19:9 The main purpose of the forthcoming theophany (divine appearance) is to authenticate Moses as covenant mediator.

19:10 consecrate. As the following clause suggests, and as v. 14 confirms, this entails washing their clothes in preparation for their meeting with a holy God (cf. 3:5). wash their clothes. Like the prohibition on sexual relations (v. 15), this is related to ceremonial uncleanness (Lev 11:25, 32, 40) and implies a change of status (Lev 16:26, 28).

19:12 Put limits . . . around the mountain. The closest the general populace may come is the foot of the mountain (v. 17), hence the strict limits imposed around it (v. 23). Similar restrictions, for the same reason, apply to the tabernacle (Num 3:10), where the Lord manifests his ongoing presence with Israel (40:36–38).

19:13 approach. Another possibility is “ascend,” although this would imply less restrictive access to the mountain than the context suggests. Only Israel’s representatives—Moses and Aaron (v. 24) or Moses, Aaron, Nadab, Abihu, and the 70 elders (24:1, 9)—are subsequently invited to ascend part of the mountain.

19:15 Abstain from sexual relations. Not because sex is sinful but because it may result in ceremonial uncleanness (Lev 15:16–18; 1 Sam 21:4–5), thus excluding contact with a holy God. See note on v. 10.

19:16–19 An impressive audio-visual display heralds the Lord’s descent upon the mountain. These special effects parallel those of the chief Canaanite god (Baal) and suggest that Israel would now know its supreme and only God. Sandwiched in the middle of two repetitive sections, this emphasizes that the preparation of Israel was essential for the holy God to be revealed in their midst. The awe-inspiring display culminates in the dialogue between Moses and God anticipated back in v. 9. In the NT this terrifying experience of Israel is set in bold relief to those who have heard God speak through the mediator of a new covenant and must likewise heed his warnings (Heb 12:18–29).

19:20–25 Unlike vv. 16–19, these verses emphasize the holiness of the mountain that has resulted from the Lord’s descent (cf. 3:5). The main point is that the Lord is holy. Now that he is visibly present on Mount Sinai, the people must exercise even greater caution and restraint.

19:21–24 many of them perish . . . break out against them . . . break out against them. Trespassers previously faced execution by fellow Israelites (vv. 12–13), but now the Lord himself threatens to execute them (cf. Lev 10:1–2; 2 Sam 6:6–8).

19:22 priests. Arguably those who functioned as priests (cf. 24:5) before God instituted the Aaronic priesthood (28:1). But in view of the immediate context, it more likely anticipates the subsequent role of Aaron and his sons (24:1)—in particular, the incident involving Nadab and Abihu (Lev 10:1–2; 16:1).

19:24 bring Aaron up with you. This invitation probably relates not to the immediate situation but to a subsequent ascent (i.e., 24:9). The latter part of this verse thus refers only to unauthorized access: priests and people may approach but only when God invites them.

20:1—23:33 Israel’s Covenant Obligations Disclosed. Other than a brief narrative section (20:18–21), this sets out Israel’s covenant obligations: the general stipulations of “the Ten Commandments” (found in 20:1–17; see 34:28) and the more detailed requirements of “the Book of the Covenant” (found in 20:22—23:33; see 24:7).

20:1–21 The Ten Commandments. See also Deut 5:6–21. The Decalogue, or “ten words” (see 34:28; cf. Deut 4:13; 10:4), encompasses Israel’s responsibilities to God (vv. 1–11) and to each other (vv. 12–17). This twin focus may explain why God uses two stone tablets (31:18). Alternatively, the two stone tablets reflect the ancient custom of having two identical copies of a treaty-type text. Rather than a legal code that human courts can enforce (e.g., see v. 17 and note), it establishes the core spiritual and socioethical principles that must undergird Israel’s covenant life, and the stipulations are thus expressed using very general language to be as broad as possible in their application.

20:1 God spoke all these words. Perhaps stressing the importance of this communication; it is as direct as possible to Israel so there can be no doubt as to its source and authority (cf. Deut 5:22–26). words. A technical ancient Near Eastern term for “(covenant) stipulations” (cf. 24:3, 8; 34:28). God’s basic stipulations (i.e., the “ten words”; cf. 34:28; Deut 4:13; 10:4) for Israel are recorded in vv. 2–17.

20:2 The covenant stipulations are firmly grounded in who God is and how he has made himself known. A typical ancient Near Eastern treaty pattern is reflected in how the introductory preamble (“I am the LORD your God”) and brief historical prologue (“who brought you out of Egypt”) immediately precedes a statement of the general stipulations (“You shall have . . .”). The Lord is being presented here as Israel’s great king, whose action on Israel’s behalf commands their gratitude and allegiance. God commands Israel to observe these stipulations not in order to become his people but because this is how his people, whom he has rescued from oppression, should respond. See note on 19:4.

20:3 no other gods. This forbids any form of religious pluralism: God demands exclusive loyalty from Israel (and from us; see Matt 6:24; 1 John 5:21). before me. The precise nuance is debated, but worshiping other gods as well as the Lord (rather than just “instead of” or “ahead of”; see NIV text note) is most likely in view (22:20; 23:13, 24, 33).

20:4 image in the form of anything. The first command (v. 3) excludes worshiping any other deity; this second command may reinforce this by including all deities, or it may relate, in particular, to worshiping the Lord. Either way, God expressly forbids manufacturing and worshiping any idolatrous object, whether it is associated with the Lord or not. See Deut 4:15–18, which underlines the inherent difficulty involved in making an idol that can accurately represent the Lord. heaven . . . earth . . . waters. Correspond to the three areas of creation (Gen 1).

20:5–6 The incentive to obey is twofold: (1) the negative threat of cross-generational judgment and (2) the positive assurance of multigenerational love.

20:5 jealous. Often translated “zealous.” Unlike human jealousy (so often a vice rather than a virtue), God’s jealousy always expresses genuine love and informed concern for his exclusive rights, so he zealously protects his interests. punishing the children. This could be because an extended family unit living together shares the guilt (e.g., Num 16:31–34; Josh 7:24–25), but it may also attest to the long-term influence (and consequences) of sinful behavior. third and fourth generation. The largest conceivable extended family, but it may also define the extent of direct influence any individual might possibly have. The deliberate imbalance between this and “a thousand generations” (v. 6)—which can also mean “to thousands,” emphasizing the breadth of God’s love rather than its duration (cf. 34:6–7)—indicates what God desires. those who hate me. In covenant/treaty language, those who are disloyal to the king (God). This describes all those the Lord punishes, just as the positive counterpart (“those who love me and keep my commandments,” v. 6) describes all those he loves.

20:7 misuse the name. Popularly interpreted as an irreverent use of God’s name as an expletive or blasphemy, this third command probably relates in particular to invoking God’s name to sanction inappropriate behavior or to endorse deceptive oaths. The NT insists on a strict honesty that renders any such language unnecessary (Matt 5:33–37; Jas 5:12).

20:8 Remember the Sabbath. This commandment (vv. 8–11) and the next (v. 12) are the only two in the series that are framed positively. As God gave all Israel its people and life but required that Israel acknowledge this by giving back the firstborn (13:1–2), so God gives Israel all its days but requires that Israel acknowledge this by giving back one in seven. The Lord’s instructions for collecting manna (16:22–26) already established the sabbatical structure of Israel’s week. The seventh day is exclusively for the Lord, so Israel must remember it “by keeping it holy,” namely, by making this day distinct from all others: the entire Israelite community (including livestock and resident aliens) is to cease normal labor (v. 10).

20:11 For in six days the LORD made. Celebrating the Sabbath looks back to both creation (Gen 2:2–3) and redemption from slavery (Deut 5:15), and anticipates the experience of rest through faith in Christ (Heb 4:1–11; see note on 31:17).

20:12 Honor. This command (v. 12), like the previous one (vv. 8–11), is framed positively. Honoring parents involves showing them respect (Lev 19:3; Mal 1:6) and obeying them (Deut 21:18–21; Eph 6:1); it thus means not doing anything that would be disrespectful or harmful to parents (21:15, 17; Lev 20:9), as well as acting positively to do them good (Mark 7:9–13; 1 Tim 5:4). so that you may live long in the land. This is the only commandment in 20:1–17 that includes a promise, but this promise is national rather than personal; the land in question is Canaan, where Israel’s tenure was dependent on faithfulness to the covenant. Parents had an important role to play in communicating the covenant’s requirements to their children (Deut 6:7, 20–24), which also explains why Paul highlights the importance of this commandment in a Christian setting (Eph 6:1–3).

20:13 murder. The first of the purely moral commands with immediate civic implications, like the first of the “religious” commands, is of first importance. “Murder” is a more appropriate translation than “kill,” even though the word occasionally refers to involuntary homicide. The wider OT context clearly shows that this prohibition does not apply to capital punishment, killing in war, or slaughtering animals. For Jesus’ stricter ethic, see Matt 5:21–26.

20:14 adultery. Intercourse between a married or betrothed person and someone who is not their spouse (Lev 18:20; 20:10; Deut 22:22–27). It was a heinous offense in ancient times (Gen 12:18; 20:9; 39:9), and Israel executed both parties involved (Lev 20:10; Deut 22:23–24). The unfaithfulness involved in adultery makes it an appropriate metaphor for Israel’s subsequent covenant unfaithfulness to the Lord (see the Prophets, particularly the book of Hosea). For Jesus’ stricter ethic, see Matt 5:27–30.

20:15 steal. This relates to more than just capital offenses such as kidnapping (21:16); it encompasses all forms of theft, i.e., taking what God has entrusted to someone else (22:1–15).

20:16 give false testimony. Since people did not give testimony under oath in ancient Israel, the third commandment did not encompass “false testimony.” But while this commandment suggests that a legal setting (i.e., testifying in court) is the primary focus, it may apply more generally to any use of dishonest or deceptive language (23:1). False testimony could have serious consequences (23:7); in such cases it became a capital offense (Deut 19:16–21).

20:17 covet. Unlike the preceding commandments, the tenth is more internally focused on the human heart/mind. “Covet” may be a morally neutral word, but here the connotation is obviously illicit desire (Deut 5:21) motivated by greed and selfishness that betrays a lack of trust in the Lord as provider. While this is clearly not an offense that any human court can prosecute, left unchecked it inevitably produces more visible fruit (Jas 1:14–15), such as breaking other commandments, including the very first—given its close association with greed, which Paul calls idolatry (Eph 5:5; Col 3:5). It is also a fundamental breach of the law of love (Rom 13:8–10).

20:18–21 The narrative returns now to Israel’s response to the theophany (divine appearance) on Sinai (see also Deut 5:23–27).

