanovs: A Study of the Lives and Reigns of Two Tsars, Paul I and Alexander I of Russia (New York: Forgotten Books, 2012).
19.Stanford Shaw, Between Old and New: The Ottoman Empire under Selim III, 1789–1806 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971); Tuncay Zorlu, Innovation and Empire in Turkey: Sultan Selim III and the Modernisation of the Ottoman Navy (London: I.B. Tauris, 2008).
20.Horatio Nelson to Spencer Smith, October 7, 1798, Nelson Dispatches, 3:145–6.
21.Noel Mostert, The Line Upon a Wind: The Great War at Sea, 1793–1815 (New York: W.W. Norton, 2007), 333.
22.Napoleon Bonaparte to Ahmed Djezzar, August 22, 1798; September 12, 1798; November 19, 1798, Napoléon Correspondance, 2:311–12; 414; 647.
23.Tom Pocock, A Thirst for Glory: The Life of Admiral Sir Sidney Smith (London: Thistle, 2013).
24.Edward Brenton, ed., The Life and Correspondence of John, Earl of St. Vincent (1838, repr. London: Elibron Classics, 2005), 1:461–2.
25.Smith Correspondence, 1:293–4.
26.Roy Adkins and Lesley Adkins, The War for all the Oceans: From Nelson at the Nile to Napoleon at Waterloo (New York: Viking, 2006), 62.
27.Adkins and Adkins, War for all the Oceans, 63.
28.Philip Henry, Lord Stanhope, Life of the Right Honorable William Pitt, 4 vols (London: John Murray, 1867), 3:498.
1.A.B. Rodger, The War of the Second Coalition, 1798 to 1801: A Strategic Commentary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964); Piers Mackesy, Statesmen at War: The Strategy of Overthrow, 1798–1799 (London: Longman, 1974); Piers Mackesy, War without Victory: The Downfall of Pitt, 1799–1802 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984).
2.Philip Ball, A Waste of Blood and Treasure: The 1799 Anglo-Russian Invasion of the Netherlands (New York: Pen & Sword, 2017).
3.Henry Dundas to William Grenville, July 31, 1799, Fortescue Manuscripts, 5:215.
4.The Annual Register or a View of the History, Politics, and Literature for the Year 1799 (London: Dodsley’s Annual Register, 1801), 213–15.
5.E. Walsh, A Narrative of the Expedition to Holland in the Autumn of the Year 1799 (London: B. Hamilton, 1800).
6.Unless otherwise indicated, all battle statistics for this chapter come from Digby Smith, The Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book: Actions and Losses in Personnel, Colours, Standards, and Artillery, 1792–1815 (London: Greenhill Books, 1998).
7.Captain Herbert Taylor to York, September 20, 1799, Fortescue Manuscripts, 5:418.
8.Smith, Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book, 166.
9.York to Dundas, September 20, 1799, Fortescue Manuscripts, 5:416.
10.Henry Dundas to William Grenville, November 24, 1799, Fortescue Manuscripts, 6:36–7.
11.Smith, Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book, 170–1.
12.Steven T. Ross, Quest for Victory: French Military Strategy, 1792–1799 (New York: A.S. Barnes and Company, 1978), 281.
13.Grenville to Mulgrave, October 29, 1799, Fortescue Manuscripts, 5:505.
14.Philip Ziegler, Addington: A Life of Henry Addington, First Viscount Sidmouth (New York: John Day Company, 1965); Charles John Fedorak, Henry Addington, Prime Minister, 1801–1804: Peace, War, and Parliamentary Politics (Akron: Akron University Press, 2002).
15.Dudley Pope, The Great Gamble: Nelson at Copenhagen (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972); Gareth Glover, The Two Battles of Copenhagen, 1801 and 1807: Britain and Denmark in the Napoleonic Wars (London: Pen & Sword, 2018).
16.Noel Mostert, Line Upon a Wind: The Great War at Sea, 1793–1815 (New York: W.W. Norton, 2007), 384.
17.Horatio Nelson to Hyde Parker, March 24, 1801, Francis John Higginson, Naval Battles of the Century (London: W.W. Chambers, 1903), 11.
18.Mostert, Line Upon a Wind, 389.
19.Mostert, Line Upon a Wind, 390.
20.Mostert, Line Upon a Wind, 390.
21.Mostert, Line Upon a Wind, 396.
22.The story first appeared in print five years later in the first biography of Nelson, and was related to the author by the Elephant’s surgeon, who was below tending wounded at the time but apparently heard Nelson’s quips after the battle: James Harrison, The Life of Horatio Lord Viscount Nelson, 2 vols (London: Ranelagh Press, 1806), 2:295. The spyglass to the eye version first appeared in James Clarke and John McArthur, The Life of Admiral Lord Nelson, 2 vols (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1809), 2:266–7. The quote comes from Robert Southey, The Life of Nelson (London: Longman Green, 1813), 227.
23.Geoffrey Bennett, Nelson the Commander (New York: Scribner’s Sons, 1972), 198.
24.Horatio Nelson to Hyde Parker, April 2, 1801; Horatio Nelson to Henry Addington, May 8, 1801, Nelson’s Dispatches, 4:250–8; 272–4.
25.Horatio Nelson to Pahlen, May 9, 1801; Horatio Nelson to Vansittart, May 12, 1801; Colonel Stewart’s Narrative, Nelson Dispatches, 4:274; 274–5; 276–7.
26.Mostert, Line Upon a Wind, 366.
27.William Smith to George Spencer, March 13, 1800, Smith Correspondence, 2:28–9.
28.Smith, Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book, 178.
29.For the best account, see: Piers MacKesy, British Victory in Egypt: The End of Napoleon’s Conquest (New York: Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2010).
30.Carole Divall, General Sir Ralph Abercromby and the French Revolutionary Wars, 1792–1801 (London: Pen & Sword, 2019); Kevin McCranie, Admiral Lord Keith and the Naval War against Napoleon (Tallahassee: University Press of Florida, 2006).
31.Mackesy, British Victory in Egypt, 49.
32.Mackesy, British Victory in Egypt, 43, 44.
33.Mackesy, British Victory in Egypt, 49, 70–1; James, Lord Dunfermline, Lieutenant-General Sir Ralph Abercromby, 1793–1801: A Memoir by his Son (London: Naval & Military Press, 1861), 273.
34.Mackesy, British Victory in Egypt, 56.
35.This is the best estimate of several, Mackesy, British Victory in Egypt, 62.
36.Mackesy, British Victory in Egypt, 75.
37.Thomas Grenville to Grenville, May 9, 1801, Fortescue Manuscripts, 7:17.
38.Mackesy, British Victory in Egypt, 101–2.
39.Mackesy, British Victory in Egypt, 99.
40.Mackesy, British Victory in Egypt, 132–3, 137.
41.Egyptian News, communicated by Mr. Addington [May 1801], Fortescue Manuscripts, 7:18.
42.Mackesy, British Victory in Egypt, 202.
43.Mackesy, British Victory in Egypt, 224.
44.Mackesy, British Victory in Egypt, 227.
45.Sketch of a Plan for Peace, settled at the Cabinet at the Time of the Discussions with Otto, [n.d.] 1800, Addington Correspondence, 1:257–60.
46.John D. Grainger, The Amiens Truce: Britain and Bonaparte, 1801–1803 (Rochester: Boydell Press, 2004).
47.Mostert, Line Upon a Wind, 421.
1.For overviews of British India and the campaigns of this era, see: P.J. Marshall, ed., The Problems of Empire: Britain and India, 1757–1813 (London: Allen and Unwin, 1968); M.E. Yapp, Strategies of British India: Britain, Iran, and Afghanistan, 1798–1850 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980); Edward Ingram, Commitment to Empire: Prophecies of the Great Game for Asia, 1797–1800 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981); C.A. Bayly, Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communications in India, 1780–1880 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Rupali Mishra, A Business of State: Commerce, Politics, and the Birth of the East India Company (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2018).
2.Steven T. Ross, Quest for Victory: French Military Strategy, 1792–1799 (New York: A.S. Barnes and Company, 1978), 152.
3.Mornington to Court of Directors, August 3, 1799, Lieutenant Colonel Gurwood, ed., The Dispatches of Field Marshall the Duke of Wellington during His Various Campaigns in India, Denmark, Portugal, Spain, the Low Countries, and Frence, 1799–1818, 12 vols (London: John Murray, 1838), 2:2:88–9.
4.John Fortescue, A History of the British Army (London: Macmillan, 1910), 4:939.
