NIV Zondervan Study Bible

Annotations for Deuteronomy

1:1–5 Introduction. Deuteronomy represents Moses’ last words to Israel as the people prepare to enter the land promised to their ancestors and become an established nation. This introduction to the book provides background information while resuming the storyline from Genesis to Numbers. Verse 1 links with the last verse of Numbers (Num 36:13). Israel is on the doorstep of Canaan with the wilderness behind them and the land of promise before them. Theologically it is a critical place. Deuteronomy is also in a strategic place in the Bible’s storyline as it ends an old era and begins a new one. It functions as the capstone of the Pentateuch and the foundation of the subsequent historical books. It thus faces in both directions—backward to the past and forward to the future.

1:1 the words Moses spoke. These are no ordinary words. Even though Moses is teaching and instructing, his words have a note of divine authority. They are the words God spoke to him (v. 3). The book begins with Moses speaking the words of the Lord and ends by describing Moses as the unsurpassed prophet (34:10–12). east of the Jordan. Moses and Israel are outside the promised land. The location is further clarified as “the territory of Moab” (v. 5), and other place-names suggest that it is the destination of a journey that began at Mount Horeb, an alternate name for Sinai. Deuteronomy uses “Horeb” consistently with one exception (33:2). Suph . . . Paran . . . Tophel, Laban, Hazeroth and Dizahab. Places along the route from Horeb to Moab.

1:2 eleven days. The time it should take to travel the distance between Horeb and the southern limit of the promised land, Kadesh Barnea, where the Israelites failed to enter the land 40 years earlier (cf. Num 13–14).

1:3 fortieth year. A journey that should have taken 11 days has taken 40 years! There have been no major physical barriers, only spiritual ones (29:3–4). eleventh month. January-February. Moses has little time left as the 40-year period is almost finished. Will the new generation inherit the promises and enter the land successfully, or will they turn back to the wilderness and Egypt?

Crossing the Jordan is a major turning point in Scripture. It is a crossing over into the place of promised blessing—the land. The waters will soon open up for Israel to cross the Jordan into the promised land (Josh 3–4) as the spirit of Moses is passed on to Joshua (his name means “the LORD saves”). Later, the same waters divide for Elisha (his name means “my God saves”) as Elijah gives him a double portion of the Spirit (2 Kgs 2). Still later, John baptizes Jesus (his name means “the LORD saves”) at the Jordan as the heavens open and the Holy Spirit descends on him (Mark 1:9–11); and Jesus later baptizes his followers with the Holy Spirit at Pentecost and sends them out to inherit the entire world (Acts 1–2).

1:5 expound. Occurs in two other places in the Bible (27:8; Hab 2:2), where it means “write plainly or legibly.” It has the sense here of clarifying the meaning of the law. This accounts for the sermonic quality of the speeches. law. The Hebrew word includes the broader meanings of “instruction” or “teaching.”

1:6—4:43 The First Speech: Keep the Law. Moses begins his first long speech, which functions as a lengthy history lesson (1:6—3:29) with a sharp theological point (4:1–43): How can history help Israel understand the present moment?

1:6–8 The Command to Leave Horeb. God initiates the journey of the Israelites from Horeb to the land of Canaan and describes the land in all its rich variety as the fulfillment of his promises to Abraham.

1:6 Moses takes Israel back to their time at Mount Sinai when God organized them as a new society under his rule and ordered them to move to the land of promise. These are the first words that Moses speaks, and they are definitive for Israel. LORD. A personal name, further identified as “our God”; the Lord had revealed his name (and thus his personal presence and character) only to Israel. Together, “the LORD your God” and “the LORD our God” occur almost 300 times in Deuteronomy, in addition to the many times that “LORD” is used alone or in other combinations (see notes on 28:58; Gen 2:4; Exod 3:14, 15; 6:3). You have stayed long enough. The holy mountain was not a destination but an important point on the journey to the promised land. The people had to move on to the place of the fulfillment of promise. The circle of holiness must enlarge not only to surround Sinai but to fill Canaan and eventually the world.

1:7 The geographic terms express the variety and extent of the land of promise, the borders of which match the first general description of the promise to Abraham (Gen 15:18–21). hill country of the Amorites. Generally designates the central part of the land between the west and east; it (along with “land of the Canaanites”) reminds the Israelites of obstacles in their path; it also perhaps alludes to the coming judgment of the Amorites (Gen 15:16). Arabah. The Jordan Valley and the valley that continues south of the Dead Sea to Elath (2:8). It is east of the Jordan River (4:49) as well as west. mountains. The central “backbone” of Israel, where most of the Israelite population would later reside. western foothills. From the perspective of those living in mountains; they slope down to the coastal plain, which meets the Mediterranean Sea. Negev. The Beersheba valley in the region of that city and Arad. to Lebanon, as far as the great river, the Euphrates. Israel never did realize these borders from Egypt to the Euphrates in their history, suggesting a failure to reach their destiny.