20:19 Terrified by these events and unwilling to go up the mountain themselves (19:12–13; Deut 5:5), the Israelites ask Moses to act as mediator. Successive prophets “like [Moses]” (Deut 18:18) subsequently carry out the mediator role to which the people formally appoint Moses, until Jesus himself ultimately fulfills it (Matt 17:5; Acts 3:22–23; Heb 1:1–2; 8:6; 9:15; 12:24). One greater than Moses (Heb 3:1–6), Jesus becomes the sole Mediator between God and humanity (1 Tim 2:5), one who has supremely made God known (John 1:14–18) and whose voice dare not be ignored (Heb 12:25).

20:20 Do not be afraid . . . the fear of God will be with you. Two kinds of fear explain this paradox: (1) an abject terror and (2) a godly fear that facilitates trust and obedience. God designs the theophany (divine appearance) to instill a “fear of God” that would keep Israel “from sinning,” so the second kind of fear is an entirely appropriate response (Deut 5:23–29).

20:22—21:1 Idols and Altars. This introduction and the conclusion (23:20–33)—both of which highlight the exclusive allegiance that the Lord demands—bracket the more detailed covenant stipulations (21:2—23:19). In addition, 20:22–26 addresses the most likely way in which the Israelites would fail in their obligation to love God: by worshiping other gods and making images of God rather than using a simple altar to worship God. Similarly, 21:2–11 addresses the likely way the people would fail in their obligation to love their neighbor.

20:23 These two prohibitions echo the first two commands in the Decalogue and serve as a foil for the legitimate and acceptable way to worship the Lord that the following verses set out.

20:24–26 These altar laws appear to prepare for the covenant ratification ritual that is carried out in 24:4b–8; they involve both erecting an altar and performing these two types of sacrifice.

20:24 altar of earth. They may use only clumps of earth (or naturally shaped rocks; v. 25) as a platform for burning sacrifices. burnt offerings . . . fellowship offerings. See notes on Lev 1; 3. Wherever I cause my name to be honored. This refers to temporary places of worship, such as those used after Israel entered Canaan (Josh 8:30–31; Judg 6:24; 21:4; 1 Sam 7:17; 2 Sam 24:25; 1 Kgs 18:30).

20:25 tool. These altars were meant to be of a temporary nature and not meant to become cultic shrines, hence the prohibition of defiling them by using sharp instruments.

20:26 exposed. Although Israel’s priests later served at stepped altars (Lev 9:22; cf. Ezek 43:17), the linen undergarments they wore (Exod 28:42–43; Lev 6:10; 16:3–4; cf. Ezek 44:17–18) prevented such exposure.

21:1 laws. Social policy (judgments) that could be used in a judicial setting. This verse functions as the heading for the following section (21:2—22:20), which is the only segment containing clearly stated punishments.

21:2—23:19 This is a carefully arranged collection of material that applies the general stipulations in a more particular manner. While it does not exhaustively explain or apply the Decalogue, the legislation clearly reflects its two main emphases: love for God and love for neighbor. Despite some similarities with other ancient law codes (most famously that of Hammurapi, king of Babylon, ca. 1750 BC), in some respects it is significantly different (e.g., it values human life and does not discriminate between classes). God designed it to reflect and proclaim his distinctiveness and values to the surrounding nations.

21:2–11 Hebrew Servants. The social laws follow the religious laws (20:22–26) and begin in the area in which the Israelites were most likely to go astray in regard to loving their neighbor: indentured servants, the most vulnerable part of society. Indentured service differs markedly from forced labor or human trafficking, which God forbids (v. 16). Israelites sold themselves (and/or family members) into such a contractual arrangement in order to survive extreme financial crisis. The legislation intends to prevent exploitation, although some Israelites subsequently ignored it (Jer 34:8–16). Significantly, to have this material protecting the rights of servants (rather than chiefly those of their masters) makes this legislation distinct from other ancient Near Eastern legal collections, and it suggests that these servants should be treated as human beings rather than as mere personal property (v. 21). This may also explain the absence of servants from the property laws in 22:1–15.

21:2–3 Such restriction on the length any servant could be expected to serve is not found in other ancient Near Eastern law collections and is the first example in these laws that resists permanent class distinctions between people, an ideal realized (with respect to our spiritual status) in the Christian gospel (Gal 3:28).

21:6 before the judges. As the NIV text notes on this verse and 22:8, 9, 28 indicate, this may refer to either “judges” or “God.” The context here may suggest that God is more appropriate, as in 22:28. pierce his ear with an awl. This ear piercing is not a cruel act but a voluntary rite by which the servant symbolizes his desire to remain a servant. Ps 40:6 may apply this metaphorically.

21:12–36 Personal Injuries. The laws in this section all relate to attacks on people (intentional or otherwise) and prescribe the appropriate penalty or compensation to impose. The material is arranged mainly in descending order as regards the punishments prescribed. The severity of the punishments reflects the nature of the assault and the death or injury caused by it.

21:12–14 As in the second half of the Decalogue, homicide begins the social laws as the most important such law, because the transcendent value of human life cannot be compromised by anything on this earth.

21:13 not done intentionally. Alternative descriptions include “accidentally” (Num 35:11; Josh 20:3, 9), “without enmity” (Num 35:22), “not an enemy” and “no harm was intended” (Num 35:23), and “without malice aforethought” (Deut 4:42; 19:4, 6; Josh 20:5). All these distinguish unintentional homicide (manslaughter) from premeditated murder; only the latter automatically incurs capital punishment (Gen 9:6). a place I will designate. Alludes to subsequently establishing “cities of refuge” (Num 35:6; Deut 4:41–43; 19:1–13; Josh 20:1–9).

21:14 taken from my altar. The horns of the altar were a place of refuge (1 Kgs 1:50–51; 2:28), symbolic of God’s mercy (Amos 3:14).

21:15 attacks. As the preceding material and the NIV text note suggest, this possibly means “kills”; thus understood, the focus shifts here from homicide in society to homicide in the family.

21:16–17 These laws relate to other serious offenses that are related to murder in seeking to destroy or devalue human life, which explains why these also are capital offenses. As in vv. 12–15, the law in society (v. 16) is followed by the family law (v. 17).

21:16 kidnaps. In relation to forced labor or human trafficking.

21:18–27 Inflicting injury on others carries physical or financial consequences. The assailant must compensate the incapacitated person.

21:20 Beating a slave to death must be “punished,” a practice unique to Hebrew law in the ancient world.

21:21 their property. The word property is elsewhere often translated “silver”; it implies the slave’s labor, consistent with vv. 2–11.

21:22 This has generated considerable controversy, especially in view of the modern abortion debate. It is unclear whether premature birth or miscarriage is in view (see NIV text note), and we are not told explicitly who suffers the “serious injury”—the mother or her baby. However, the wording and application of the principle of moral equivalence (see note on vv. 23–24) may imply that both victims (mother and child) were taken into account. Accordingly, this law protects all human life, including life in the womb, and is obviously in keeping with the Scripture’s subsequent attribution of human personhood to the unborn child (Pss 51:5–6; 139:13–16; Luke 1:44).

21:23–24 life for life . . . bruise for bruise. This principle of moral equivalence curtails retaliatory action by ensuring that punishment does not exceed the crime; it does not encourage or validate barbaric revenge, but controls the clan vendetta by ensuring that no revenge exceeds the original offense. The immediate and wider context suggests that Israel does not apply it literally in terms of physical mutilation; rather, people make appropriate compensation (vv. 26–27, 30). For Jesus’ teaching on retaliation and revenge, see Matt 5:38–42 (cf. Rom 12:17–21).

21:26–27 Less severe beatings of slaves (those not resulting in death) do not invoke the death penalty (vv. 20–21), but the principle of vv. 23–24 requires that the slave should go free. Again this distinguishes this collection of sample laws from other ancient Near Eastern ones, which determine punishment by social class.

21:28–36 These laws deal mainly with cases of criminal negligence: loss of human or animal life resulting from lack of due diligence and care. Where a rogue animal is responsible for human death, its life is forfeit (Gen 9:5). This highlights the intrinsic value of human life. But where criminal negligence is involved, the life of the offender is forfeited unless they pay appropriate compensation. In the case of a slave, there is a set amount (v. 32) for this ransom payment (see note on 30:12), possibly suggesting that the victim’s intrinsic value determines the compensation demanded in other cases.

21:32 thirty shekels of silver. See NIV text note. Apparently the standard price for a slave.

22:1–15 Protection of Property. After dealing with bodily injuries, the focus moves to issues concerning property—in particular, the appropriate compensation for stolen, lost, or damaged property. While this section arguably extends to include vv. 16–17, the latter verses deal with a very different kind of financial loss.

22:1–4 This focuses on theft and the punitive and compensatory damages it incurs. The damages correlate to the value of what is lost and whether such loss is permanent or temporary.

22:2–3 Exploiting the darkness for nefarious purposes such as burglary could cost intruders their life. This presumably functions here as a deterrent; the context certainly suggests a focus on the thief rather than the occupant (who acts with impunity before sunrise).

22:5–6 These are two further examples of negligence (21:28–36) rather than acts with criminal intent. The compensation is simply to equal the loss because the offender did not intend harm.

22:6 thornbushes. Used as hedges around fields (Mic 7:4).

22:7–15 Attention shifts to property lost or damaged when entrusted to another. Where theft is involved, the thief must pay appropriate damages, i.e., “pay back double” (vv. 7, 9; cf. Lev 6:2–5, where, if one confesses one’s sin of theft—rather than being caught as here in Exodus—the penalty is restitution plus 20 percent). If an animal is injured or dies while borrowed, the borrower must make restitution (i.e., pay for the animal) unless the owner is actually present or the animal is contracted for hire. Thus, where no criminal intent or negligence is involved, no one is held responsible.

22:16–31 Social Responsibility. This section addresses various kinds of inappropriate behavior. While all these offenses constitute breaches of Israel’s covenant obligations, some are clearly more serious than others, as reflected in the associated punishments.

22:16–17 While the case law framework is connected with the preceding material (dealing with the protection of property), the nature of the “property” and “theft” envisaged here is rather different. For this reason, it is often grouped with the social offenses that follow (vv. 18–31). The scenario appears to involve consent (“seduces”) rather than rape. This discourages such premarital intercourse by making men liable to pay a substantial sum (“the bride-price,” which was normally paid by the groom to the girl’s father; see Gen 24:53; 34:12), whether or not the girl’s father gives consent to a subsequent marriage. In this and similar laws in Deut 22, no dowry or wedding gift (1 Kgs 9:16) is envisaged from the family of the bride.