5.For the Wellesley brothers, see: John Severn, Architects of Empire: The Duke of Wellington and His Brothers (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007). For Wellington, see: Jac Weller, Wellington in India (London: Frontline Books, 2013).
6.Mornington to Dundas, June 7, 1799, Gurwood, ed., Wellesley India Dispatches, 2:38.
7.Weller, Wellington in India, 44–5.
8.Arthur Wellesley to Mornington, May 8, 1799, Wellington Supplements, 1:212–17.
9.Arthur Wellesley to John Collins, Wellington Supplements, 4:123; Weller, Wellington in India, 82, 85.
10.Elizabeth Longford, Wellington: Years of the Sword (New York: Harper and Row, 1969), 67.
11.Croker Papers, 2:102–3.
12.David Baird, The life of General the Right Honorable Sir David Baird, 2 vols (London: Richard Bentley, 1832), 1:226.
13.Richard Wellesley to Arthur Wellesley, December 1, 1800, Wellington Dispatches, 1:37.
14.Richard Wellesley to Henry Addington, October 9, 1800, Addington Correspondence, 1:268.
15.Weller, Wellington in India, 88–100.
16.Arthur Wellesley to Adjutant General, September 10, 1800, Wellington Dispatches, 1:75–7.
17.Mornington to Court of Directors, December 24, 1802, Gurwood, ed., Wellesley India Dispatches, 3:3–12.
18.Weller, Wellington in India, 140–52.
19.Weller, Wellington in India, 157.
20.Croker Papers, 2:99.
21.Weller, Wellington in India, 195–232.
22.Weller, Wellington in India, 200, 214, 240–8.
23.Arthur Wellesley to Thomas Munro, August 20, 1800, Wellington Dispatches, 1:64–6.
24.Arthur Wellesley to Lieutenant Colonel Barry Close, January 22, 1804, Wellington Dispatches, 2:69.
25.Quoted in Severn, Architects of Empire, 159.
26.Arthur Wellesley, Memorandum upon Operations in the Maratha Territory, December 1800 and January 1801, Wellington Dispatches, 1:357–65.
27.Arthur Wellesley to Colonel James Stevenson, August 17, 1803, Gurwood, ed., Wellesley India Dispatches, 2:210.
1.John D. Grainger, The Amiens Truce: Britain and Bonaparte, 1801–1803 (Rochester: Boydell Press, 2004).
2.Noel Mostert, The Line Upon a Wind: The Great War at Sea, 1793–1815 (New York: W.W. Norton, 2007), 433.
3.Napoleon to Dejean, July 26, 1804; Napoleon Bonaparte to Eustache Bruix, August 22, 1803; Napoleon Bonaparte to Denis Decrès, August 22, 1803; Napoleon Bonaparte to Louis Berthier, August 23, 1803, Napoléon Correspondance, 4:231–2; 282–4; 284–5; 286.
4.Napoleon to Latouche-Treville, July 2, 1804, Napoléon Correspondance, 4:756.
5.Thierry Lentz, Nouvelle Histoire du Premier Empire: Napoléon et la Conquête de l’Europe, 1804–1810 (Paris: Fayard, 2002), 149. For a vivid account by Napoleon’s valet, see: Louis Constant, Mémoires Intimes de Napoléon Ie par Constant, son valet de chambre, 2 vols (Paris: Mercure de France, 1967), 245–52. For Napoleon reaction, see: Napoleon to Josephine, 21, 1804, Napoléon Correspondance, 4:775.
6.For the Trafalgar campaign, see Alan Schom, Trafalgar: Countdown to Battle, 1803–1805 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); Robert Gardiner, The Campaign of Trafalgar, 1803–05 (London: Chatham Publishing, 1997); Michelle Battisti, Trafalgar: Les Aleas de la Strategie Navale (Paris: Editions Napoléon Ie, 2004); M. Monarque, Trafalgar (Paris: Tallandier, 2005); Mark Adkin, The Trafalgar Companion: The Complete Guide to History’s Most Famous Sea Battle and the Life of Lord Nelson (London: Arum Press, 2005); Roy Adkins, Nelson’s Trafalgar (New York: Penguin, 2006); Adam Nicolson, Seize the Fire: Heroism, Duty, and Nelson’s Battle of Trafalgar (New York: Harper Perennial, 2006); Richard Harding, A Great and Glorious Victory: New Perspectives on the Battle of Trafalgar (London: Seaforth, 2008).
7.Napoleon to Decrès, September 29 (5 letters), Napoléon Correspondance, 4:896-02.
8.Schom, Trafalgar, 176–7; Roy Adkins and Lesley Adkins, The War for all the Oceans: From Nelson at the Nile to Napoleon at Waterloo (New York: Viking, 2006); C. Northcote Parkinson, Britannia Rules: The Classic Age of Naval History, 1793-1815 (London: Alan Sutton Publishing, 1994), 96.
9.Parkinson, Britannia Rules, 97.
10.Napoleon to Decrès, August 14, 1805, Napoléon Correspondance, 5:570.
11.Napoleon to Ganteaume, September 6, 1804, Napoleon to Villeneuve, December 12, 1804; Napoleon to Decrès, December 14, 1804, Napoleon to Missiessy, December 23, 1804, Napoléon Correspondance, 4:857–8; 971–4; 975–6; 984–6.
12.Napoleon to Villeneuve, May 8, 1805, Napoléeon’s Correspondance, 5:283–6.
13.Napoleon to Allemand, June 9, 1805, Napoléeon Correspondance, 5:395–6.
14.Napoleon to Villeneuve, August 13, 1805, Napoléeon’s Correspondance, 5:568.
15.Napoleon to Eugene, July 27, 1805; Napoleon to Talleyrand, August 3, 4, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16, 18, 19, 22, 23 (2 letters) 1805, Napoleon to Decrès, August 13 (2 letters); 14, Napoleon to Berthier, August 24, 26, 29, 1805, Napoléon Correspondance, 5:518; 529, 539, 534, 548, 554, 560–1, 565–667, 579, 583, 589, 598–600, 607–8, 608–9 ; 561–2, 562–3; 612–13, 624–6; 642–4.
16.Napoleon to Villeneuve, September 14, 1805; Napoleon to Decrès, September 15, 1805, Napoléon Correspondance, 5:690; 693.
17.Parkinson, Britannia Rules, 106.
18.Schom, Trafalgar, 304–54.
19.Jean-Claude Gillet, La Marine impériale: La Grand Rêve de Napoléon (Paris: Bernard Giovanangeli Edieur, 2010), 274–5.
20.Terry Coleman, The Nelson Touch: The Life and Legend of Horatio Nelson (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002s), 322.
1.Roy Adkins and Lesley Adkins, The War for all the Oceans: From Nelson at the Nile to Napoleon at Waterloo (New York: Viking, 2006), 173.
2.Thomas Fernyhough, The Military Memoirs of Four Brothers engaged in the Service of their Country (London: William Sams, 1829), 75–6.
3.Adkins and Adkins, War for all the Oceans, 188.
4.William W. Kaufman, British Policy and the Independence of Latin America, 1804–1814 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1951); Klaus Gallo, Great Britain and Argentina: From Invasion to Recognition, 1806–1826 (London: Palgrave, 2001); Ian Fletcher, The Waters of Oblivion: The British Invasion of the Rio de Plata, 1806–07 (London: Spellmount, 2006).
5.Fernyhough, Military Memoirs, 89–90.
6.Richard Hopton, The Battle of Maida, 1806 (London: Pen & Sword, 2008).
7.Digby Smith, The Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book: Actions and Loses in Personnel, Colours, Standards, and Artillery, 1792–1815 (London: Greenhill Books, 1998), 221.
8.Roy Adkins and Lesley Adkins, The War for all the Oceans: From Nelson at the Nile to Napoleon at Waterloo (New York: Viking, 2006), 202.
9.For an overview, see: Thomas Munch-Petersen, Defying Napoleon: How Britain Bombarded Copenhagen and Seized the Danish Fleet in 1807 (London: Sutton Publishing, 2007); Gareth Glover, The Two Battles of Copenhagen, 1801 and 1807: Britain and Denmark in the Napoleonic Wars (London: Pen & Sword, 2018).
10.Traité de Tilsit avec la Russe, 7 Juillet 1807, Michel Kerautret, ed., Les Grand Traités de l’Empire (1804–1810): Documents Diplomatiques du Consulat et de l’Empire, Tome 2 (Paris: Nouveau Monde Editions/Fondation Napoléon, 2004), 277–90.
