Title
Exodus, which means “exit” or “departure,” derives from the word that the Greek translation of the OT uses to describe Israel’s release from enslavement in Egypt. The narrative it unpacks is the sequel to the story that begins in Genesis (see Gen 46:8) and continues in the books that follow.
Author
Exodus makes no direct claims regarding authorship, but traditionally Moses has been identified as the author of the first five books of the OT (see Introduction to the Pentateuch). According to explicit statements in the text (17:14; 24:4; 34:27–28), Moses wrote down at least some of the material recorded in Exodus. The fact that he was the only eyewitness to several recorded events may also indicate a significant input to the book’s contents. This is further suggested by NT texts that link Exodus passages to Moses (e.g., Mark 7:10; 12:26; Luke 2:22–23). From this it seems reasonable to conclude that Moses played a key role in the compilation of Exodus, even though its canonical form reflects some measure of subsequent updating (e.g., 16:36).
The Date of the Exodus
Some contemporary scholars question whether or not the exodus happened at all, pointing to its absence in Egyptian records and the lack of archaeological support. However, neither objection is strong: (1) Official Egyptian records, like most ancient texts, emphasize military success rather than humiliating defeat. Thus, Egypt’s official annals typically would not record an event like the exodus or would describe the historical circumstances very differently. (2) The climate in the eastern Nile delta and the Sinai wilderness is not conducive to the long-term survival of material remains. It is thus unreasonable to expect such evidence of a people, however numerous, who dwelt mainly in perishable tents.
Moreover, there are also good reasons for concluding that the biblical account is reliable: (1) It is most unlikely that any people would invent such a story of their national origins: as slaves oppressed by a powerful neighbor. (2) The Egyptians employed Semitic slave labor in the second millennium BC to make bricks for their building projects. (3) Authentic place-names (e.g., Rameses) are unlikely to have been remembered centuries later. (4) Tent-shrines, such as the tabernacle, are attested to in Egypt and Canaan from the second millennium BC.
While these observations do not prove that the biblical account is true, they certainly suggest that the skepticism reflected in some circles today is not based on unanswerable questions.
However, even those who believe the biblical account differ over the date of the events described; some date these events in the fifteenth century BC, whereas others prefer a later date, in the thirteenth century BC. The issue is quite complex and not easily resolved. The main arguments (and counterarguments) in support of the early and late dates are set out in “Dates in Exodus.”
As is clear from “Dates in Exodus,” there are good arguments for either dating, and the archaeological evidence is, unfortunately, inconclusive. This conundrum might have been avoided if even one of the Egyptian kings involved had been named. However, even the royal title (Pharaoh) applied to these kings reflects later usage and so offers no help in resolving this ongoing scholarly debate. For the author and readers of this book, however, what really matters is not when the exodus took place, but why.
Theological Focus
While a major topic of the book is Israel’s “exodus,” or departure, from Egypt, this is really only the beginning of the story and is covered in the first third of the book (1:1—15:21); the majority of the book (15:22—40:38) concentrates on what happens next: Israel’s journey to Sinai and what transpires once the Israelites arrive there. But what unites all the material is the focus on the divine-human relationship between “the LORD” (see notes on 3:13–15) and Israel, Abraham’s offspring and heirs to God’s promises. This unique relationship with Israel’s ancestors motivates the Lord’s gracious response (2:24–25; 6:5–8; 32:13–14), and his special relationship with Israel explains both his treatment of Pharaoh (4:22–23; 9:17–18) and the goal of the exodus (29:46). But this relationship is not an end in itself; it is a means to the Lord’s greater objective: to make himself known. Thus, his actions are not simply for the benefit of Egypt (7:5, 17; 8:10, 22; 9:14, 29; 11:7; 14:4, 18) and Israel (6:7; 10:2; 16:6, 8, 12; 29:46; 31:13) but are also for the rest of the nations (9:16; 15:14; 33:16; 34:10) who would be blessed through Abraham and his seed (Gen 12:1–3; cf. Exod 19:6).
Exod 1:1—2:25, in which God seems largely absent, highlights God’s faithfulness to the covenant promises he made to Israel’s ancestors (Gen 15:13). Exod 3:1—15:21 emphasizes this still further by the measures the Lord takes to punish the oppressive regime and emancipate Abraham’s descendants (Gen 15:14). Through word and action, the Lord makes himself known as the holy and incomparable God, sovereign over history and creation, far superior to the deities others worship (12:12; 15:11). Exod 15:22—18:27 further underlines this: the Lord demonstrates his incredible ability to sustain and protect the people he rescued, which culminates in Jethro, Moses’ non-Israelite father-in-law, recognizing the Lord’s supremacy (18:11).