22:18–20 These three capital crimes are incompatible with the Lord’s and Israel’s holy status, and they exemplify the behavior for which the Canaanites would be judged (Lev 18:3, 21, 23; 19:31; 20:2–6, 23). Sorcery (v. 18) seems to encompass any manipulation of power that belongs exclusively to the Lord (7:11; Deut 18:10). Bestiality (v. 19) not only defiles the offender but perverts natural sexual relations (Lev 18:23). Sacrificing to other gods (v. 20) utterly disregards the Lord’s covenant commands and thus invokes the same judgment that is subsequently meted out on the Canaanites (Deut 7:1–2; 20:17).

22:21—23:9 The material in this section differs from the judgments that precede it. No punishments are listed that could be applied by a human court.

22:21 Israel’s experience as oppressed foreigners should discourage them from oppressing others in that way. The reiteration of this particular prohibition in 23:9 suggests that 22:21—23:9 forms a discrete section within the Book of the Covenant (cf. 24:7). This seems to be confirmed by the contents of these verses, which affirm behavior that goes beyond that which may be controlled by legislation.

22:22–24 The Lord’s special concern for widows and orphans (i.e., defenseless people), coupled with the threat of retribution, should have deterred Israel from exploiting the vulnerable members of their society. Unfortunately, they subsequently ignore this despite frequent reiterations of God’s concern (e.g., Lev 19:9–10; Deut 10:18; 14:28–29; Pss 10:17–18; 68:5; Isa 10:1–2; Jer 22:3; Ezek 22:29), so the threat here became a reality (Lam 5:3). Such negligence continued even after the exile (Zech 7:10; Mal 3:5) and remains the antithesis of “religion that God . . . accepts” (Jas 1:27; cf. Matt 5:2–4; 1 John 3:17).

22:25–27 Both examples of mistreatment concern financial relief for the poor: (1) charging interest for charitable loans and (2) putting one’s own (financial) interests above an impoverished neighbor’s well-being. The Lord’s compassion for such people should motivate a loving response and discourage any selfish lack of concern. Jesus encourages even greater generosity (Luke 6:34–35).

22:28 Do not blaspheme God. See NIV text note; see also note on 21:6. curse the ruler of your people. Paul applies this in terms of verbal insult (Acts 23:4–5).

22:29 You must give me the firstborn. See note on 13:13.

22:30 eighth day. The seven-day delay is not simply on compassionate grounds but could also relate to its unacceptability (Lev 22:27) due to ritual uncleanness, which may be inferred from the timing of circumcision (Gen 17:12), purification after male childbirth (Lev 12:2–3), and other purification regulations (Lev 15:13–14, 24, 28–29).

22:31 As God’s holy people, the Israelites must abstain from foods that would ritually defile them, such as an animal not properly drained of blood (see Lev 17:13–14, where the context explicitly relates to not eating blood).

23:1–9 Laws of Justice and Mercy. These stipulations (see note on 22:21—23:9) focus primarily on perverting justice by offering false testimony (vv. 1–2), showing partiality (v. 3), making false allegations (v. 7), or accepting a bribe (v. 8).

23:3 to a poor person. While the weight of the law and of prophetic indictment is certainly against favoritism shown to the rich and powerful, any sort of favoritism, even to the poor, is forbidden.

23:4–5 The Israelites are not merely to refrain from hurting others; they must help others, even their adversaries. The NT likewise encourages such active love, not simply passive restraint (Luke 6:27–36; Rom 12:14, 20).

23:10–13 Sabbath Laws. The principle enshrined in the weekly Sabbath is now more broadly applied in terms of sabbatical years and humanitarian concerns.

23:10–12 The sabbatical year, like the weekly Sabbath on which it is patterned (20:8–11), expresses humanitarian and ecological concern; it is not primarily an attempt to maximize productivity, even though it may also facilitate such due to nutrient replenishment and because God has built the Sabbath into the created order (Gen 2:1–3).

23:13 Do not invoke the names of other gods. In the immediate context, this may prohibit worshiping Canaan’s fertility deities, which the Israelites may be tempted to do in order to secure good harvests. However, use of the plural “you” in this verse sets it apart from its context, so a more general prohibition could also be intended.

23:14–19 The Three Annual Festivals. See 34:18–26; Lev 23:4–44; Num 28:16—29:40; Deut 16:1–17. The first festival is explicitly related to the exodus, and the latter two are implicitly associated with God’s gift of the land. By making these pilgrimages and bringing these offerings, Israel acknowledges the Lord as the God who provides.

23:15 Unleavened Bread. See notes on 12:17, 18.

23:16 Harvest. Also called “Weeks” (34:22) or “Pentecost” (Acts 2:1; 20:16); celebrated seven weeks (on the 50th day) after the Festival of Unleavened Bread, after the wheat harvest. Ingathering. Also called “Tabernacles” (Lev 23:34). Occurring at the end of the agricultural year, it celebrated the fruit harvest and involved reenacting Israel’s temporary shelters following the exodus (Lev 23:42–43; Neh 8:13–17).

23:18–19 These four instructions concerning food and offerings (cf. 34:25–26) formally conclude the specific obligations of the covenant; they apply particularly (if not exclusively) to Passover (v. 18b; cf. 12:9–10), Unleavened Bread (vv. 15a, 18a; cf. 12:15–16), and Harvest (v. 19; cf. v. 16).

23:18 fat . . . morning. As fat was otherwise burnt in meat offerings, this prohibition must relate exclusively to the Passover.

23:19 firstfruits. This representative portion acknowledges that the entire harvest is the Lord’s gift and belongs to him. in its mother’s milk. The reason for this taboo is unclear. It may simply violate the natural order because the mother’s milk sustains the life of its offspring; the speculative idea that it was a Canaanite fertility ritual has no firm evidence.

23:20–33 God’s Angel to Prepare the Way. The “Book of the Covenant” (24:7) concludes by exhorting Israel, focusing primarily on their journeying to and possessing the promised land.

23:23 My angel. See notes on 3:2; 14:19. As in ch. 3, this angel is closely identified with God himself; such is particularly clear from God’s instructions: “Do not rebel against him; he will not forgive your rebellion, since my Name is in him” (v. 21). Moreover, to obey this angel is to obey God (v. 22). Even after Israel’s idolatry (ch. 32) has jeopardized the construction of the tabernacle, the promise here is not withdrawn (32:34; 33:2). It seems to be fulfilled by the “commander of the army of the LORD” who appears to Joshua (Josh 5:13–15) and says almost exactly what God previously told Moses at the burning bush (3:5).

23:24–26 Blessing in the land likewise depends on whether Israel worships the Lord exclusively, so they must eradicate every vestige of the Canaanite fertility cult.

23:27–30 The Lord himself will secure the conquest of Canaan. He will spread terror and confusion among Israel’s enemies.

23:28 hornet. The meaning of the Hebrew noun is uncertain; it could refer either to some agent God will send to terrify Canaan’s inhabitants or to the ensuing panic itself. Either way, it will seriously affect their ability to resist Israel’s invasion.

23:29–30 Gradually displacing the indigenous population, the Israelites are implicitly responsible to subdue the land and rule over the wild animals (cf. Gen 1:26–28).

23:31 Israel’s western territorial border extends “from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea” (see NIV text notes), and its eastern border runs “from the desert [the southern or Negev wilderness] to the Euphrates River” in the north. This encompasses all the territory between Egypt and northern Mesopotamia (Gen 15:18; 1 Kgs 4:21).

23:33 snare to you. Graphically warns of impending disaster (cf. 10:7) that Israel subsequently ignores, eventually leading to their own expulsion from the land.

24:1–18 The Covenant Confirmed. These verses describe three stages in confirming the covenant: (1) an oath ritually ratifies it (vv. 3–8), (2) the Israelite leaders eat an extraordinary meal in God’s presence (vv. 9–11), and (3) God formally invites Moses to receive the tablets of stone (vv. 12–18).

24:1 For the next ascent, God instructs Moses to include a representative group of Israel’s civil and religious leadership. Nadab and Abihu. Aaron’s oldest sons (6:23; 28:1), who later seal their fate when they offer unauthorized fire before the Lord (Lev 10:1–2; Num 3:4). seventy. May signify the inclusiveness of this representative group (v. 5). elders. See note on 3:16.

24:2 Like the tabernacle soon to be constructed, this meeting place is segregated, reflecting different gradations of holiness. At its base, where the Israelites are encamped, is its outer court; further up, where this delegation will ascend to worship God, is its Holy Place; and right at the top, where the glory of God settles (v. 16), or tabernacles, is its Most Holy Place.

24:3–4a Once again (19:8), the people commit themselves unreservedly to what the Lord said, so Moses duly records the terms of the covenant before they formally ratify it by means of a ritual oath.

24:4b–8 Covenant ratification takes the form of an elaborate ceremony involving an altar, 12 pillars, sacrifices, and the ritual sprinkling of blood.

24:4b altar. Represents the Lord in the ensuing ceremony. twelve stone pillars. Represent the 12 tribes of Israel, the Lord’s covenant partner. The prohibition against using such cultic objects (23:24) applies only if they are associated with some pagan ritual.

24:5 young Israelite men. See note on 19:22. burnt offerings . . . fellowship offerings. See notes on Lev 1; 3. The use of such offerings is associated with the consecration of the Aaronic priests (29:10–46). The Israelites are to become a “kingdom of priests” (19:6).

24:6–8 This blood-sprinkling ritual might also be part of an ordination ritual for Israel, akin to that of the Aaronic priesthood. But in the ancient world, covenants were often sealed with blood. The dual sprinkling (some on the altar, some on the people), separated by the recitation of the covenant obligations and Israel’s assent (v. 7), suggests such a significance here. The splattered blood is an enacted oath symbolizing the death of the covenant makers if they become covenant breakers (see Gen 15:8–17; see also notes on Gen 15:9–17, 18–21). The blood also purifies the people so that they enter the covenant with their sin atoned for and begin a new relationship with God (e.g., 30:10; Lev 6:30; 8:15; 16:14–18; 17:11). Accordingly, the NT suggests that the blood sprinkled on the altar foreshadows Jesus’ atonement for human sin through his death (Matt 26:28; see Heb 9:15–28; 1 Pet 1:2).

24:7 Book of the Covenant. Usually understood as containing only the material in 20:22—23:33.

24:9–11 Having sealed the covenant in blood, Israel’s leaders ascend the mountain as God instructed (v. 1), and they experience an extraordinary encounter with God.

24:10–11 saw the God of Israel . . . they saw God. Perhaps they lifted their gaze no higher than the bright blue platform on which God stood (cf. Ezek 1:22–28), but whatever they saw was clearly different from seeing God’s “face” (33:20, 23). Even so, the experience here was clearly exceptional (v. 11; cf. 3:6) and foreshadows the full and complete vision of God the NT promises to the people of God (Matt 5:8; Rev 22:4).