11.Traité de Tilsit avec la Prusse, 9 Juillet 1807, Kerautret, ed., Grand Traités, Tome 2, 290–300. See also the supplementary: Convention de Konigsberg avec la Prusse, 12 Juillet, 1807, Kerautret, ed., Grand Traités, Tome 2, 301–3.
12.Munch-Petersen, Defying Napoleon, 77, 79,
13.Munch-Petersen, Defying Napoleon, 61–81, 83–96, 97–116, 117–38.
14.Munch-Petersen, Defying Napoleon, 139.
15.Munch-Petersen, Defying Napoleon, 152.
16.Munch-Petersen, Defying Napoleon, 174–5.
17.Smith, Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book, 254.
18.Wellington Reminiscences, 61.
19.Munch-Petersen, Defying Napoleon, 202.
20.W.G. Perrin, ed., ‘The Journal of Surgeon Charles Chambers of H.M. Fireship Prometheus,’ in Naval Miscellany (London: Navy Records Society, 1928), 3:393–5.
21.John Sturgis, ed., A Boy in the Peninsular War: The Services, Adventures, and Experiences of Robert Blakeney, Subaltern in the 28th Regiment (London: John Murray, 1899), 12.
22.Munch-Petersen, Defying Napoleon, 215–16.
23.Henry Ross-Lewin, With the Thirty-Second in the Peninsula and other Campaigns (Dublin: Hodges, Figgis, and Company, 1904), 80–1.
24.Arthur Wellesley to William Wellesley Pole, September 15, 1807, Wellesley-Pole Letters, 1–4.
25.Quoted in Munch-Petersen, Defying Napoleon, 245.
26.Napoleon to Denis Decrès, January 8, 10, 27, 1809; Napoleon to Jean Baptiste Willaumez, January 9, 1809; Napoleon to Henri Clarke, January 10, 1809, Napoléon Correspondance, 8:1,427, 1,445–6, 1,537; 1439; 1,442.
27.Napoleon to Denis Decrès, March 5, 1809, Napoléon Correspondance, 9:160.
28.C. Northcote Parkinson, Britannia Rules: The Classic Age of Naval History, 1793-1815 (London: Alan Sutton Publishing, 1994), 134.
29.Thomas Dundonald, tenth Earl Cochrane, The Autobiography of a Seaman, 2 vols (London: Mclaren, 1861), 342.
30.Robert Hervey, The Life and Exploits of a Fighting Captain (New York: Da Capo, 2001); Donald Thomas, Cochrane: Britannia’s Sea Wolf (London: Cassells, 2001); David Cordingly, Cochrane the Dauntless: The Life and Adventures of Admiral Thomas Cochrane, 1775–1860 (New York: Bloomsbury, 2008).
31.Noel Mostert, The Line Upon a Wind: The Great War at Sea, 1793–1815 (New York: W.W. Norton), 575.
32.Parkinson, Britannia Rules, 136.
1.For English-Portuguese relations, see: L.M.E. Shaw, The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance and the English Merchants in Portugal, 1654–1810 (London: Ashgate, 1998); Martin Robson, Britain, Portugal, and South America in the Napoleonic Wars: Alliances and Diplomacy in Economic Maritime Conflict (London: I.B. Tauris, 2011); Jorge Canizares-Esguerra, Entangled Empires: The Anglo-Iberian Atlantic, 1500–1830 (College Station: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018).
For Portugal’s rise and decline as a great power, see: A.R. Disney, A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire: From the Beginnings to 1807, 2 vols (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009); A.J.R. Russell-Wood, The Portuguese Empire, 1415–1808: A World on the Move (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998); Roger Crowley, Conquerors: How Portugal Forged the First Global Empire (New York: Random House, 2015).
2.Otto von Pivka, The Portuguese Army of the Napoleonic War (London: Osprey, 1977).
3.Traité Franco-Espagnol de Fontainebleau, October 27, 1807, Michel Kerautret, ed., Les Grand Traités de l’Empire (1804–1810): Documents Diplomatiques du Consulat et de l’Empire, Tome 2 (Paris: Nouveau Monde Editions/Fondation Napoléon, 2004), 320–5.
4.For the British rescue, see: Laurentino Gomes, 1808: The Flight of the Emperor: How A Weak Prince, A Mad Queen, and the British Navy Tricked Napoleon and Changed the New World (New York: Lyons Press, 2013).
5.Hew Dalrymple, Memoirs written by Sir Hew Dalrymple, Bart., of his Proceeding as connected with the affairs of Spain and the Commencement of the Peninsular War (London: Thomas and William Boone, 1830).
6.Arthur Wellesley to William Wellesley Pole, August 19, 1808, Wellesley-Pole Letters, 5.
7.Arthur Wellesley to Castlereagh, August 1, 1808, Wellington Dispatches, 4:55.
8.Coker Papers, 1:12–13.
9.Arthur Wellesley to Castlereagh, July 21, 1808, Wellesley Dispatches, 4:39.
10.Arthur Wellesley to Nicolas Trant, August 13, 1808, Wellesley Dispatches, 4:87–8.
11.Jac Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula (Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books, 1992), 41.
12.Stephen Morley, Memoirs of a Sergeant of the Fifth Regiment of Food, containing an Account of his Services in Hanover, South America, and the Peninsula (Ashford: Ken Trotman, 1842), 45–6.
13.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 39.
14.Arthur Wellesley to William Wellesley Pole, August 19, 1808, Wellesley-Pole Letters, 5.
15.David Gates, The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War (New York: Da Capo, 2001), 89.
16.Christopher Hibbert, ed., Recollections of Rifleman Harris (London: Cassell Military, 1985), 23.
17.John Fortescue, History of the British Army (London: Macmillan, 1910), 6:231.
18.Arthur Wellesley to William Wellesley Pole, August 22, 1808, Wellesley-Pole Letters, 5–6.
19.Arthur Wellesley to William Wellesley Pole, August 24, 1808, Wellesley-Pole Letters, 6.
20.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 57.
21.Arthur Wellesley to William Wellesley-Pole, August 24, quoted in Huw J. Davies, Wellington’s Wars: The Making of a Military Genius (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 95.
22.John Leach, Rough Sketches of the Life of an Old Soldier (London: John Murray, 1831), 55–6.
23.Arthur Wellesley to William Wellesley Pole, August 24, 1808, Wellesley-Pole Letters, 6–8.
24.Arthur Wellesley to William Wellesley Pole, September 16, 1808, Wellesley-Pole Letters, 11.
25.Arthur Wellesley to Castlereagh, August 23, 1808, Wellington Supplements, 6:123–4.
26.Gates, Spanish Ulcer, 92.
1.Traité de Bayonne avec Charles IV, 5 Mai, 1808; Traité entre Napoléon et Ferdinand, 10 Mai, 1808, Michel Kerautret, ed., Les Grand Traités de l’Empire (1804–1810): Documents Diplomatiques du Consulat et de l’Empire, Tome 2 (Paris: Nouveau Monde Editions/Fondation Napoléon, 2004), 365–9; 370–2.
2.For the Peninsular War, see: David Gates, The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War (New York: Da Capo, 2001); Charles Esdaile, The Peninsular War: A New History (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003); Charles J. Esdaile, Fighting Napoleon: Guerrillas, Bandits, and Adventurers in Spain, 1808–1814 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004); Charles Esdaile, Peninsular Witnesses: The Experience of War in Spain and Portugal, 1808–1811 (London: Pen & Sword, 2009); Ian Robertson, An Atlas of the Peninsular War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010).
3.Esdaile, Peninsular War, 82.
4.Theodore Hook, The Life of Sir David Baird (London: R. Bentley, 1832).
5.Alexander Gordon to Aberdeen, December 4, 17, 1808, Gordon Letters, 18, 24.
6.Alexander Gordon to Aberdeen, December 18, 1808, Gordon Letters, 26.
7.Alexander Gordon to Aberdeen, November 17, 1808, Gordon Letters, 8.
8.Alexander Gordon to Aberdeen, November 23, 1808, Gordon Letters, 11–12.
9.Alexander Gordon to Aberdeen, December 9, 1808, Gordon Letters, 19–20.
10.Alexander Gordon to Aberdeen, December 17, 22, 1808, Gordon Letters, 24, 28–9.
11.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 62.
12.Alexander Gordon to Aberdeen, December 24, 1808, Gordon Letters, 30.
13.Alexander Gordon to Aberdeen, November 17, 1808, Gordon Letters, 9.
14.James Moore, A Narrative of the Campaign of the British Army in Spain Commanded by His Excellency Lieut. General Sir John Moore (London: Joseph Johnson, 1809), 177.