1:8 land the LORD swore he would give to your fathers. The book’s first explicit reference to the promises God made to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. A similar passage suitably ends the book (34:4). Land is a central theme of this book, and it means much more than a physical location: it is the truest sense of place, where one is oriented rightly to God and to God’s creation. This possession is not just another ambitious landgrab by a militaristic nation but is a part of the salvation-project God initiated when he chose Abraham (Gen 12:1–3, 7). God gives Israel the land, yet Israel must take it, showing the seamless compatibility between divine sovereignty and human agency.

1:9–18 The Appointment of Leaders. Cf. 16:18–20; Exod 18:13–26. While not digressing from the theme of the land, this new section reminds Israel that God has already been faithful in fulfilling the Abrahamic promise of numerous descendants. Before the actual departure from the mount can take place, leadership is needed. In Exodus, the same event is depicted before the making of the covenant (Exod 18). But the sermonic and pastoral nature of Deuteronomy assumes knowledge of the story and is not concerned with chronological precision.

1:9–13 The extravagant fulfillment of the promise of descendants to the ancestors requires more leadership to help Moses.

1:10 as the stars in the sky. Cf. the promise to Abraham of numerous descendants (Gen 15:5). Having just exhorted Israel regarding the promise of land in Gen 15:18–21 (a promise yet to be fulfilled), Moses refers to a promise already fulfilled in order to stir up Israel’s faith that God will keep the promise of land.

1:13 Moses highlights the role of the people themselves in choosing leaders who have character and wisdom.

1:16-17 judge fairly . . . Do not show partiality in judging. Before the journey to the promised land begins, Israel is a nation that is a community, a family, committed to justice. This justice is to distinguish the Israelite nation, a point emphasized throughout Deuteronomy, so that it will be a beacon of light to the nations (4:6–8). By having such leadership the nation will be committed to walk in “the way of the LORD” (Gen 18:19), the way of true social justice.

1:19–25 Spies Sent Out. Moses skips over incidents on the journey from the holy mountain to the promised land (Num 10–12) in order to get to the heart of the matter: the previous generation failed to inherit the promises because of their unbelief. This same account is more detailed in Num 13–14.

1:21 Do not be afraid; do not be discouraged. The first time these commands occur in Deuteronomy; similar injunctions appear throughout the text at critical junctures (v. 29; 3:2, 22; 7:18; 20:1, 3; 31:6, 8). They assume a present danger that needs to be overcome by placing faith in the Lord. Canaanite power is feeble when compared to divine strength.

1:22 Let us send men ahead to spy. By first emphasizing the request of the Israelites to scout out the land before invading it and by omitting the unfavorable “majority report” until the end (v. 28), Moses emphasizes their lack of faith. Without faith the conquest would be doomed from the start.

1:24 Eshkol. Located near Hebron. Moses focuses on the one location in the journey of the spies that describes the bounty of the land (cf. Num 13:23), thereby showing God’s goodness.

1:25 God’s goodness contrasts with the people’s rebellion.

1:26–46 Rebellion Against the Lord. In this section Israel fails to understand God’s great love and rebels.

1:27 The LORD hates us. Israel’s disbelief distorts reality completely and produces horrific heresy: the people reverse salvation history.

1:28 Anakites. Merely mentioning the name of this race of giants created terror (2:10–11; Gen 6:1–4; Num 13:31–33). They were part of a group called the Rephaites (2:11), who seem to be associated with the giant Og, king of Bashan, whose “bed” (3:11) was about 14 feet (4 meters) long and 6 feet (1.8 meters) wide. The remnants of this race may be reflected in the story of Goliath (1 Sam 17; see also 2 Sam 21:15–22).

1:29–31 The antidote to terror is faith in the Lord. Moses reminds Israel of the Lord’s power in conquering the formidable Egyptians and his personal provision of fatherly care in the wilderness. God did not hate his people but passionately loved them. Verse 31 is the second time the OT explicitly describes God as a “father” to his people (cf. Exod 4:22). This is the beginning of a spiritual journey that will end with disciples from all nations calling God “Abba, Father” (Rom 8:15).

1:32 Moses’ correction of heresy registered no impact. Israel had no faith.

1:34–36 The Lord angrily barred the entire adult population from entering the land of promise except Caleb (v. 36), who alone stood against the majority with his faith, and Joshua (v. 38).

1:35 this evil generation. Jesus uses a similar phrase to describe groups of unbelieving people (Matt 12:45; 16:4; Mark 8:38), including his own disciples (Matt 17:17).