24:11 ate and drank. This fellowship or covenant meal (cf. Gen 26:30; 31:54) celebrates the formal ratification of the covenant (vv. 3–8) and expresses Israel’s unique relationship with God. As such, this unique occasion in Israel’s history foreshadows the Lord’s Supper, which celebrates the new covenant ratified by Christ’s death and the fellowship with God experienced in Christ (1 Cor 11:23–26). Both meals also anticipate the final Messianic banquet (Rev 19:9).

24:12–18 The ancient Near Eastern suzerain-vassal treaty may partly explain Moses’ next ascent. The final stage in the ratification of such a treaty normally involved depositing the agreement in the respective temples of each treaty partner. This is possibly why two stone tablets are necessary (31:18) and why God presents these tablets to Moses only after the tabernacle instructions, which begin with the ark where the engraved tablets will be deposited (25:16). While certainly not the main purpose for the tabernacle’s construction, this is clearly an important function of “the ark of the covenant law” (25:22).

24:12 stay here. Moses anticipates a significant absence, so he temporarily delegates some of his authority (v. 14). This is the second time that Joshua, Aaron, and Hur assist Moses (17:10–13). But here their roles are reversed: Joshua ascends with Moses, while Aaron and Hur remain to handle any disputes among the people. tablets of stone. These two tablets (31:18), inscribed on both sides (32:15), were probably not large or heavy since Moses carried them unassisted (32:19). In this unique situation, both tablets were deposited in the temple (i.e., tabernacle) shared by both parties. law and commandments. The “law” (i.e., “Torah”) essentially means “teaching,” whereas “commandments” is more specific.

24:16–17 glory of the LORD . . . glory of the LORD. See note on 16:7.

24:16 settled. Lit. “tabernacled.” This foreshadows the manifestation of the Lord’s presence in the tabernacle (40:34–38), in the temple (1 Kgs 8:10–11), and ultimately in Jesus (John 1:14) and in the new creation (Rev 21:3).

24:17 consuming fire. See Heb 12:18–29.

25:1—40:38 The last major block of material focuses primarily on the special tent that will accomodate the Lord’s presence among his people after they leave Mount Sinai and continue their journey to the promised land. God instructs Moses regarding its construction and personnel (chs. 25–31), and Moses then implements those instructions (chs. 35–40). The golden calf episode interrupts the account of the tabernacle’s construction and, among other things, highlights how the Lord’s presence will be made known to his people; it also sets inappropriate worship in bold contrast to the worship that the Lord demands from those who serve him (chs. 32–34). The actual construction of the tabernacle indicated that God’s plans to dwell with his people were intact, as he further demonstrates by filling the tabernacle and by the associated cloud directing Israel’s travels in the closing verses of the book. Throughout their subsequent history, the Israelites continue to jeopardize having the presence of a holy God among them; finally their covenant rebellion results in the destruction of God’s later dwelling place, the Jerusalem temple, and the expulsion of Israel from the land they had defiled by their rebellious acts. But even this did not permanently disrupt God’s plans. Rather, God graciously restored Israel to the land; and the temple, the symbol of his presence, was rebuilt. Like the tabernacle, however, the temple merely foreshadowed the fullness of God’s presence that came to earth through Jesus (Matt 1:23; John 1:14) and that will be experienced forever in the new heaven and the new earth (Rev 21:3, 22; 22:4).

25:1—31:18 Instructions for Israel’s Worship. Like observing the Sabbath (31:12–17; 35:1–3), the tabernacle was designed to reflect God’s continuing presence (or “glory”; 24:16), fellowship, and blessing with Israel as they move forward. Not surprisingly, therefore, the space devoted to this movable sanctuary (both here and in chs. 35–40) underscores its importance.

25:1—27:21 This focuses on the design of the tabernacle and its constituent parts.

25:1–9 Offerings for the Tabernacle. Presumably most of the raw materials, which the Israelites voluntarily donate to the Lord, came from the Egyptians (12:35–36). In any case, these “freewill offerings” (35:29; 36:3) exceed requirements (36:5–7).

25:4 blue, purple and scarlet. Royal colors. yarn and fine linen. Rather than referring to two different materials, the colored “yarn” may have been spun from “fine linen” (similarly in 26:1). Expertise for weaving such fabric could have developed in Egypt, renowned for its fine linen.

25:7 ephod. See note on 28:6–14.

25:9 Manufacturing the tabernacle and its furnishings must conform to God’s blueprint, a “pattern” (i.e., construction plan) that God is about to disclose (v. 40; 26:30; 27:8).

25:10–22 The Ark. The ark is a gold-plated rectangular chest that subsequently houses “the tablets of the covenant law” (v. 16; see 31:18). It is the only furniture in the Most Holy Place (40:20–21), and it symbolizes the footstool of the Lord’s throne (1 Chr 28:2; see 1 Sam 4:4; 2 Sam 6:2), a description that links the earthly dwelling of God with the heavenly one.

25:12–15 Israel transported the ark using two gold-plated poles inserted through rings on its feet, presumably to avoid any direct contact that might defile it (2 Sam 6:6–7).

25:16 See notes on v. 22; 24:12–18.

25:17 atonement cover. The chest’s lid is a solid slab of gold decorated with an image of two cherubim (see note on v. 18).

25:18 two cherubim. Awesome heavenly creatures that Ezekiel more fully describes (Ezek 1:5–14; 10:1–22). Their posture on the ark is one of reverent awe in the presence of the Lord himself (v. 22).

25:22 ark of the covenant law. So called because it contained the two stone “tablets of the covenant law” (v. 16). It is more commonly described simply as the “ark of the covenant” (e.g., Josh 3:6). I will meet with you. The tabernacle’s main purpose is to provide a place where the Lord can formally meet and communicate with his people; hence, it is later called “the tent of meeting” (e.g., 27:21; 29:42–43). This must not be confused with the temporary “tent of meeting” that was used by Moses prior to the construction of the tabernacle (33:7; the NIV uses quotation marks to distinguish this temporary tent of meeting from the tabernacle). Only 33:7 names this alternative tent as such. Every other reference to the tent of meeting is to the tabernacle.

25:23–30 The Table. The table and lampstand (vv. 31–40) are for the Holy Place. Like the ark, the table is made of gold-plated acacia wood and similarly designed to be carried by gold-plated poles on either side. The decorative molding around the edges keeps its utensils (plates, dishes, pitchers, and bowls) from sliding off the table.

25:30 bread of the Presence. In this phrase, “Presence” refers to the Lord’s presence (as in 33:14–15). The bread, part of the priests’ consecrated food (Lev 24:8–9), was in fact 12 loaves (Lev 24:5), one for each tribe. This was a perpetual offering by which the fruit of Israel’s labors was consecrated to God and by which the nation also acknowledged the Lord as the sole provider of such blessings. See Lev 24:5–9; see also 1 Sam 21:4–6; Matt 12:3–4.

25:31–40 The Lampstand. Like the atonement cover, this is hammered out of pure gold. Three branches, each featuring three cups shaped like almond flowers, extend from each side of the central stand, which itself has four such cups: one at the base and one above each pair of extending branches. The traditional form of the lampstand (the seven-pronged menorah) comes from the time of Herod the Great and may be seen on the Arch of Titus in Rome. It depicts a flowering almond tree, most likely symbolizing the tree of life in Eden. The people were to supply the necessary fuel (olive oil) to keep these seven lamps burning throughout the night (Lev 24:2–4). As with the bread, the light indicated that the Lord was resident in his tent. Significantly, it is in such a setting (the temple courts) that Jesus claims to be “the light of the world” (John 8:12–20).

25:40 pattern. See note on v. 9. The reason why following the divine blueprint is so important is because the tabernacle symbolically represents God’s spiritual dwelling place (i.e., heaven). Accordingly, the author of Hebrews cites this verse to emphasize the superiority of Jesus, the ultimate high priest; the Mosaic tabernacle is but a “copy” and “shadow” of what is in heaven (Heb 8:5).

26:1–37 The Tabernacle. See note on 25:1—40:38 and “Temple.” This special tent (45 feet [13.7 meters] long, 15 feet [4.6 meters] wide, and 15 feet [4.6 meters] high) consists of a gold-plated wooden structure (consisting of uprights and crossbars) covered with four layers of cloth and animal skins. It divides into two rooms (the Holy Place and the Most Holy Place; v. 33) and has two curtains: one is the entrance to the Holy Place (the Lord’s guest room), and the other isolates the Most Holy Place (the Lord’s throne room) from the Holy Place. Both curtains are made of linen woven from blue, purple, and scarlet thread (see note on 25:4), but only the curtain into the Most Holy Place is embroidered with cherubim (see vv. 31–35 and note).

26:1 cherubim. See note on 25:18. They are embroidered on the inner curtain to remind Israel of the holiness of the one who has chosen to dwell among them (cf. Gen 3:22–24). skilled worker. See 31:1–11 and note on 31:6.

26:12 The surplus curtain material shuts off the rear of the tabernacle from external view.

26:30 plan. See note on 25:9. Because the information provided in the text lacks sufficient detail, any reconstruction of the tabernacle is necessarily tentative. It possibly had a flat (rather than a ridged) roof, with the coverings drawn to each side like awnings.

26:31–35 These instructions relate to the curtain isolating the Most Holy Place from the Holy Place and barring access to all except the high priest, who entered only on the Day of Atonement (Lev 16), prefiguring how only Jesus could secure access to God (Heb 9:7–14; 10:19–22). The inner curtain may be equivalent to the curtain that tore in Herod’s temple when Jesus died (Mark 15:38), signifying that, unlike Israel, God’s people under the new covenant have direct access to God’s presence (Heb 10:19–22).

27:1–8 The Altar of Burnt Offering. The altar has a square wooden frame overlaid with bronze. A bronze network grating (v. 4) is inserted halfway up the altar with rings at each corner of the network so the altar could be transported using bronze-overlaid poles. Measuring 7.5 feet (2.3 meters) long and wide and 4.5 feet (1.4 meters) high, it is essentially a grill for roasting offerings (38:1). Sacrifice on this altar was required for access to God (Lev 4:10), foreshadowing the necessity of Christ’s sacrifice (Heb 9:12–14).

27:2 horns. The purpose of these horns is not explained. Theological significance is implied by the fact that blood was put on them (e.g., 29:12; Lev 4:25, 30, 34). The atoning significance of this (Lev 8:15; 9:9; 16:18) may explain why both Adonijah and Joab took hold of them in order to seek refuge from Solomon (1 Kgs 1:50; 2:28).

27:3 meat forks. Presumably for turning or extracting cooked meat for human consumption.