15.Ian Fletcher, Galloping at Everything: The British Cavalry in the Peninsular War and at Waterloo, 1808–15 (Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books, 1999), 95.
16.Henry Curling, ed., Recollections of Rifleman Harris (London: Peter Davies, 1928), 126–7.
17.Esdaile, Peninsular War, 153.
18.August Schaumann, On the Road with Wellington: The Diary of a War Commissary in the Peninsular Campaign (London: Naval and Military Press, 2009), 127–8.
19.Alexander Gordon to Aberdeen, January 14, 1809, Gordon Letters, 34.
20.Thomas Howell, Journal of a Soldier of the Seventy-First Regiment from 1806 to 1815, Memorials of the Late War, Vol. 1 (Edinburgh: Balfour and Clarke, 1828), 66.
21.Gates, Spanish Ulcer, 114.
22.John Sturgis, ed., A Boy in the Peninsular War: The Services, Adventures, and Experiences of Robert Blakeney, Subaltern in the 28th Regiment (London: John Murray, 1899), 124–5.
23.Alexander Gordon to Aberdeen, January 14, 1809, Gordon Letters, 35.
24.Alexander Gordon to Melville, November 29, 1808, Gordon Letters, 16.
1.Robert Asprey, The Reign of Napoleon (New York: Basic Books, 2001), 217.
2.Arthur Griffiths, The Wellington Memorial, His Comrades and Contemporaries (London: G. Allen, 1897), 308.
3.Arthur Wellesley, Memorandum on the Defense of Portugal, March 7, 1809, Wellington Dispatches, 5:261–3.
4.Castlereagh to Arthur Wellesley, April 2, 1809, Castlereagh Correspondence, 7:47.
5.Jac Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula (Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books, 1992), 83–5; Ian Fletcher, Galloping at Everything: The British Cavalry in the Peninsular War and at Waterloo, 1808–15 (Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books, 1999), 101.
6.Arthur Wellesley to Castlereagh, May 18, 1809, Wellington Dispatches, 4:317.
7.Arthur Wellesley to John Villiers, May 31, 1809, Wellington Dispatches, 3:262.
8.George Robert Gleig, The Life of Arthur, Duke of Wellington (London: Longman Green, 1889), 430–1.
9.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 74, 79.
10.Elizabeth Longford, Wellington: Years of the Sword (New York: Harper and Row, 1969), 183.
11.Arthur Wellesley to William Huskinsson, May 5, 1809; Arthur Wellesley to John Villiers, May 31 and June 1, 1809; Arthur Wellesley to Castlereagh, June 11, 1809; Wellington Dispatches, 4:302; 374 and 382–3; 413–14; Castlereagh to Arthur Wellesley, July 11, 1809, Castlereagh Correspondence, 7:95–6.
12.Arthur Wellesley to Benardino Freire, July 24, 1809, Wellington Dispatches, 4:526–7.
13.Arthur Wellesley to Castlereagh, July 24, 1809, Wellington Dispatches, 4:527–9.
14.For Wellesley’s frustrating efforts just to get Cuesta into a secure position, see: Wellington Conversations, 1.
15.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 105–7.
16.Charles Esdaile, The Peninsular War: A New History (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 206.
17.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 104.
18.Arthur Wellesley to William Wellesley-Pole, August 1, 8, 1809, Wellesley-Pole Letters, 17–18.
19.David Gates, The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War (New York: Da Capo, 2001), 181.
20.Arthur Wellesley to William Wellesley Pole, August 1, 8, 1809, Wellesley-Pole Letters, 19.
21.Esdaile, Peninsular War, 213.
22.Esdaile, Peninsular War, 213.
23.Arthur Wellesley to Richard Wellesley, September 1, 1809, Wellington Dispatches, 3:467.
1.For the Walcheren campaign, see: Théo Fleishman, L’Expédition Anglaise sur le Continent en 1809 (Brussels: La Renaissance du Livre, 1973); Gordon C. Bond, The Grand Expedition: the British Invasion of Holland in 1809 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1979); Andrew Limm, Walcheren to Waterloo: The British Army in the Low Countries during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, 1793–1815 (London: Pen & Sword, 2018).
For analyses of Walcheren Fever, see: T.H. McGuffie, ‘The Walcheren Expedition and the Walcheren Fever,’ English Historical Review, Vol. 62, 1947, 191–202; Robert M. Feibel, ‘What Happened at Walcheren: The Primary Sources,’ Bulletin of the History of Medicine, Vol. 42, 1968, 62–79; Kate Elizabeth Crowe, ‘The Walcheren Expedition and the New Army Medical Board: A Reconsideration,’ English Historical Review, Vol. 88, 1973, 770–885.
2.For key documents and accounts of the Walcheren expedition’s planning and execution, see: ‘Testimony of Dundas,’ February 5, 1810, Parliamentary Debates, Vol. 15, appendix col. 86; ‘Testimony of Castlereagh,’ March 1, 1810, Parliamentary Debates, March 1, 1810, Parliamentary Debates, Vol. 15, appendix col. 522; ‘Memorandum upon the supposed practicality of Destroying the French Ships and Vessels I the Scheldt and in the Arsenals at Antwerp,’ May 31, 1809, ‘Memorandum relative to the projected Expedition against Walcheren,’ June 1, 1808, Castlereagh Correspondence, 5:257–61, 261–5; ‘Memorandum Relative to the projected Expedition to the Scheldt,’ June 3, 1809, Parliamentary Debates, Vol. 15, Appendix, cols 154–6.
3.‘Testimony of Castlereagh,’ March 1, 1810, Parliamentary Debates, March 1, 1810, Parliamentary Debates, Vol. 15, appendix col. 522.
4.Bond, Grand Expedition, 17.
5.Home Popham to Castlereagh, June 13, 1809, Castlereagh Correspondence, 6:274.
6.Capt. Graham Moore to Thomas Creevey, September 19, 1809, Creevey Papers, 95; C. Northcote Parkinson, Britannia Rules: The Classic Age of Naval History, 1793–1815 (London: Alan Sutton Publishing, 1994), 141.
7.C.G. Gardyne, The Life of a Regiment: The History of the Gordon Highlanders from its formation in 1794 to 1816 (London: Medici Society, 1929), 172.
8.Lindell Hart, ed., The Letters of Private Wheeler (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1952), 24–5.
9.Castlereagh to George III, July 15, 1809, Castlereagh Correspondence, 6:283; ‘Return, showing the effective strength of the army which embarked for serve in the Scheldt in the month of July 1809,’ February 12, 1809, Parliamentary Debates, 7:59.
10.Thomas Howell, Journal of a Soldier in the Seventy-First Regiment from 1806 to 1815 (Edinburgh: Balfour and Clarke, 1828), 71–2.
11.Roy Adkins and Lesley Adkins, The War for all the Oceans: From Nelson at the Nile to Napoleon at Waterloo (New York: Viking, 2006), 290.
12.Bond, Grand Expedition, 106; Adkins and Adkins, War for all the Oceans, 300.
13.Bond, Grand Expedition, 115.
14.For analyses of Walcheren Fever, see: McGuffie, ‘The Walcheren Expedition and the Walcheren Fever,’ 191–202; Feibel, ‘What Happened at Walcheren,’ 62–79; Crowe, ‘The Walcheren Expedition and the New Army Medical Board: A Reconsideration,’ 770–885.
15.Philip J. Haythornthwaite, The Armies of Wellington (London: Brockhampton Press,1996), 236.
16.The Times, April 5, 1810, NYPL.
17.Barry E. O’Meara, Napoleon in Exile, or a Voice from St. Helena: The Opinions and Reflections of Napoleon on the Most Important Events of His Life and Government in His Own Words (New York: Worthington, 1890), 1:157.
1.Jac Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula (Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books, 1992), 119.
2.Arthur Wellesley to John Villiers, January 1, 1810, Wellington Dispatches, 5:126.
3.Arthur Wellesley to Liverpool, April 2, 1810, Wellington Dispatches, 6:2.
4.Alexander Gordon to Aberdeen, December 13, 1809, Gordon Letters, 75.
5.Memorandum to Lieut. Colonel Fletcher Commanding Royal Engineers, October 29, 1809, Wellington Dispatches, 5:317; Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 144–5.
6.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 137–9.
7.Wellington to Wellesley-Pole, September 5, 1810, Wellington Supplements, 6:588.
8.Liverpool to Wellington, March 13, 1810, BL add. ms 38325.
9.Wellington to Liverpool, April 2, 1810, Wellington Dispatches, 6:5.
10.Wellington to Liverpool, April 6, 1810, Wellington Dispatches, 6:6.