The first half of the book shows the Israelites why the Lord, as savior, deserves their service and worship; the second half reveals how the Israelites should serve and worship him exclusively as their divine king. The strict preparations necessary before God’s appearance on Mount Sinai again underscore God’s holiness (ch. 19; cf. 3:5). Direct access to God is highly restricted: Israel must initially approach the Lord through a designated mediator. In the first instance, this mediator is Moses, through whom the Lord makes known Israel’s covenant obligations and how to apply them (chs. 20–23). These covenant obligations are Israel’s grateful response to the Lord’s saving work (19:4; 20:2). However, they are also a means by which Israel’s unique status as the Lord’s special people is made evident (19:5–6). The Lord’s presence among the Israelites also reflects this (29:45–46; 33:15–16), so God’s imperfect people need an appropriate structure to accommodate such close proximity to a holy God. In contrast to the golden calf that Aaron and the Israelites devised, the divinely decreed means of worship involves a special tent (the tabernacle) and consecrated personnel (Aaron and his sons). This mandate enables Israel to live with the Lord among them and expresses their unique relationship with him.
Biblical-Theological Trajectories
As noted in Introduction: Title, Exodus is part of the unfolding theological account that began in Genesis and continues in the books that follow. In terms of the promise-fulfillment theme that pervades the Bible, Exodus is therefore of key importance. Not only does God begin to fulfill his promises to Abraham in Exodus, but the book is foundational for several theological trajectories that run throughout the rest of Scripture. Three examples will suffice:
1. Israel’s deliverance from Egypt becomes the major paradigm of salvation in the OT. It is therefore not surprising that later OT books anticipate a new exodus after Israel again ends up in exile (Isa 11:10–16; Jer 23:1–8)—this time because they sinfully rebel against God. Consequently, God’s physical deliverance of Israel from Pharaoh’s oppressive regime foreshadows God’s spiritually delivering his people in the NT: Jesus is the ultimate Passover lamb (John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7) through whom people are redeemed (1 Pet 1:18–19) from the sin that enslaves them (John 8:34–36; Rom 6:6, 17, 20).
2. The Sinai covenant establishes the framework for the divine-human relationship reflected in the rest of the OT. Despite their initial enthusiasm and avowed commitment (19:8; 24:3, 7), the Israelites fail to keep this covenant—not just as God officially hands over the tablets of the Ten Commandments (ch. 32) but throughout the OT. Such perennial failure and its tragic consequences lead to the hope of a new covenant—one in which people internalize God’s covenant requirements (Jer 31:33) by the work of his Spirit (Ezek 36:27). Jesus inaugurates this new covenant; the echo of Exod 24:8 in the Last Supper accounts implicitly reflects this (Matt 26:28; Mark 14:24; Luke 22:20; 1 Cor 11:25), and various letters explicitly underline it (e.g., 2 Cor 3; Heb 8–10). Consequentially, Christians are required to keep not the obligations of the Sinai covenant but the obligations of the new covenant.
3. The goal of the exodus—the Lord’s dwelling among his people in the tabernacle—is subsequently expressed through Solomon’s temple, but it is jeopardized when the nation’s rebellion and idolatry eventually force the Lord to abandon this earthly dwelling and destroy it. Nevertheless, the OT never abandons the prospect of the Lord’s dwelling among his people; the prophetic hope is an even more glorious temple to come (Ezek 37:28; 43:7). Once again, Jesus fulfills this hope (John 1:14), and God’s people constitute his dwelling place (2 Cor 6:16), a reality that will ultimately be experienced in the new heaven and new earth (Rev 21:3).
When read in its literary and theological context, Exodus is much more than a story of miraculous deliverance or divine action on behalf of an oppressed people. Rather, it recounts a significant stage in the fulfillment of God’s promises to Israel’s ancestors—promises through which God eventually realizes his purpose for creation. This book as a whole and its opening chapters in particular are concerned primarily with these promises.