27:7 poles . . . rings. See note on 25:12–15.

27:8 just as you were shown. See note on 25:9.

27:9–19 The Courtyard. A rectangular courtyard, 150 feet (45.7 meters) long and 75 feet (22.9 meters) wide, surrounds the tabernacle. It has twenty evenly spaced posts on each side, ten along the back, and three on either side of the entrance at the front. These bronze-overlaid wooden posts support the plain (off-white) linen curtains that stand 7.5 feet (2.3 meters) high and form the tabernacle’s perimeter fence. Four more posts support the colored curtain that provides access into the enclosure (26:36).

27:13 Like the Garden of Eden (Gen 3:24), the tabernacle was entered from the east.

27:20–21 Oil for the Lampstand. Top-quality oil (pressed rather than crushed olives) fuels the tabernacle lamps (presumably the menorah; see 25:31–40 and note) that light the Holy Place throughout the night (1 Sam 3:3). This is a natural segue into the following material, which focuses on the priests who move between the outer court and the Holy Place.

27:21 tent of meeting. See note on 25:22.

28:1–43 The Priestly Garments. This section focuses on the priests’ garments, particularly the high priest’s special clothing (vv. 3–39).

28:1 Nadab and Abihu, Eleazar and Ithamar. Their grouping in pairs (cf. 6:23) may anticipate subsequent events (Num 3:4; see note on 24:1).

28:2–5 The high priest’s garments are manufactured with the same fabrics (except for the additional strands of gold; 39:2–3) as the tabernacle curtains.

28:2 dignity and honor. The garments reflect the holy status of the priests.

28:3 skilled workers. See note on 31:6.

28:4 The design and function of these six items (as well as the priests’ linen underwear) are elaborated on in vv. 6–43.

28:6–14 The ephod is an ornate apron-like outer garment the high priest wears. It is held on by two shoulder pieces and a waistband (vv. 7–8), which suggests that it extends at least to the upper thighs. Two onyx stones, each engraved with a chronological list of six of Israel’s tribes, attach to the shoulder pieces (vv. 9–12a), symbolizing Aaron’s representative role for all Israel (v. 12b). Two braided chains of pure gold are attached (vv. 13–14) to hold the “breastpiece” (vv. 15–30) in place.

28:15–30 The breastpiece is a folded piece of ornate fabric about nine inches (about 23 centimeters) square decorated with four rows of precious stones (each engraved with a tribal name) mounted in gold lace settings (vv. 15–21). Braided chains of pure gold on the breastpiece are attached with blue cord to their counterparts on the ephod to keep the chains in place (vv. 22–28). The theological rationale (v. 29) is similar to before (v. 12b): it symbolizes Aaron’s representative role before the Lord.

28:29 breastpiece of decision. The breastpiece’s association with decision making explains why the breastpiece is folded double (v. 16): it forms a pouch for the Urim and Thummim (see note on v. 30).

28:30 the Urim and the Thummim. Israel’s only legitimate means of divination (Num 27:21; Deut 33:8; 1 Sam 14:41–42; 28:6; Ezra 2:63). Urim may mean “lights,” while Thummim may relate to a word meaning “complete, perfect.” Perhaps these were gems that might in some way provide divine guidance when thrown by the priest.

28:31–35 Priests wear a blue robe directly underneath the ephod. It has a hole in the middle (like a pullover), and a woven edge reinforces it to prevent tearing (vv. 31–32). Braided pomegranates interspersed with functional gold bells decorate its hem, which probably extends to the lower legs (vv. 33–34). The practical function of these bells (v. 35) emphasizes the inherent danger involved in approaching the Lord, and it may implicitly warn that any unauthorized tabernacle service will certainly result in death (cf. Lev 10).

28:36–38 The engraved gold “plate,” which attaches with blue cord to the front of the linen turban (v. 37), is associated with the high priest’s role: he “will bear the guilt” in relation to Israel’s “sacred gifts” (v. 38). The inscription (“HOLY TO THE LORD”) reminds Israel of the holy status of the high priest, who has been consecrated to God. Only someone who is holy to the Lord can bear guilt for others—in this case those who inadvertently bring a gift that might otherwise be unacceptable. As such, the high priest symbolically foreshadows the work of the ultimate high priest: Jesus, who is uniquely holy (Heb 7:26) and so offered to God a perfect sacrifice on behalf of others (1 Pet 1:19).

28:39–41 An embroidered sash around the priest’s waist ties the robe and the long linen tunic (worn under the robe; 29:5). Similar, although plainer, items designed for Aaron’s sons (vv. 40–41) have the same distinguishing purpose (v. 2).

28:42 linen undergarments. Basically underwear that further reduced any risk of exposure as they carried out their priestly activities in the presence of God (cf. 20:26). Just as Adam and Eve had to be clothed after the fall (Gen 3:21), so any exposure of genitalia in the Lord’s presence was strictly forbidden.

29:1–46 Consecration of the Priests. This focuses on the consecration of the priests, altar, and sanctuary.

29:1 consecrate. To make holy. a young bull and two rams. Required for the ritual consecration of the priests, which involves a purification offering (vv. 10–14), a burnt offering (vv. 15–18), and a fellowship offering (vv. 19–34).

29:4 wash them with water. Symbolizes removing ritual defilement. Other OT passages apply the imagery to the eradication of moral defilement (e.g., Ps 51:2, 7; Ezek 36:25; Zech 13:1), which the NT applies to the spiritual cleansing God offers through Jesus (1 Cor 6:11; Titus 3:5; Heb 10:22).

29:7 anointing oil. See note on 30:22–38.

29:10–14 The young bull (v. 1) is used as a sin offering (v. 14; Lev 8:14); as such, it has an atoning function (vv. 36–37; Lev 4:20, 26, 31, 35).

29:10, 15, 19 lay their hands on its head. They personally identify with the sin or purification offering (v. 14) and symbolically transfer guilt.

29:14 burn . . . outside the camp. Due to association with sin/impurity, carcasses of sacrificial animals were removed from the community; the same principle explains why Jesus died outside Jerusalem (Heb 13:11–12).

29:15–18 The first of the two rams (v. 1) is a burnt offering (Lev 1; 6:8–13). This was totally consumed on the altar, which signifies total dedication to God. Thus, the priests, having had their sins atoned for by means of the purification offering (vv. 10–14), now dedicate themselves to God.

29:19–34 The second ram (v. 1), a fellowship offering, serves a different purpose: ordination (v. 22). It involves a distinct ritual: (1) Moses smears some of its blood on the priests (v. 20), and he sprinkles some of the blood that splashed on the altar, together with anointing oil, on the priests and their garments to consecrate them (v. 21). (2) The priests offer to the Lord (v. 25) only parts of the ram (v. 22), together with a loaf of each kind of bread (vv. 23–25; see v. 2). The breast is for Moses (v. 26; Lev 8:29).

29:24 wave offering. This was a means of drawing attention to the part of the sacrifice that would be consumed by the priests, most likely for the sake of transparency (v. 27).

29:27–28 This aside highlights how the normal practice of donating the breast and right thigh of fellowship offerings to the priests (Lev 7:28–36) carries on from this ordination rite in which only the breast was given to Moses (vv. 22, 26).

29:29–30 This seems to be another aside (see note on vv. 27–28), again looking beyond the initial ordination ceremony of Aaron and his sons. The issue is high priestly succession.

29:31–34 These verses describe how the priests, as offerers, have a share of the fellowship offering offered at the time of their consecration (vv. 27–28). This pattern of forgiveness of sins (sin offering), dedication to God (burnt offering), and fellowship with God (fellowship offering) is followed (in part or in whole) in other sacrifice sequences (e.g., Lev 16) and forms the basis for the apostolic teaching concerning the life of Christian discipleship (Rom 5:1; 12:1; Heb 10:19–25).

29:35 The ordination process lasts seven days, during which Aaron and his sons must remain at the entrance of the tent (Lev 8:33–35). What happens each day is unclear, but it seems unlikely that they repeat the ritual daily. Possibly the entire process takes several days to complete, as purifying the altar does (vv. 36–37).

29:38–43 Attention shifts here to the priestly responsibility of presenting sacrifices twice daily, which God requires for the tent to function as a meeting place between himself and humans. These burnt offerings do not consecrate the tent of meeting (v. 43) but facilitate regular communion with a holy God by atoning for sin.

29:45–46 See note on 6:7. The tabernacle is not an addendum to God’s delivering Israel from Egypt. Rather, God delivered Israel from Egypt so that, by dwelling among them, they might be a priestly kingdom and a holy nation (19:6).

30:1–10 The Altar of Incense. While similar in design to the bronze altar (27:1–8), the incense altar is a third the size of the bronze altar, is overlaid with pure gold, and is located just outside the Most Holy Place.

30:1 For the recipe of this unique incense, see vv. 34–38. Its significance is not made explicit, but its fragrant smoke is used elsewhere as a symbol for the prayers of God’s people (Ps 141:2; Luke 1:10; Rev 5:8; 8:3–4), so it may prefigure Christ’s heavenly intercession (Heb 7:25).

30:2 horns. See note on 27:2.

30:4 rings . . . poles. See note on 25:12–15.

30:10 Once a year. Annually, on the Day of Atonement (Lev 16), the high priest purifies this altar with the blood of the purification offering.

30:11–16 Atonement Money. This poll tax provides some of the raw materials for the tabernacle (38:25–28). It becomes the basis for the later tax for repairing and maintaining the temple (2 Chr 24:8–12; Matt 17:24–27). But this tax also symbolizes that the Israelites belong to God and owe their lives to him.

30:12 ransom. Previously, a redemption payment (21:30); related terminology includes “atonement cover” (25:17) and “make atonement” (32:30). The Greek equivalent describes the purpose of Christ’s death in Mark 10:45.

30:14 twenty years old. Of military age (Num 1:3).

30:16 atonement money. Prefigures how Christians are redeemed by the blood of Jesus (1 Pet 1:18–19).

30:17–21 Basin for Washing. The bronze basin, set up in the courtyard between the altar and the tent, holds the water with which the priests must wash their hands and feet (whether ritually, practically, or both) before entering the tent or burning food on the altar. For the source of the raw material, see 38:8.

30:18 washing. See note on 29:4.

30:22–38 Anointing Oil and Incense. The fragrant oil used to “consecrate” (i.e., make holy) the tent and its furniture (vv. 26–29), as well as its priests (v. 30), is itself “sacred” (i.e., set apart) in that it has a unique recipe (vv. 23–25) and an exclusive use (vv. 31–33). The incense that burns inside the tent (vv. 1–9) is a unique blend of materials that the priests use exclusively for cultic purposes; thus, it is “holy to the LORD” (v. 37).