11.Wellington to Liverpool, July 14, 1810, PRO WO 1/245, ff. 92–3.
12.Digby Smith, The Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book: Actions and Losses in Personnel, Colours, Standards, and Artillery, 1792–1815 (London: Greenhill Books, 1998), 344.
13.John Leach, Rough Sketches of an Old Soldier (London: John Murray, 1833), 166.
14.August Schaumann, On the Road with Wellington: The Diary of a War Commissary in the Peninsular Campaign (London: Naval and Military Press, 2009), 249.
15.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 140.
16.Wellington to Liverpool, November 3, 1810, Wellington Dispatches, 6:583.
17.Wellington to Liverpool, December 21, 1810, Wellington Dispatches, 7:54.
18.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 153.
19.David Gates, Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War (New York: Da Capo, 2001), 225, 241.
20.Alexander Gordon to Aberdeen, December 22, 1810, Gordon Letters, 140.
21.Smith, Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book, 353–5.
22.Esdaile, The Peninsular War: A New History (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 338.
23.Gates, Spanish Ulcer, 249–52.
24.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 168–70, 158.
25.Esdaile, Peninsular War, 354.
26.Schaumann, Diary, 303.
27.Wellington to William Wellesley, July 2, 1811, Wellington Supplements, 7:177.
28.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 183–5
29.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 183–5.
30.George Bankes, ed., The Autobiography of Sergeant William Laurence, a Hero of the Peninsula and Waterloo Campaign (London: Sampson Low and Company, 1886), 93–4.
31.Alexander Gordon to Aberdeen, August 8, 1811, Gordon Letters, 240.
32.Stanhope Conversations, 90.
33.Wellington to Wellesley-Pole, July 2, 1811, PRO, RP ms A/43.
34.Lindell Hart, ed., The Letters of Private Wheeler (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1952), 61.
35.John Donaldson, Recollections of the Eventful Life of a Soldier (London: Naval and Military Press, 2009), 142–3.
36.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 192.
37.Richard Wellesley to Spencer Percival, October 9, 1810, Wellesley Papers, BL, add. mss. 37295.
38.Alexander Gordon to Aberdeen, December 12, 1811, Gordon Letters, 272.
1.For the diplomacy leading up to and accompanying the 1812 War, see: Bradford Perkins, Prologue to War: England and the United States, 1805–1812 (Berkeley: University of California, 1963); Bradford Perkins, Castlereagh and Adams: England and the United States, 1812–1823 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964).
For the best overview of the 1812 War, see: Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990). Other very good accounts include: Harry L. Coles, The War of 1812 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965); Reginald Horsman, The War of 1812 (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1969); John R. Elting, Amateurs to Arms!: A Military History of the War of 1812 (New York: Da Capo Press, 1995); J. Mackay Hitsman, The Incredible War of 1812: A Military History (Toronto: Robin Brass Studio, 1996); John C. Fredricksen, The War of 1812 Eyewitness Accounts: an Annotated Bibliography (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1997); Walter R. Borneman, 1812: The War that Founded a Nation (New York: Harper, 2004); John Latimer, 1812: War with America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,2009). For an excellent literature review, see: Donald R. Hickey, ‘The War of 1812: Still a Forgotten Conflict?’, Journal of Military History, Vol. 65, No. 3 (July 2001), 741–69.
2.Alexander de Conde, The Quasi-War: The Politics and Diplomacy of the Undeclared War with France, 1797-1801 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1966); Howard Nash, The Forgotten Wars: The U.S. Navy in the Quasi-War with France and the Barbary Pirates, 1789–1805 (New York: Barnes Company, 1968); William Stinchcombe, The XYZ Affair (New York: Praeger, 1980).
3.Ian W. Toll, Six Frigates: The Epic History of the Founding of the U.S. Navy (New York: W.W. Norton, 2006), 271.
For a complete study, see: James F. Zimmerman, The Impressment of American Seamen (New York: Columbia University Press, 1925).
4.Edward Brenton, ed., The Life and Correspondence of John, Earl of St. Vincent (1838, repr. London: Elibron Classics, 2005), 1:288.
5.For the Continental System, see: Eli Hecksher, The Continental System, an Economic Interpretation (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1922); Frank Melvin, Napoleon’s Navigation System: A Study of Trade Control during the Continental Blockade (New York: Nabu Press, 2010); K. Aalestadl and J. Joos, Revisiting Napoleon’s Continental System: Local, Regional, and European Experiences (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).
6.Hickey, War of 1812, 18.
7.G.L.N. Collingwood, A Selection from the Public and Private Correspondence of Vice Admiral Lord Collingwood Interspersed with Memoirs of His Life (London: John Murray, 1829), 317.
8.William R. Nester, The Jeffersonian Vision, 1800–1815 (Washington DC: Potomac Books, 2012).
9.Donald R. Hickey, ‘The Monroe-Pinkney Treaty of 1806: A Reappraisal,’ William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 44, No. 1, January 1987, 65–88.
10.Curtis P. Nettels, The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775–1815 (New York: Harper and Row, 1969), 396.
11.W.F. Galpin, ‘The American Grain Trade to the Spanish Peninsula, 1810–1814,’ American History Review, Vol. 28 (October 1922), 25.
12.Thomas Jefferson to William Duane, August 4, 1812, Andrew A. Lipscomb, ed., The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, 20 vols (Washington DC: Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association of the United States, 1905), 11:265.
13.Andrew Jackson Proclamation, March 12, 1812, John Spencer Bassett, ed., The Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, 6 vols (Washington DC: Carnegie Institute, 1926–33), 1:122–3.
14.James Madison Speech before Congress, March 9, 1812, Annals of the Congress of the United States, 1st sess., 1162.
15.Aberdeen to Alexander Gordon, August 8, 1812, Gordon Letters, 308–9.
16.Wesley B. Turner, British Generals in the War of 1812: High Command in the Canadas (Montreal: McGill University Press, 1999).
17.Winfield Scott, The Memoirs of Lieut.-General Scott, L.L.D., Written by Himself, 2 vols (New York: Sheldon, 1864), 1:31.
18.Elting, Amateurs to Arms!, 7–8.
19.Henry Clay to Thomas Bodley, December 18, 1812, James Hopkins and Mary Hargreaves, eds, The Papers of Henry Clay, 10 vols (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1959–88), 1:842. "
20.For the Great Lake and St Lawrence fronts, see: Alec R. Gilpin, The War of 1812 in the Old Northwest (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1958); Richard Dillon, We Have Met the Enemy: Oliver Hazard Perry: Wilderness Commodore (New York: Harper and Row, 1965); Pierre Berton, The Invasion of Canada, 1812–1813 (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1980); Pierre Berton, Flames Across the Border: The Canadian-American Tragedy, 1813–1814 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1981); William Welsh and David Skaggs, eds, The War on the Great Lakes: Essays Commemorating the 175th Anniversary of the Battle of Lake Erie (Kent: Kent State University Press, 1991); Gerard Altoff, Deep Water Sailors, Shallow Water Soldiers (Put-in-Bay: Perry Group, 1993); David Skagg, and Gerard Altoff, A Signal Victory: The Lake Erie Campaign, 1812–1813 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1997); Robert Malcomson, The Lords of the Lake: The Naval War on Lake Ontario (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1998).
21.Hitsman, Incredible War, 31–2.
22.R. David Edmunds, Tecumseh and the Quest for Indian Leadership (New York: Little, Brown, 1984); John Sugden, Tecumseh: A Life (New York: Henry Holt, 1998).
23.Latimer, 1812, 69.
24.Earnest A. Cruikshank, ed., Documents Relating to the Invasion of Canada and the Surrender of Detroit (Manchester: Ayer Company, 1979), 192.
25.Latimer, 1812, 68.
26.Latimer, 1812, 76.
27.John S.D. Eisenhower, Agent of Destiny: The Life and Times of General Winfield Scott (New York: Free Press, 1997), 41.
28.Glen G. Clift, Remember the Raisin! Kentucky and Kentuckians in the Battles and Massacres at Frenchtown, Michigan Territory, in the War of 1812 (Frankfort: Historical Society, 1961).
29.E. Hallaman, The British Invasion of Ohio – 1813 (Columbus: Ohio Historical Society, 1958).
30.Henry Proctor to George Prevost, May 14, 1813, British Documents, 2:34.
31.Larry L. Nelson, Men of Patriotism, Courage, and Enterprise! Fort Meigs and the War of 1812 (Westminster, Mary. Heritage Books, 2003).