Outline
I. Israel in Egypt (1:1—13:16)
A. Egyptian Oppression and the Prospect of Deliverance (1:1—4:31)
1. The Israelites Oppressed (1:1–22)
2. The Birth of Moses (2:1–10)
3. Moses Flees to Midian (2:11–25)
4. Moses and the Burning Bush (3:1–22)
5. Signs for Moses (4:1–17)
6. Moses Returns to Egypt (4:18–31)
B. Pharaoh’s Hardness of Heart and the Lord’s Mighty Acts (5:1—11:10)
1. Bricks Without Straw (5:1–21)
2. God Promises Deliverance (5:22—6:12)
3. Family Record of Moses and Aaron (6:13–27)
4. Aaron to Speak for Moses (6:28—7:7)
5. Aaron’s Staff Becomes a Snake (7:8–13)
6. The Plague of Blood (7:14–24)
7. The Plague of Frogs (7:25—8:15)
8. The Plague of Gnats (8:16–19)
9. The Plague of Flies (8:20–32)
10. The Plague on Livestock (9:1–7)
11. The Plague of Boils (9:8–12)
12. The Plague of Hail (9:13–35)
13. The Plague of Locusts (10:1–20)
14. The Plague of Darkness (10:21–29)
15. The Plague on the Firstborn (11:1–10)
C. Redemption and Consecration of Israel’s Firstborn (12:1—13:16)
1. The Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread (12:1–30)
2. The Exodus (12:31–42)
3. Passover Restrictions (12:43–51)
4. Consecration of the Firstborn (13:1–16)
II. From Egypt to Sinai (13:17—18:27)
A. Israel’s Rescue and Egypt’s Punishment at the Red Sea (13:17—15:21)
1. Crossing the Sea (13:17—14:31)
2. The Song of Moses and Miriam (15:1–21)
B. Divine Provision and Instruction in the Wilderness (15:22—17:7)
1. The Waters of Marah and Elim (15:22–27)
2. Manna and Quail (16:1–36)
3. Water From the Rock (17:1–7)
C. The Amalekites Defeated (17:8–16)
D. Jethro Visits Moses (18:1–27)
III. Israel at Sinai (19:1—40:38)
A. At Mount Sinai (19:1–25)
B. Israel’s Covenant Obligations Disclosed (20:1—23:33)
1. The Ten Commandments (20:1–21)
2. Idols and Altars (20:22—21:1)
3. Hebrew Servants (21:2–11)
4. Personal Injuries (21:12–36)
5. Protection of Property (22:1–15)
6. Social Responsibility (22:16–31)
7. Laws of Justice and Mercy (23:1–9)
8. Sabbath Laws (23:10–13)
9. The Three Annual Festivals (23:14–19)
10. God’s Angel to Prepare the Way (23:20–33)
C. The Covenant Confirmed (24:1–18)
D. Instructions for Israel’s Worship (25:1—31:18)
1. Offerings for the Tabernacle (25:1–9)
2. The Ark (25:10–22)
3. The Table (25:23–30)
4. The Lampstand (25:31–40)
5. The Tabernacle (26:1–37)
6. The Altar of Burnt Offering (27:1–8)
7. The Courtyard (27:9–19)
8. Oil for the Lampstand (27:20–21)
9. The Priestly Garments (28:1–43)
10. Consecration of the Priests (29:1–46)
11. The Altar of Incense (30:1–10)
12. Atonement Money (30:11–16)
13. Basin for Washing (30:17–21)
14. Anointing Oil and Incense (30:22–38)
15. Bezalel and Oholiab (31:1–11)
16. The Sabbath (31:12–18)
E. The Covenant Broken and Reestablished (32:1—34:35)
1. The Golden Calf (32:1—33:6)
2. The Tent of Meeting (33:7–11)
3. Moses and the Glory of the Lord (33:12–23)
4. The New Stone Tablets (34:1–28)
5. The Radiant Face of Moses (34:29–35)
F. Construction and Consecration of the Tabernacle (35:1—40:38)
1. Sabbath Regulations (35:1–3)
2. Materials for the Tabernacle (35:4–29)
3. Bezalel and Oholiab (35:30—36:7)
4. The Tabernacle Constructed (36:8—38:31)
5. The Priestly Garments Made (39:1–31)
6. Moses Inspects the Work (39:32–43)
7. Setting Up the Tabernacle (40:1–33)
8. The Glory of the Lord (40:34–38)