30:23 myrrh. See Song 1:13 and note. calamus. See Jer 6:20 and note.

31:1–11 Bezalel and Oholiab. The two artisans Bezalel and Oholiab, along with suitably trained assistants, are responsible for all the skilled labor involved in constructing the tabernacle.

31:1 Hur. See note on 17:10.

31:3 filled . . . with the Spirit. This is the first time in the Bible that someone is filled with the Spirit, here for the creative task of an artisan. In both the OT and NT, being filled with the Spirit generally refers to a God-given ability to perform some action in service to God (Deut 34:9; Mic 3:8; Luke 1:15, 67; Acts 2:4; 4:8, 31; 13:9). Bezalel is proficient in “all kinds of skills” not simply because he has natural abilities but because God gave him wisdom, understanding, and knowledge (28:3; 35:31; cf. Prov 3:19–20, where the same terminology is used of God creating the earth). In 1 Cor 3, Paul sees himself as performing a similar function to Bezalel as regards laying the foundations for the church as God’s temple.

31:6 Oholiab. Possibly Bezalel’s protégé. In any case, both men pass on their expertise to others (35:34), and thus God equips “all the skilled workers” for this special assignment (35:35—36:1).

31:12–18 The Sabbath. This section concludes the instructions given to Moses on the mountaintop (24:12–18) and stresses the importance of observing the Sabbath as a perpetual covenant sign.

31:13 observe my Sabbaths. See notes on 20:8, 11. sign. A visible symbol not of the Lord’s power (cf. 3:12; 4:8; 7:3) but of the special relationship he formed with Israel. who makes you holy. The Sabbath is a symbol and perpetual reminder of Israel’s status. Just as the Lord set one day apart from all the others, so also he set one people apart from all others.

31:14, 15 put to death. Desecrating the Sabbath denies Israel’s holy status and thus invokes the death penalty (35:2).

31:16 covenant. Probably means “covenant” sign (cf. Gen 17:9–11). By emulating their Creator in observing the weekly Sabbaths, the Israelites regularly recall and express their special relationship with him.

31:17 for in six days the LORD made. See note on 20:11. on the seventh day he rested and was refreshed. The Lord rested not because he was tired or out of breath but because he had completed his creative work. By imitating the Lord’s “creation rest” in observing his Sabbaths, the Israelites foreshadow his creative and redemptive goal: a divine-human relationship through which humanity shares in the blessing of God’s rest (Heb 4:1–11).

31:18 two tablets. These are not necessarily large or heavy. They are engraved front and back (32:15) with the ten “words” (34:1, 28; see note on 20:1–21). finger of God. A bold metaphor (cf. 8:19; Luke 11:20) highlighting the divine inspiration of the covenant obligations; it may not literally describe the engraving process (34:1, 27–28). Deut 4:13, 5:22, and 10:4 imply that God did the writing, but this may simply be a way of emphasizing the ultimate source of the tablets (24:12).

32:1—34:35 The Covenant Broken and Reestablished. The focus now shifts to events in the camp during Moses’ absence (32:1; see 24:18). Israel’s idolatry with the golden calf (ch. 32) flagrantly breaches the covenant. Only after the consequences of Israel’s folly are spelled out and Moses persistently intercedes on Israel’s behalf (ch. 33) is the covenant graciously renewed (ch. 34).

32:1—33:6 The Golden Calf. This incident, which essentially describes Israel’s fall (cf. Gen 3), raises grave concerns regarding Israel’s future.

32:1 they. Presumably representatives and leaders, not the entire community. gods. See NIV text note. The repeated use of plural verb forms in the Hebrew may suggest that the Israelites are flagrantly breaching the first and second commandments (but see note on v. 5). who will go before us. They effectively replace the Lord’s leadership and protection with a dumb idol they can control. Moses who brought us up out of Egypt. Ignoring God, they credit exclusively Moses for the exodus (cf. 20:2; 29:46).

32:2 gold earrings. Rather than use this gold for the tabernacle, they use it for a rival system of worship ironically designed to reflect the Lord’s presence in the camp.

32:4 idol. See note on 20:4. See photo. calf. A bull-calf symbolized power and fertility. Whether this is a carved wooden calf with gold plating or a solid gold image refined by a craftsman’s tool (v. 20), Aaron’s handiwork is stamped all over it (cf. v. 35). These are your gods. See note on v. 1. Significantly, the same phrase occurs centuries later to describe the golden calves Jeroboam I sets up in Dan and Bethel (1 Kgs 12:28). God was thought to be present in the idol.

32:5 altar in front of the calf. Somewhat ironic in view of 20:22–25. Aaron seems determined to give this worship some vestige of authenticity by declaring “a festival to the LORD.” For Aaron at least, the golden calf represents the Lord and therefore does not break the first commandment. But while this may explain his involvement, it does not exonerate him (32:21).

32:6 burnt offerings . . . fellowship offerings. See notes on Lev 1; 3. Despite similarities with legitimate worship, what Aaron organizes is a parody of the real thing and quickly degenerates into something altogether different (v. 25). revelry. May allude to promiscuous sexual activity (the same Hebrew verb has sexual connotations in Gen 26:8 [“caressing”]; 39:14, 17 [“make sport”]), which was often featured in ancient pagan worship. Because of the serious consequences (1 Cor 10:5), Paul warns Christians not to emulate Israel’s idolatrous behavior (1 Cor 10:7).

32:7 your people, whom you brought up. By calling them “your people” (cf. 3:10) and crediting Moses with Israel’s exodus (cf. 32:1), the Lord is effectively disowning them. corrupt. Through engaging in this act of folly (Ps 106:20), Israel sins and becomes ripe for judgment (cf. Gen 6:11–13).

32:9 stiff-necked. Used here for the first time, it alludes to Israel’s natural propensity to disobey God’s explicit commands (Deut 10:16; 31:27; Neh 9:16; Jer 19:15).

32:10 destroy them. Israel’s future is in jeopardy; God will fulfill his promises (Gen 12:2) through Moses. The Lord would presumably have done so had Moses not responded as he did (Ps 106:23). Nevertheless, the Lord is clearly prompting Moses into action here; thus, the unfolding events neither take the Lord by surprise nor are they contrary to his sovereign plan and purpose.

32:11–13 In response to what the Lord just told him (vv. 7–10), Moses employs three persuasive arguments: (1) It makes no sense for God to destroy Israel because they belong to him (“your people” [v. 11]; cf. v. 7) and he has rescued them from Egypt (v. 11). (2) The Egyptians would misinterpret the Lord’s annihilating Israel and thus malign God (v. 12; cf. Deut 9:28). (3) Annihilating Israel (v. 10) is not in keeping with the spirit of the Lord’s promise to multiply the descendants of Israel (v. 13).

32:14 relented. The basic idea is “felt sorrow” or “had compassion.” Thus, God tempers his wrath with mercy. Moses’ intercession as mediator averts the first crisis—the immediate threat of annihilation—and foreshadows the ongoing intercessory work of the risen and ascended Jesus (Heb 7:25), an important aspect of his role as mediator (1 Tim 2:5).

32:15–16 See note on 31:18. Focusing on these unique tablets anticipates the impact of Israel’s great sin on their covenant with the Lord, as is clear from Moses’ subsequent action (v. 19).

32:17 Joshua. See notes on 17:9; 24:12. At some unspecified stage Moses and Joshua reunite and descend the rest of the way together.

32:19 anger burned. Moses reacts like the Lord did (v. 10). breaking them. Destroying the tablets symbolizes the end of the covenant relationship, which Israel broke.

32:20 Destroying the calf reflects standard procedure for desecrating such an image in the ancient world: Moses (1) “burned it,” (2) “ground it to powder,” and (3) “scattered it” on the water supply (Deut 9:21; cf. 2 Kgs 23:15). In a thirteenth-century BC myth from Western Semitic Ugarit, the war goddess Anat burns, grinds to dust, and scatters the god Mot in a field. This represents complete destruction of the god. If this were a true god, a mortal like Moses could not so destroy him. The threefold ritual thus highlights the folly of worshiping such an object.

32:21 great sin. This was an ancient Near Eastern expression used of adultery. Its repeated use to describe Israel’s idolatry (vv. 30, 31) further underlines how serious this incident is. Like Adam, Israel flouted God’s prohibition and jeopardized the divine-human relationship for which God created them.

32:22–24 Aaron’s assessment of the people may be true, but he minimizes his own involvement and culpability: he begins almost verbatim with the earlier report (v. 1), but when it comes to his own role, he departs noticeably from the narrator’s perspective (cf. v. 4; see v. 35).

32:24 out came this calf! See note on v. 4. Like Adam (Gen 3:12), Aaron indulges in the blame game. Like Israel (v. 10), he would be in serious trouble if Moses did not seek God’s mercy (Deut 9:20).

32:25 running wild . . . out of control. Both expressions reflect the same Hebrew verb, meaning “let go” or “cast off restraint” (Prov 29:18). See note on v. 6.

32:26 Whoever is for the LORD, come to me. This is an opportunity to repent and demonstrate allegiance to the Lord (cf. Josh 24:15; 1 Kgs 18:21). all the Levites. See note on 2:1–2. Only the Levites (or a majority thereof; see note on Deut 33:9) declare themselves unequivocally for the Lord.

32:27–28 This is probably not random slaughter but a “surgical strike,” targeting a relatively small number (“about three thousand,” v. 28) who refused to repent and possibly persisted in the aforementioned revelry (v. 6; cf. Num 25:5–9). In any case, loyalty to God trumps all other loyalties, including loyalty to family (cf. Matt 10:37; Luke 14:26).

32:29 Because the Levites restore order to the camp, the Lord sets them apart to himself and blesses them. They are to assist Aaron and the priests, primarily by transporting the tabernacle and its furnishings (Num 1:47–53; 3:5–9, 12, 41, 45; 4:2–3, 15, 18–33).

32:30–32 While Moses’ earlier intercession secured Israel’s survival (v. 14), the Lord has said nothing about forgiving Israel’s “great sin.” It is to this that Moses now turns his attention.

32:30 perhaps I can make atonement. This entails primarily interceding before the Lord as covenant mediator rather than offering some form of atoning sacrifice.

32:32 blot me out. Not some form of penal substitutionary atonement (see note on v. 30). Rather, Moses is categorically rejecting the Lord’s earlier offer (v. 10) by identifying fully with Israel (i.e., he is also willing to perish with Israel should their sin not be forgiven). Even so, Moses’ example here foreshadows the Mediator who uniquely demonstrated self-sacrificial love (Phil 2:5–8); Jesus gave his life as an atoning sacrifice for the sins of others (Heb 9:15; 1 John 2:1) and, by doing so, he secured for them forgiveness (Eph 1:7) and eternal life (John 3:16). book you have written. Alludes to a heavenly register of the living (Ps 69:28; Isa 4:3; Dan 12:1), akin to ancient census records. Mal 3:16 refers to a “scroll of remembrance” listing the faithful remnant, and this may be the basis for the NT concept of the “book of life” (Phil 4:3; Rev 3:5; 20:12, 15; 21:27; see Luke 10:20), a metaphoric record of God’s elect.