32.John C. Fredericksen, ‘The Pittsburgh Blues and the War of 1812: The Memoir of Private Nathaniel Vernon,’ Pennsylvania History, Vol. 56 (July 1989), 206.
33.David D. Anderson, ‘The Battle of Fort Stephenson: The Beginning of the End of the War of 1812 in the Northwest,’ Northwest Ohio Quarterly, Vol. 33 (Spring 1961), 81–90.
34.Dillon, We Have Met the Enemy; Welsh and Skaggs, eds, The War on the Great Lakes; Altoff, Deep Water Sailors, Shallow Water Soldiers; Skagg and Altoff, A Signal Victory.
35.Douglas E. Clanin, ed., ‘The Correspondence of William Henry Harrison and Oliver Hazard Perry, July 5, 1813–July 21, 1813,’ Northwest Ohio Quarterly, Vol. 60 (Autumn 1988), 153–80.
36.Tecumseh speech, September 18, 1813, Niles Register Number 5, November 6, 1813, NYPL.
37.Latimer, 1812, 169.
38.Elting, Amateurs to Arms!, 118.
39.Elting, Amateurs to Arms!, 124.
40.Elihu H. Shepard, The Autobiography of Elihu H. Shepard, Formerly Professor of Languages in St. Louis College (St Louis: George Knapp, 1869), 56.
41.Elting, Amateurs to Arms!, 126.
42.Donald Dewar, and Paul Hutchinson, The Battle of Beaverdams: The Story of Thorold’s Battle in the War of 1812 (St Catherines: Slabtown Press, 1996).
43.Latimer, 1812, 143.
44.Elting, Amateurs to Arms!, 154–5.
45.Latimer, 1812, 214.
46.Elting, Amateurs to Arms!, 101.
47.Richard Palmer, ‘Lake Ontario Battles: Part 3; The Battle of Sandy Creek,’ Inland Seas, Vol. 53 (1997), 282–91.
48.Borneman, 1812, 188.
49.Elting, Amateurs to Arms!, 187.
50.Latimer, 1812, 297.
51.Elting, Amateurs to Arms!, 249, 252.
52.Borneman, 1812, 212–13.
53.Latimer, 1812, 358–9.
1.Ian Toll, Six Frigates: The Epic History of the Founding of the U.S. Navy (New York: W.W. Norton, 2006), 287.
2.To place the 1812 naval war in context and for excellent statistics, see: Brian Tunstall, Naval Warfare in the Age of Sail: The Evolution of Fighting Tactics, 1650–1815 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1990); Jean-Claude Gillet, La Marine impériale: Le Grand Rêve de Napoléon (Paris: Bernard Giovanangeli Editeur, 2010), 17; Toll, Six Frigates, 332.
3.C. Northcote Parkinson, Britannia Rules: The Classic Age of Naval History, 1793–1815 (London: Alan Sutton Publishing, 1994), 149.
For the naval war, see: Alfred T. Mahan, Sea Power in Its Relations to the War of 1812 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1905); C.S. Forrester, The Naval War of 1812 (London: Landsborough Publications, 1958); Robert Gardiner, ed., The Naval War of 1812 (London: Caxton Publishing, 2001); Toll, Six Frigates.
For the privateering war, see: John Philips Cranwell and William Bowers Crane, Men of Marque: A History of Private Armed Vessels out of Baltimore during the War of 1812 (New York: W.W. Norton, 1940); Jerome R. Garitee, The Republic’s Private Navy: The American Privateering Business as Practiced by Baltimore during the War of 1812 (Middletown: Wesleyan University Press, 1977); Donald A. Pettrie, The Prize Game: Lawful Looting on the High Seas in the Days of Fighting Sail (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1999).
For published documents, see: William S. Dudley and Michael J. Crawford, eds, The Naval War of War: A Documentary History, 3 vols (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1985, 1992, 2004).
4.Parliamentary Debates from 1803, 29:649–50; Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 96–7. For the privateering war, see: Cranwell and Crane, Men of Marque; Garitee, The Republic’s Private Navy; Pettrie, The Prize Game.
5.John G. Brighton, ed., Admiral Sir P.V.B. Broke: A Memoir (London: Sampson Low, 1866); Peter Padfield, Broke and the Shannon (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1968).
6.Samuel Leech, Thirty Years from Home: or A Voice from the Main Deck, Being Six Years in a Man-of-War (Boston: J.M. Whittemore, 1847), 50.
7.Julian Gwyn, Frigates and Foremasts: The North American Squadron in Nova Scotia Waters, 1745–1815 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2003), 128–49; John Boileau, Half-Hearted Enemies: Nova Scotia, New England, and the War of 1812 (Halifax: Formac, 2005), 29–30.
8.Toll, Six Frigates, 406.
9.Toll, Six Frigates, 405–17; H.F. Pullen, The Shannon and the Chesapeake (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1970).
10.Quoted in John Latimer, 1812: War with America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2009), 168.
11.Gerard S. Graham, and R.A. Humphreys, eds, The Navy and South America, 1783–1820 (London: Navy Records Society, 1962), 132–4, 141–2.
12.For the best overview, see: Wade G. Dudley, Splintering the Wooden Wall: The British Blockade of the United States, 1812–1815 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2003). See also: Joseph A. Goldenberg, ‘The Royal Navy’s Blockade in New England Waters, 1812–1815,’ International History Review, Vol. 6 (1984), 424–7.
13.Toll, Six Frigates, 385.
14.Curtis P. Nettels, The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775-1815 (New York: Harper and Row, 1969), 385, 396, 399.
15.For Cockburn, see: A.J. Pack, The Man Who Burned the White House: Admiral Sir George Cockburn, 1772–1853 (Emsworth: Kenneth Mason, 1987); Roger Morriss, Cockburn and the British Navy in Transition: Admiral Sir George Cockburn, 1772–1852 (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1997).
16.Latimer, 1812, 161.
17.William F.P. Napier, The Life and Opinions of General Sir Charles James Napier, 4 vols (London: John Murray, 1858), 1:221.
18.Walter R. Borneman, 1812: The War that Founded a Nation (New York: Harper, 2004), 174.
19.Toll, Six Frigates, 428–9.
1.Wellington to Liverpool, May 26, 1812, Wellington Dispatches, 9:177.
2.William Verner, ed., A British Rifleman: The Journals and Correspondence of George Simmons during the Peninsular War and Campaign of Waterloo (London: A.C. and Black, 1899), 221.
3.Jac Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula (Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books, 1992), 197.
4.F.A. Whinyates, ed., Diary of the Campaigns in the Peninsula for the Years 1811, 12, and 13 (London: Royal Artillery Institute, 1984), 70–1.
5.William Grattan, The Adventures of a Connaught Ranger from 1808 to 1814 (London: Henry Colburn, 1847), 1:207–8.
6.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 200.
7.George Bankes, ed., The Autobiography of Sergeant William Lawrence, a Hero of the Peninsular War and Waterloo Campaign (London: Sampson Low and Company, 1886), 111–13.
8.John Donaldson, Recollections of the Eventful Life of a Soldier (London: Naval and Military Press, 2009).
9.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 204.
10.John Sturgis, ed., A Boy in the Peninsular War: The Services, Adventures, and Experiences of Robert Blakeney, Subaltern in the Twenty-Eighth Regiment (London: John Murray, 1899), 273–4.
11.Wellington to Edward Pellew, July 1, 1812, Wellington Dispatches, 9:269.
12.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 210.
13.Wellington to Thomas Graham, July 3, 1812, Wellington Dispatches, 9:270.
14.Alexander Gordon to Aberdeen, July 25, 1812, Gordon Letters, 299.
15.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 227–30.
16.Charles Greville, The Greville Memoirs: A Journal of the Reigns of King George IV and William IV and Queen Victoria, ed. H. Reeve, 8 vols (London: Longmans, 1888), 4:141.
17.Francis Carr-Gomm, ed., The Letters and Journals of Field Marshal Sir William Gomm, 1799–1815 (London: John Murray, 1881).
18.Wellington to Thomas Graham, July 25, 1812, Wellington Dispatches, 9:310.
19.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 230.
20.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 226.
21.Charles Esdaile, The Peninsular War: A New History (New York: Palgrave Macmillan,2003), 400.
22.Alexander Gordon to Aberdeen, July 28, 1812, Gordon Letters, 304.
23.Alexander Gordon to Aberdeen, August 16, 1812, Gordon Letters, 312–13.
24.Alexander Gordon to Aberdeen, August 30, 1812, Gordon Letters, 316.
25.Ian Fletcher, ed., In the Service of the King: The Letters of William Thornton Keep (Staplehurst: Spellmount, 1997), 143.