1:37 Because of you. God barred Moses from entering the land because of the sins of the Israelites, but this did not exclude Moses’ own responsibility (32:51; cf. Num 20:2–13; Ps 106:32–33). Moses’ sin was a failure to honor the Lord at Meribah (Num 20:9–13) when he struck the rock twice in exasperation because of the Israelites’ disbelief. Here the Israelites’ provocation of Moses is mentioned (cf. 3:26; 4:21). Later Moses’ own culpability is noted (32:51).

1:41 The people changed their minds, but it was too late. Delayed obedience becomes disobedience.

2:1–23 Wanderings in the Wilderness. The Israelites begin to move again to the promised land, avoiding hostilities with their ancient relatives—the Edomites (Gen 25:22–34) and the Moabites and the Ammonites (Gen 19:30–38)—because God had allotted them their land, just as he was giving Israel the land of Canaan. Moses omits the account of Edomite and Moabite hostility toward Israel (Num 20:14–21; Judg 11:14–18) to focus on God’s provision for these nations and thus his future provision for his people.

2:1 For a long time we made our way around the hill country of Seir. Only one sentence summarizes about 40 years of wandering because it is a history of disobedience. Seir. The Edomite territory south of the Dead Sea.

2:3 You have made your way around this hill country long enough. Echoes 1:6, indicating the beginning of a new start for the people.

2:10–12 This is an editorial comment written much later as a parenthesis to confirm that Israel’s Gentile neighbors conquered intimidating, gigantic nations just as the Israelites did (see note on Gen 14:14). Merely mentioning the names of these peoples, especially when headed by a group whose name literally means “terrors,” would inspire later readers to have confidence. All of these terrifying peoples are now “history” because of the divine Judge.

2:11 Rephaites. See note on 1:28.

2:15 The journey continues until the first generation of Israelites dies as divine judgment. eliminated. Translates a Hebrew word used in holy war contexts to describe God’s fighting against Israel’s enemies (Exod 14:24 [“threw . . . into confusion”]; 23:27 [“throw into confusion”]; Josh 10:10 [“threw . . . into confusion”]; Judg 4:15 [“routed”]). Here God fights against his own people.

2:20–23 This is another parenthetical note (cf. vv. 10–12 and note) listing nations that once inspired terror and that are now historical footnotes.

2:20 Zamzummites. The ominous sound of the name adds to the terror.

2:23 Avvites. Derives from a Hebrew word meaning “distortion” or “ruin.” These historical asides show that Israel’s God is the Sovereign Lord of history and that the Canaanite conquest that happened under Israel was fully justified, eliminating “terrors” from the land.

2:24–37 Defeat of Sihon King of Heshbon. Israel begins its occupation of the land by moving into the territory of Heshbon, located between Moab and Ammon. A similar account also occurs in Num 21:21–31, but here Moses provides theological perspective. Sihon’s refusal to allow Israel through his land has its origin not only in human intransigence but also in divine sovereignty. Sihon may be an Amorite, but he is regarded as just another stubborn king like Pharaoh whose heart God hardened in order to judge him and save Israel (Exod 4:21; 14:4). Moses thus views the conquest as the deliverance from oppression initiated by the exodus.

2:24 Arnon Gorge. The northern border of Moab. By crossing the Arnon Gorge, Israel experiences a defining moment. The conquest has officially begun.

2:25 God guarantees supernatural aid. The Canaanites will soon experience this fear (see Josh 2:9).

2:26 Kedemoth. Desert area north of the Arnon Gorge.

2:32 Jahaz. A city located just north of the Arnon Gorge. The Moabite Stone, a text dating from the ninth century BC, mentions Jahaz.

2:34 completely destroyed. See NIV text note. This is the first practice of the “ban” in Deuteronomy, an important ritual in holy war in the ancient world. The defiled enemy had to be removed from the human world and transferred to the divine world. The victors renounced all claim on the enemy. Destruction of people and things made them useless to the conquerors but put them in the hands of God. So the Hebrew term is sometimes translated “destroyed” and sometimes “devoted” (Num 18:14; Josh 6:17). If the ban was total (see 1 Sam 15:3), all the possessions of the enemy were confiscated and destroyed, but items of precious metal were purged with fire (Num 31:22–23) and removed to a special zone for use by God (Josh 6:24). Sometimes the ban was restricted to combatants, as in this case. In similar military contexts Deuteronomy sometimes speaks of nations being driven out instead of being destroyed, which suggests that the ban applied to those fighting against Israel rather than those who fled (9:3; 11:23; 18:12).