32:33 Whoever has sinned . . . I will blot out. While not committing himself to forgiveness, the Lord is unwilling to punish anyone except the guilty (Gen 18:20–33; Deut 24:16; Ezek 18:4). All Moses has secured at this stage is another stay of execution.

32:34 place I spoke of. The promised land (3:8, 17; 23:23; 33:1–3a). my angel. See note on 23:23. I will punish. While Israel’s future prospects have improved (cf. v. 10), the Lord reserves the right to punish them for their sin.

32:35 plague. Either immediately fulfills the punishment just anticipated (v. 34) or alludes to some subsequent punishment of the exodus generation. 1 Cor 10:8 appears to refer to this punishment.

33:1–3 The Lord ostensibly begins on a positive note with instructions to leave Sinai and go to the promised land, but it quickly becomes evident that a major problem remains unresolved: Israel’s sinfulness is impeding the Lord’s plan to accompany them (v. 3b). Given the tabernacle’s express purpose (25:8; 29:44–46), the plans to erect it have thus been shelved.

33:1 The Lord’s covenant promise of land remains intact, but he has suspended the prospect of his dwelling in Israel’s midst because of the inherent dangers for these “stiff-necked people” (v. 3; see note on 32:9).

33:2 angel. Cf. 32:34 and note. Canaanites . . . Jebusites. The indigenous inhabitants of the promised land.

33:4–6 Grieving and removing their “ornaments” (i.e., the kind of jewelry used to make the golden calf; 32:2–4) were signs of repentance.

33:7–11 The Tent of Meeting. This material is arguably a literary flashback outlining the circumstances that prevailed prior to Israel’s “great sin” (see 32:21 and note) and the crisis over the Lord’s continuing presence. It provides significant insight into the special relationship between the Lord and Moses and the role it played in resolving the current crisis.

33:7 “tent of meeting.” A temporary arrangement used by Moses prior to the erection of the tabernacle (see note on 25:22). In light of the people’s sinful behavior, this may now be the only such tent Israel is ever likely to have. But while very inferior to the tabernacle, it serves a similar function: it is a meeting place where the Lord can manifest his presence and communicate with Israel.

33:10 pillar of cloud. See note on 13:21. stood and worshiped. Acknowledges that the Lord is visibly manifesting his presence and is communicating to Moses in the tent.

33:11 face to face, as one speaks to a friend. As covenant mediator, Moses is unique among the prophets (Num 12:6–8), enjoying a more personal encounter with God (see note on v. 20). Thus, there is hope for Israel, despite the present crisis, so long as they have such a mediator. Joshua . . . did not leave the tent. Presumably to prevent unauthorized access.

33:12–23 Moses and the Glory of the Lord. Picks up where vv. 1–6 leave off; the threat of the Lord’s absence is particularly in focus. While Moses initiates the conversation (cf. 32:31), this intercession is not changing God’s eternal plans or purpose; rather, by responding to God as he does, Moses plays a significant role (i.e., through prayer) in how God’s sovereign will is put into effect. See note on 32:10.

33:12 you have not let me know whom you will send with me. While the Lord’s angel would still go before Israel (32:34; 33:2; cf. 23:20, 23), Moses is not content with this: he wants to know who will actually accompany them. Moreover, it is clear from what follows that only the Lord will do. I know you by name. This, along with the following phrase, alludes to Moses’ special relationship with the Lord (see v. 11 and note), the basis for the following appeal and its successful outcome (v. 17). found favor. A recurring emphasis in these verses; the same expression is also translated “pleased with” in vv. 13, 16, 17.

33:13 teach me your ways so I may know you. True knowledge of God depends on his self-revelation. For the answer to this petition, see 34:6–7. Remember that this nation is your people. The crux of Moses’ petition is for the Lord to demonstrate his grace to Israel.

33:14 My Presence will go. The Lord grants Moses’ request, reversing his earlier decision to send them alone (v. 3). rest. Secure settlement in the promised land (Deut 3:20; 25:19; Josh 22:4; 23:1; 2 Sam 7:1, 11; cf. Ps 95:11). This foreshadows the spiritual “rest” found in Christ (Matt 11:28–29; Heb 4:1–11; Rev 14:13b). See note on 20:11.

33:15–16 Reinforces the importance of the divine presence. God’s presence distinguishes Israel from other nations.

33:15 If your Presence does not go with us. This response is somewhat surprising, given what the Lord just promised (v. 14). But Moses is probably insisting that God’s promise to accompany them take effect immediately. In particular, he may have in mind what God revealed concerning the tabernacle (25:8; 29:44–46). This is how the Lord’s grace to Moses and Israel, as well as Israel’s unique status, will be most obvious.

33:17 because I am pleased with you. See note on v. 12. How much more will the Lord Jesus, with whom God is “well pleased” (Matt 17:5), intercede for us (Heb 7:25) as one greater than Moses (Heb 3:1–6).

33:18–23 Despite the Lord’s concessions, the issue of how a holy God can accompany this sinful people without destroying them (33:3; see note on v. 1) still remains unsettled (34:9). In view of this, Moses’ new petition (v. 18) is not a request for something more personal but is for a visible demonstration of God’s assurance in v. 17.

33:18 show me your glory. The Lord manifested his glory in the pillar of cloud (16:10) and in the fiery cloud that descended on Sinai (24:15–17). Moreover, he promised that this glory would sanctify the tabernacle (29:43), and this is precisely what happens (40:34–35). Verses 7–11 explicitly connect the presence of the pillar of cloud with the Lord speaking to Moses “face to face” (v. 11), and ch. 34 concludes by highlighting the glorious effect that speaking directly with the Lord has on Moses’ face (34:29–35). So Moses is probably requesting an experience similar to that which he enjoyed previously. The Lord’s immediate response seems to confirm this: God will manifest his glory, although he must shelter Moses from full exposure to it (vv. 19–23).

33:19–23 In response to Moses’ request, the Lord promises to manifest his glory (v. 22) and provide further insight into his character by proclaiming his name. Whatever the difference between full exposure (v. 20) and partial exposure (v. 23) to the Lord’s glory (v. 22), the Lord accedes to the spirit of Moses’ request.

33:19 all my goodness. Emphasizes the Lord’s character rather than his glory. This is what Moses (and Israel) most need, hence the further insight into God’s “name”—what he is really like (see notes on 3:13, 14). I will have mercy on whom I will have mercy, and I will have compassion on whom I will have compassion. Expands on the name “the LORD” (see notes on 3:13–15). In the context of Israel’s rebellion, the Lord reserves the right to be merciful and compassionate on whomever he chooses. Paul quotes these words in Rom 9:15 to illustrate God’s sovereign choice with respect to salvation.

33:20 face. His full, unmediated glory. A mediated revelation is found in Jesus (John 1:14–18; cf. Matt 17:2). no one may see me and live. While it is clearly possible to see some manifestation of God and survive (3:6; 24:9–11), this is clearly exceptional (Gen 16:13; 32:30; Judg 6:22–23; 13:22; Isa 6:5); it seems likely that it was such an experience that produced the radiant face of Moses (34:29–35). However, no mortal being has ever seen God (John 1:18; 6:46; 1 Tim 6:16; 1 John 4:12) or could survive seeing God’s “face” (here; v. 23).

33:23 my back. Like the Lord’s “face” (v. 20), we should not interpret this literally.

34:1–28 The New Stone Tablets. Divine forgiveness does not annul the covenant obligations. By reissuing such obligations the covenant is now renewed.

34:1 two stone tablets. See note on 31:18. you broke. See 32:19 and note.

34:2–3 These instructions echo those given before the earlier theophany (19:12, 20–24), but they exclude others from coming up with Moses, suggesting that another theophany (divine appearance) is about to occur.

34:5–7 This is the theophany (divine appearance) that 33:19–23 anticipates, but what Moses hears (vv. 6b–7) almost totally eclipses what he sees (vv. 5–6a). Here the Lord more fully reveals his character, as anticipated in 33:19 (see note there). His self-description (vv. 6–7) becomes an important OT statement of God’s nature (Num 14:18; 2 Chr 30:9; Neh 9:17, 31; Pss 86:5, 15; 103:8; 145:8; Joel 2:13; Jonah 4:2; Nah 1:3).

34:6 The LORD. See note on 3:15. The repetition here suggests that God is more fully explaining his name’s significance (see note on 3:14). compassionate and gracious. Together emphasize God’s tender and generous character: he sees our needs and responds benevolently. slow to anger. The Hebrew idiom is the opposite of “burning with anger” (4:14; 11:8); God lets his anger cool before responding to human sin (32:10–14, 33–35). abounding in love and faithfulness. Two key covenant concepts: (1) God’s steadfast or persistent love and (2) God’s faithfulness or trustworthiness. Both terms stress God’s reliability as covenant partner.

34:7 maintaining love to thousands. See note on 20:5. This may also be translated as “a thousand generations”; but here thousands of Israelites already need such reassurance of God’s steadfast love. forgiving . . . sin. Israel’s most pressing need (v. 9; 32:32). wickedness, rebellion and sin. The use of the three major OT words for sin emphasizes that God is willing to forgive all kinds of sin/sinners. Yet . . . unpunished. God’s forgiveness is never at the expense of his justice; the guilty cannot simply be acquitted. punishes . . . generation. See note on 20:5. There is no such thing as sin without consequences, which here, as in 20:5, impacts successive generations. The implicit tensions of vv. 6–7 are only partially resolved by the various judgments of Israel’s sin that culminated with the exile; but they are fully resolved in the death of Jesus, which was both the ultimate expression of God’s love and a full expression of God’s wrath (Rom 3:25–26).

34:8–9 Capitalizing on the Lord’s self-proclamation, Moses asks the Lord to forgive Israel and so fulfill his original intentions.

34:10–35 After the prolonged and intense dialogue that occupies most of chs. 32–33, these verses describe the resolution to this crisis: God reestablishes the covenant that Israel’s apostasy obliterated.

34:10 I am making a covenant. The Lord persists with his original plans; he begins by renewing or remaking the broken covenant.

34:11–26 Abridges “the Book of the Covenant” (see 24:7 and note) and focuses mainly on Israel’s cultic obligations. This is especially pertinent in a context in which Israel adopted worship practices typical of other nations. Thus understood, these commands emphasize Israel’s covenant obligation to worship the Lord only as he prescribes.