26.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 235–7.
27.Esdaile, Peninsular War, 403.
28.F.A. Whinyates, ed., William Swabey, Diary of the Campaigns in the Peninsula for the Years 1811, 12, and 13 (London: Ken Trotman, 1984), 157–8.
29.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 239.
30.John Kincaid, Adventures in the Rifle Brigade (London: Richard Drew Publishing, 1909), 92.
31.George Bell, Rough Notes of an Old Soldier during Fifty Years Service (London: Day and Son, 1867), 53.
32.Wellington to William Cooke, November 25, 1812, Esdaile, Peninsular War, 420.
33.Alexander Gordon to Aberdeen, January 27, 1813, Gordon Letters, 363.
1.Liverpool to Wellington, December 22, 1812, Wellington Supplements, 7:502.
2.Wellington to Bathurst, May 11, 1813, Wellington Dispatches, 10:372.
3.George Larpent, ed., The Private Journal of Judge Advocate F.S. Larpent, attached to lord Wellington’s Headquarters, 1812–14 (London: Richard Bentley, 1853), 1:226.
4.George Bell, Rough Notes of an Old Soldier during Fifty Years Service (London: Day and Son, 1867), 64, 63.
5.George Wood, The Subaltern Officer: A Narrative (London: Septimus Prowett, 1825), 180–1.
6.Jac Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula (Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books, 1992), 266–8.
7.Thomas McGuffie, ed., Peninsula Cavalry General: The Correspondence of Lieutenant General Robert Ballard Long (London: Harrap, 1951), 275.
8.Wood, Subaltern Officer, 183–4.
9.Sarah Wood, ed., William Hay: Reminiscences under Wellington, 1808–1815 (London: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent, and Company, 1901), 113.
10.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 269.
11.Bell, Rough Notes of an Old Soldier, 71.
12.Robert Buckley, ed., The Napoleonic War Journal of Captain Thomas Henry Browne (London: Bodley Head, 1987), 214.
13.Wellington to Bathurst, June 29, 1813, Wellington Dispatches, 10:473.
14.Wellington to Bathurst, August 8, 1813, Wellington Dispatches, 6:663-64.
15.Sir Herbert Maxwell, The Life of Wellington, 2 vols (London: Sampson, Low, Marston, 1899), 1:331.
16.Ian C. Robertson, Wellington Invades France: The Final Phase of the Peninsular War, 1813–14 (London: Greenhill Books, 2003), 101.
17.Edward Sabine, ed., The Letters of Lieutenant Colonel Sir Augustus Simon Frazer, K.C.B., Commanding the Royal Horse Artillery in the Army under the Duke of Wellington Written During the Peninsular War and Waterloo Campaign (London: John Murray, 1858), 197–8.
18.Stanley Monick, ed., Douglas’s Tale of the Peninsula and Waterloo, 1808–14 (London: Pen & Sword, 1997), 79–80.
19.Francis Carr-Gomm, ed., The Letters and Journals of Field Marshal Sir William Gomm, 1799–1815 (London: John Murray, 1881), 312.
20.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 302.
21.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 302.
22.Robert Buckley, ed., The Napoleonic War Journal of Captain Thomas Henry Browne (London: Bodley Head, 1987), 229–30.
23.George Bankes, The Autobiography of Sergeant William Lawrence (London: Sampson Low and Company, 1886), 147–8.
24.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 296.
25.Robertson, Wellington Invades France, 96.
26.Wellington to William Bentinck, August 5, 1813, Wellington Dispatches, 10:602.
27.Stanley Monick, Douglas’s Tale of the Peninsula and Waterloo (London: Pen & Sword, 1997), 82–3.
28.George Robert Gleig, The Subaltern (London: John Murray, 1825), 56.
29.Wellington to Henry Wellesley, October 23, 1813, Charles Esdaile, The Peninsular War: A New History (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 469.
30.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 307–8; Robertson, Wellington Invades France, 110–11.
31.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 310, 311.
32.Stanhope Conversations, 106–7.
33.Wellington to Bathurst, September 19, 1813, Wellington Dispatches, 7:10.
1.Jac Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula (Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books, 1992), 338–41.
2.G.C.M. Smith, ed., The Autobiography of Sir Harry Smith, 2 vols (London: John Murray, 1902), 1:142.
3.Nicolas Bentley, ed., Selections from the Reminiscences of Captain Gronow (London: Folio Society, 1977), 13.
4.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 314, 317.
5.Ian C. Robertson, Wellington Invades France: The Final Phase of the Peninsular War, 1813–14 (London: Greenhill Books, 2003), 157.
6.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 327.
7.Wellington to General Manuel Freyre, November 14, 1813, Wellington Dispatches, 11:287.
8.Wellington to Bathurst, November 27, 1813, Wellington Dispatches, 11:306–7.
9.David Gates, The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War (New York: Da Capo, 2001), 446–7.
10.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 336.
11.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 361.
12.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 362, 349.
13.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 362.
14.Weller, Wellington in the Peninsula, 359.
15.Traité de Fontainebleau, 11 avril, 1814 ; Declaration du Gouvernment Provisiore, 11 avril, 1814; Ratification par l’Empereur Napoléon, 12 avril, 1813 ; Declaration faite au nom de Louis XVIII, Michel Kerautret, ed., Les Grand Traités de L’Empire, 1810–1815: Documents diplomatiques du Consulat et de L’Empire, Tome 3 (Paris: Nouveau Monde Editions, 2004), 3:126–7; 127; 128; 133.
16.Traité de Paix du 30 Mai 1814, Kerautret, ed., Grand Traités, Tome 3, 3:145–58.
1.Alexander Cochrane, The Fighting Cochranes: A Scottish Clan over Six Hundred Years of Naval and Military History (London: Quiller Press, 1983).
2.Noel Mostert, The Line Upon a Wind: The Great War at Sea, 1793–1815 (New York: W.W. Norton, 2007), 670.
3.Mostert, Line Upon a Wind, 671.
4.A.J. Pack, The Man Who Burned the White House: Admiral Sir George Cockburn, 1772–1853 (Emsworth: Kenneth Mason, 1987); Roger Morriss, Cockburn and the British Navy in Transition: Admiral Sir George Cockburn, 1772–1852 (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1997).
5.W.M. Marine, The British Invasion of Maryland, 1812–1815 (Hatboro: Tradition Press, 1965); Anthony S. Pitch, The Burning of Washington: The British Invasion of 1814 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1998); Christopher T. George, Terror on the Chesapeake: The War of 1812 on the Bay (Shippensburg: White Mane Books, 2000).
6.John Latimer, 1812: War with America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2009), 315.
7.James Scott, Recollections of Naval Life (London: Richard Bentley, 1834), 303.
8.Scott, Recollections, 303–4.
9.George Dangerfield, The Awakening of American Nationalism, 1815–1828 (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), 5.
10.G.C.M. Smith, ed., The Autobiography of Sir Harry Smith, 1787–1819 (London: John Murray, 1902), 200.
11.George Robert Gleig, A Narrative of the Campaigns of the British Army at Washington and New Orleans under Generals Ross, Pakenham, and Lambert, in the Years 1814 and 1815 (London: John Murray, 1826), 148.
12.Walter R. Borneman, 1812: The War that Founded a Nation (New York: Harper, 2004), 233.
13.Alexander Cochrane to Henry Earl Bathurst, August 28, 1814, PRO WO, 1/141.
14.Latimer, 1812, 328.
15.Roy Adkins and Lesley Adkins, The War for all the Oceans: From Nelson at the Nile to Napoleon at Waterloo (New York: Viking, 2006), 422.
16.Robert Barrett, ‘Naval Recollections of the Late American War,’ United Services Journal and Naval and Military Magazine, No. 1, 462–3.
1.Noel Mostert, The Line Upon a Wind: The Great War at Sea, 1793–1815 (New York: W.W. Norton, 2007), 670.
2.For the Creek, Gulf, and New Orleans campaigns, see: Robin Reilly, The British at the Gates: The New Orleans Campaign in the War of 1812 (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1974); Frank Lawrence Owsley, The Struggle for the Gulf Borderlands: The Creek War and the Battle of New Orleans, 1812–1815 (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1981); David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, Old Hickory’s War: Andrew Jackson and the Quest for Empire (Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books, 1996); Robert Remini, The Battle of New Orleans: Andrew Jackson and America’s First Military Victory (New York: Penguin Books, 1999); Brian Kilmeade and Don Yaeger, Andrew Jackson and the Miracle of New Orleans: The Battle That Shaped America’s Destiny (New York: Sentinel, 2017).