34:12 treaty. Or covenant. Israel’s only covenant was to be exclusively with the Lord.

34:13 Asherah poles. See NIV text note. Asherah was the name of the wife of El, the chief Canaanite deity. Wooden poles, possibly carved images of Asherah, were set up in her honor beside related idolatrous objects (Judg 6:25).

34:14 name is Jealous. See notes on 3:13; 20:5.

34:15 prostitute themselves. A frequent OT metaphor for Israel’s covenant unfaithfulness. By establishing his covenant with Israel, the Lord had metaphorically become Israel’s “husband” (Isa 54:5–6; Jer 3:14; 31:32; Hos 2:2, 7, 16; cf. Jer 2:2; 3:1, 14, 20; Ezek 16:8, 32, 45; 23:4, 37). Israel’s unfaithfulness was commonly expressed by crediting other gods (called “lovers”; e.g., Ezek 16:33, 36; Hos 2:5, 13) with the protection or provision that the Lord alone could supply. eat their sacrifices. Like the fellowship offering involved eating and communion with the true God, eating the sacrifices of false gods involved communion with them. For Israel, such participation demonstrates an unacceptable degree of cultural and religious assimilation (cf. 1 Cor 8; 10:18–21).

34:17 idols. Such as the golden calf (32:4), described by the same Hebrew word that means “cast metal.” Idolatry is one of Israel’s persistent sins, leading eventually to exile (2 Kgs 22:17). While modern-day idol worship may be more sophisticated, the covenant established by Jesus likewise prohibits all idolatry (Col 3:5; 1 Pet 4:3; 1 John 5:21).

34:18–26 See notes on 23:14–19.

34:27 Write down. See note on 31:18. these words. Possibly not just the preceding summary but also “the Ten Commandments” (v. 28).

34:28 he wrote. See note on 31:18.

34:29–35 The Radiant Face of Moses. The rays emanating from Moses’ face are a visible sign not only of the Lord’s restored presence with Israel but also of the divine authority with which this mediator of the old covenant speaks—both now and subsequently (vv. 34–35). This experience of Moses and what it signifies is probably the basis for the priestly blessing (Num 6:24–26) and the refrain of Ps 80:3, 7, 19. It is also key to understanding the significance of Jesus’ transfiguration (Matt 17:2–5); the temporary brilliance of Christ’s transfigured face helps identify Jesus as the new Moses (Deut 18:15; Matt 17:5) who uniquely reveals God’s glory and makes him known (John 1:14–18; 2 Cor 4:6).

34:33 veil over his face. The radiant face of Moses intimidated the Israelites (v. 30) and was apparently not something they could continue to look at (2 Cor 3:7); therefore, this veil was used to shelter the Israelites from prolonged exposure to the reflected glory of God.

34:34–35 The use of this veil established a regular pattern of activity described by these two verses. By removing the veil in God’s presence and then communicating the Lord’s instructions with unveiled face, Moses ensured that Israel was regularly reminded of the instructions’ divine source and authority. However, the veil also hid from the Israelites the passing nature of Moses’ radiant face, a fact that Paul exploits in 2 Cor 3:7–18 to contrast the transient glory of the old (i.e., Mosaic) covenant (which, by letters on stone, issues in death and condemnation) with the surpassing and lasting glory of the new covenant (which, by the Spirit, issues in life and righteousness).

35:1—40:38 Construction and Consecration of the Tabernacle. Most of this material repeats, almost verbatim, material from chs. 25–28; 30:1–5; 31:1–11. It differs only in the order it discusses the items and in the use of past-tense rather than future-tense verbs. Repetition was a common feature of ancient Near Eastern literature and was designed to fix details firmly in readers’ minds. The repetition here emphasizes that the tabernacle is important, that Israel must carefully obey the divine instructions (see the repeated refrain “as the LORD commanded”), and most important, that God’s plans for Israel are back on track (25:8; 29:45–46).

35:1–3 Sabbath Regulations. This brief repetition of the Sabbath regulations further highlights that the covenant has been reestablished and that maintaining Israel’s holy status is a priority. See notes on 31:12–18.

35:4–29 Materials for the Tabernacle. Assembling the raw materials for the project (see 25:1–7 and note on 25:1–9) involves sacrificially donating both possessions (vv. 5–9) and expertise (vv. 10–19). The community’s voluntary response (vv. 20–29) is overwhelming (36:2–7).

35:30—36:7 Bezalel and Oholiab. See 31:1–11 and notes. An undesignated number of apprentices, to whom the Lord has given the requisite skills (35:10; 36:1–2), assist Bezalel and Oholiab. Along with moving the peoples’ hearts, this divine empowerment with skills highlights that constructing the tabernacle is more than just a human endeavor.

36:3–7 The community’s generosity (such that Moses must restrain their giving) is a fitting response to God’s amazing grace that they experienced (cf. 2 Cor 8:9).

36:8—38:31 The Tabernacle Constructed. Focuses on the tabernacle and its furnishings, ending with an inventory of the gold, silver, and bronze involved. It implements the instructions in 26:1–37 and differs only in the person and tense of the verbs. It follows a more logical sequence: work on the tabernacle prefaces work on its furniture (cf. chs. 25–26).

36:10 They. Rightly gives the impression that this is a collaborative enterprise. But here and throughout the following verses the person doing the work is described as “he” in the Hebrew (see the alternative reading in the NIV text notes on 37:10 (the first text note); 38:1; 39:2), presumably referring to Bezalel (37:1), who supervised the work (35:30–34).

37:1–9 Bezalel oversees the production of the ark. The main difference with the original instructions (25:10–20) relates to the verbal forms and the necessary postponement of the final part (25:21–22) until the tabernacle is initially set up (40:20–21). The ark reflects the Lord’s presence and is the legitimate alternative to the idolatrous golden calf.

37:10–16 While not mentioned explicitly (see the first NIV text note on v. 10; see also note on 36:10), Bezalel also oversees the construction of the table. He follows the instructions of 25:23–29 but postpones placing the table in the tent and showcasing the bread of the Presence (25:30; 40:22–23).

37:17–24 See note on 25:31–40. Like the other items of sacred furniture, this is subsequently set up in the tent as God directed (40:24–25).

37:25–29 The construction of the incense altar is logically placed alongside other internal tabernacle furniture (cf. 30:1–5). Verse 29 mentions the anointing oil (30:22–33) and incense (30:34–38).

38:1–7 The focus shifts to constructing items placed outside the tent in the courtyard. Constructing the curtains for the courtyard immediately follows (vv. 9–20). For the altar of burnt offering and its usage, see notes on 27:1–8.

38:8 bronze basin. See note on 30:17–21. mirrors. Highly polished bronze was used in ancient times as a mirror. women who served. The service they performed is not explained.

38:9–20 The final step in creating the Lord’s sacred tent is enclosing the courtyard with a perimeter fence. Again, these verses implement previous instructions (27:9–19), but they also supply additional information regarding the height of the entrance curtain (v. 18) and the silver caps on its posts (v. 19).

38:21–31 This inventory elucidates the more general description of the community’s generosity, with which the account begins (35:4–29), and thus functions as a bracket around manufacturing the tabernacle and its furniture.

38:21 tabernacle of the covenant law. This unique description highlights another aspect of its covenantal significance: it serves as the vault for Israel’s covenant obligations.

38:25–26 A census (see note on 30:11–16) taken at some undisclosed point prior to the tabernacle’s construction provides the silver used in its posts. Unlike the freewill offerings in 35:4–29, this is a compulsory poll tax for each adult male (v. 26). The huge amount collected (v. 25) tallies with the 603,550 men mentioned in v. 26 (see 12:37 and note).

39:1–31 The Priestly Garments Made. The focus once again shifts (see ch. 28) from manufacturing the tabernacle to the special garments of its priests. As previously noted (see note on 36:10), the skilled artisans apparently work under the supervision of Bezalel (see NIV text note on v. 2). The refrain “as the LORD commanded Moses” occurs eight times (vv. 1, 5, 7, 21, 26, 29, 31, 32): Israel successfully completes the component parts and complies with the Lord’s design.

39:3 Explains how they accomplish the unusual blend of fabrics and gold that 28:6–8 commands.

39:32–43 Moses Inspects the Work. After they complete all the preliminary work as instructed (v. 32), Moses inspects it to ensure that everything is manufactured according to the Lord’s explicit design (25:9). Once satisfied, Moses blesses the people (v. 43), echoing God’s blessing of the seventh day after his work of creation (Gen 2:3). Along with 1:7, v. 43 would mark the events recorded in Exodus as a very significant stage in God’s plan for a new creation.

40:1–33 Setting Up the Tabernacle. With everything now ready, Moses sets up the tabernacle and consecrates it (i.e., sets it apart) for sacred use, along with its furnishings and priests.

40:2 first day of the first month. Almost a year after the exodus and nine months after Israel arrived at Sinai.

40:12–15 Lev 8 describes this ordination service in detail.

40:16–33 Verses 17–35 concisely summarize events that transpire over several days.

40:16 as the LORD commanded. This refrain occurs eight times regarding the making of the priestly garments (see note on 39:1–31), and the repeated refrain appears eight more times regarding the setting up of the tabernacle (vv. 16, 19, 21, 23, 25, 27, 29, 32). The repetition emphasizes that Israel obeys the Lord’s commands in contrast with their earlier apostasy involving the golden calf (ch. 32). The tabernacle’s architecture and the design and location of each item of furniture precisely follow the divine blueprint (25:40).

40:17–38 The word “tabernacle” occurs 13 times in these verses. It refers to the most significant part, the tent of meeting (v. 21), rather than to the entire enclosure, which includes the courtyard (v. 33).

40:30–32 Ritual washing symbolizes that humans must be pure before they can enter the presence of a holy God (cf. 3:5; 19:14). See 1 Cor 6:11; Heb 10:22; Rev 7:14; 21:27. See “The Tabernacle.”

40:34–38 The Glory of the Lord. The cloud that previously descended on top of Mount Sinai (24:15–18) now descends on the tabernacle and fills it with the glory of the Lord, barring access even to Moses (v. 35). Thereafter the cloud dictated Israel’s travel itinerary (vv. 36–38; cf. 13:21). All this not only seals the tabernacle construction with the Lord’s approval but, more important, it answers Moses’ petition (33:15–18) and concretely expresses the ultimate goal of the exodus: Israel is to be a holy nation in relationship with God, a kingdom of priests who serve in his presence (29:44–46). Thus, a book that begins with God’s apparent absence ends with his glorious and ongoing presence in the midst of his redeemed people.