3.Remini, Battle of New Orleans, 15.
4.Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 205.
5.John R. Elting, Amateurs to Arms!: A Military History of the War of 1812 (New York: Da Capo Press, 1995), 287.
6.Heidler and Heidler, Old Hickory’s War, 44–6.
7.John Latimer, 1812: War with America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2009), 376.
8.George Robert Gleig, A Narrative of the Campaigns of the British Army at Washington and New Orleans under Generals Ross, Pakenham, and Lambert, in the Years 1814 and 1815 (London: John Murray, 1826), 260.
9.Gleig, Narrative, 262–3.
10.Gleig, Narrative, 285.
11.Gleig, Narrative, 286–7.
12.Latimer, 1812, 378.
13.Captain John J. Cooke, A Narrative of Events in the South of France and of the Attack on New York, in 1814 and 1815 (London: T. and W. Boone, 1835), 212, 214.
14.Cooke, Narrative, 203.
15.Remini, Battle of New Orleans, 96–7.
16.Gleig, Narrative, 309–10.
17.Remini, Battle of New Orleans, 114–15.
18.Lady Bourchier, ed., Memoir of the Life of Admiral Sir Edward Codrington, 2 vols (London: Longman, Green, 1873), 2:334.
19.John Cooper, Rough Notes of Seven Campaigns in Portugal, Spain, France, and America, during the Years 1809–10–11–12–13–14–15 (Carlisle: G. and T. Coward, 1914), 130.
20.Bourchier, ed., Memoir of Codrington, 335–6.
21.Remini, Battle of New Orleans, 167.
22.Remini, Battle of New Orleans, 156.
23.Elting, Amateurs to Arms!, 308; Hickey, War of 1812, 212.
24.For the diplomacy that ended the war, see: Fred L. Engelman, The Peace of Christmas Eve (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1962); Bradford Perkins, Castlereagh and Adams: England and the United States, 1812–1823 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964); Frank A. Updyke, The Diplomacy of the War of 1812 (Gloucester, Mass.: P. Smith, 1965).
25.Wellington to Liverpool, November 7, 1814, Wellington Dispatches, 9:422.
1.For the best first-person account of Napoleon’s Elba sojourn, see that of Britain’s commissioner to this throne, Neil Campbell, Napoleon at Fontainebleau and Elba (London: John Murray, 1869).
2.Alan Schom, Napoleon Bonaparte (New York: HarperCollins, 1997), 712–13.
3.For the best overview of Napoleon’s three months in power culminating with Waterloo, see: Alan Schom, One Hundred Days: Napoleon’s Road to Waterloo (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
4.Le Moniteur, 13 avril, 1815, NYPL.
5.Castlereagh to Wellington, March 26, 1815, Castlereagh Correspondence, 10:285–6.
6.Wellington to Prince of Orange, May 11, 1815, Wellington Dispatches, 12:375.
7.Wellington Reminiscences, 218–19.
8.For the Waterloo Campaign, see: Scott Bowden, The Armies at Waterloo: A Detailed Analysis of the Armies that Fought History’s Greatest Battles (Arlington, Texas: Empire Games Press, 1983); Mark Adkin, The Waterloo Companion: The Complete Guide to History’s Most Famous Battle (Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books, 2001); Andrew Roberts, Napoleon and Wellington: The Battle of Waterloo and the Great Commanders Who Fought It (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001); Geoffrey Wootten, Waterloo 1815: The Birth of Modern Europe (London: Osprey, 2005); Gareth Glover, Waterloo: Myth and Reality (London: Pen & Sword Press, 2014); Gordon Corrigan, Waterloo: A New History, Wellington, Napoleon, and the Battle that Saved Europe (New York: Pegasus Books, 2014); Gregory Fremont-Barnes, Waterloo 1815: The British Army’s Day of Destiny (London: History Press, 2015); Brendan Simms, The Longest Afternoon: The 400 Men Who Decided the Battle of Waterloo (New York: Basic Books, 2015); Nigel Sale, The Lie at the Heart of Waterloo: The Battle’s Last Half Hour (London: History Press, 2015).
9.David Chandler, The Campaigns of Napoleon: The Mind and Method of History’s Greatest Soldier (New York: Macmillan, 1966), 115–17.
10.Adkin, Waterloo Companion, 38–50, 66–72.
11.Creevey Journal, June 16, 1815, Creevey Papers, 223.
12.Elizabeth Longford, Wellington: Years of the Sword (New York: Harper and Row, 1969), 416.
13.Malmesbury Correspondence, 2:445–6.
14.Stanhope Conversations, 109; Wellington Conversations, 5.
15.Scott Bowden, The Armies at Waterloo: A Detailed Analysis of the Armies that Fought History’s Greatest Battles (Arlington: Empire Games Press, 1983), 372.
16.Adkin, Waterloo Companion, 74.
17.Edouard Fleury de Chaboulon, Les Cent-Jours: Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire de la vie privée, du retour et du règne de Napoléon en 1815, 2 vols (Paris: Rouveyre, 1952), 2:134.
18.Sir Herbert Maxwell, The Life of Wellington, 2 vols (London: Sampson, Low, Marston, 1899), 2:37–8.
19.Wellington Reminiscences, 231.
20.Adkin, Waterloo Companion, 37, 51.
21.Wellington Conversations, 7.
22.George Robert Gleig, The Life of Arthur Duke of Wellington (London: Longman Green, 1889), 267.
23.Christopher Hibbert, Wellington: A Personal History (Reading, Mass.: Perseus Books,1997), 177–8.
24.Wellington Reminiscences, 182.
25.John Raymond, ed., The Reminiscences and Recollections of Captain Gronow, 2 vols (London: Bodley Head, 1964), 1:69–70.
26.Raymond, Gronow, 1:190–1.
27.Quoted in Huw J. Davies, Wellington’s Wars: The Making of a Military Genius (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 238–9.
28.Wellington Conversations, 5.
29.Arthur Bryant, The Great Duke: A Brilliant Biographical Narrative of Wellington the Soldier (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1975), 443.
30.Adkin, Waterloo Companion, 74.
31.Wellington Reminiscences, 179.
32.Wellington to Beresford, July 2, 1815, Wellington Dispatches, 12:529.
33.Hibbert, Wellington, 185.
34.Wellington to Bathurst, June 19, 1815, Wellington Dispatches, 12:484.
35.Creevey Papers, 236–7.
1.The following information is cleared from Sir Frederick Lewis Maitland, The Surrender of Napoleon (London: H. Colbum, 1826).
2.Maitland, Surrender of Napoleon.
3.Louis Marchand, Mémoires de Marchand, Premier Valet de Chambre et Exécuteur testamentaire de l’Empereur, 2 vols (Paris: Plon, 1952–5), 1:205.
4.Croker Papers, 2:235.
5.Ian W. Toll, Six Frigates: The Epic History of the Founding of the U.S. Navy (New York: W.W. Norton, 2006), 7.
6.Wellington to Bathurst, December 21, 1813, Wellington Dispatches, 11:384–7.
7.Emmanuel Auguste Dieudonne Las Cases, Memoirs of the Life, Exile, and Conversations with the Emperor (New York: Worthington Company, 1890), 1:135.
8.Wellington to Thomas Martin, September 16, 1813, Sir Richard Vessey Hamilton, ed., The Letters and Papers of Admiral of the Fleet Sir Thomas Byam Martin, 3 vols (London: Navy Records Society, 1903), 2:393.
9.Edward Brenton, ed., The Life and Correspondence of John, Earl of St. Vincent (1838, repr. London: Elibron Classics, 2005), 1:348.
10.John Page, ed., Intelligence Officer in the Peninsula: The Letters and Diaries of Major the Honourable Edward Charles Cocks, 1786–1812 (London: Hippocrene Books, 1986), 134–5.
11.Wellington to John Villiers, November 20, 1809, PRO WO 1/242, ff. 420–2.
12.Jean-Claude Gillet, La Marine impériale: Le Grande Rêve de Napoléon (Paris: Bernard Giovanangeli Editeur, 2010), 93.
13.Michael Duffy, Soldiers, Sugar, and Seapower: The British Expeditions to the West Indies and the War against Revolutionary France (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), 326–93.
14.Duffy, Soldiers, Sugar, and Seapower, 372.
15.Duffy, Soldiers, Sugar, and Seapower, 371, 377, 380.
16.Duffy, Soldiers, Sugar, and Seapower, 309.
17.For the most comprehensive exploration, see: William Nester, Titan: The Art of British Power in the Age of Revolution and Napoleon (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2016).