3:1–11 Defeat of Og King of Bashan. Right after the Israelites deal with Sihon, they face the gigantic Og, king of Bashan, from the northeast. Much description is given to the formidable size of Og’s cities (v. 5) and his own gigantic stature, which for a later audience could be verified since his iron “bed”—perhaps a sarcophagus (cf. “bier” in 2 Sam 3:31)—was still to be seen in Ammon’s capital city of Rabbah (v. 11). The iron may have been used as ornamentation. As Israel moves closer to its own conquest of the land of Canaan, Moses encourages them by noting their triumph over formidable obstacles.

3:1 Edrei. Modern Dera. The first battle took place about 60 miles (about 100 kilometers) to the north of Jahaz at the southern border of Bashan, a land noted for its fertility and prize cattle.

3:4 Argob. Another name for Og’s kingdom in Bashan.

3:8 Mount Hermon. The highest mountain in the area at over 9,000 feet (2,750 meters) in elevation.

3:9 Sirion . . . Senir. Other names for Hermon, to which ancient texts attest.

3:10 Salekah. City on the eastern border of Bashan.

3:11 This aside about Og—written for a later audience—provides Israel with an object lesson for contemporary faith. No opponent is invincible, no matter how intimidating.

3:12–20 Division of the Land. Cf. Num 32; 34:13–15. Moses divided the conquered land on the east side of the Jordan among Reuben, Gad, and one-half of the tribe of Manasseh, not mentioning the request of these tribes to settle in this area (Num 32). Even though they have inherited their own territory in the promised land, they must also help their fellow Israelites since Israel is a united community. The northern part of the conquered land is distributed to Manasseh, and the southern part to the tribes of Reuben and Gad.

3:12 Aroer. A city just north of the northern border of Moab. Gilead. Originally Gilead was the name of Makir’s son, from the tribe of Manasseh (Num 26:29; Josh 17:1). The powerful clan of Gilead gave its name to virtually the entire conquered land east of the Jordan, but its territory here is restricted to the hilly central Transjordan region, north and south of the Jabbok River.

3:14 Jair. Cf. Num 32:41. Argob. See note on v. 4. Geshurites . . . Maakathites. People of two small states north of Bashan. Geshur is just east of the Sea of Galilee, and it extends north. Maakah is north near Lake Huleh. Much later, Maakah the daughter of the king of Geshur married King David; she was the mother of Absalom and Tamar (2 Sam 3:3; 13:1).

3:17 Kinnereth. A small region on the northwestern plain of the Sea of Galilee. By extension the name sometimes applies to the sea (see Num 34:11 and NIV text note there) and may be related to the Hebrew word for “harp” (kinnôr), since the sea’s shape resembles a harp.

3:20 rest. A rich theological term; this is the first time Deuteronomy refers to it. The Transjordanian tribes now have rest, but rest is for all the tribes. The essence of Israel’s rest: when all the Israelites are living in the land, safe and secure, and worshiping and rejoicing before the Lord as one people. It is intimately related to the Hebrew word šālôm (“peace”); see “Shalom.” The book of Hebrews mentions that Israel never obtained final rest in Canaan (Heb 4:1–11).

3:21–29 Moses Forbidden to Cross the Jordan. Cf. Num 20:12; 27:12–23. Moses ends the history lesson that began in 1:6 by encouraging the new leader, Joshua, to learn the faith lessons of the recent conquests. Moses also reports how he failed to persuade the Lord to let him experience “rest” in the land.

3:21 The LORD will do the same. Joshua can expect the same divine aid for future battles that God provided for past ones.

3:22 Do not be afraid. People new to leadership are often intimidated by the daunting nature of the task. Faith is the antidote to fear.

3:24 Sovereign LORD. One of two times this divine title occurs in the book to initiate a passionate request. Moses appeals to God’s great power in order to enter the land, just as he passionately asked God to forgive his people (9:26).

3:26 because of you. See note on 1:37. Moses is a sterling example of a leader suffering for his people. That is enough. Even as great a leader as Moses cannot alter God’s decision.

3:27 God lets Moses see the promised land. Yet the failure of Moses to gain entry to the land emphasizes the importance of obedience to Moses’ audience. Pisgah. This mountain is part of the Abarim Range. It is sometimes called Nebo because of the town by that name at its base (32:49; 34:1; Num 27:12).

3:29 Beth Peor. At this place many Israelites died on the verge of entering the promised land (Num 25). Merely mentioning this name would have shattered complacency.

4:1–14 Obedience Commanded. The history lesson is now over, and Israel is called to ponder its implications in order to avoid exile. The passage centers on the meaning of the covenant at Horeb, where God spoke from the fire. Israel must obey God’s instructions at all costs. The invisible God was present in this unique historical event, so they must totally reject idolatry. Idolatry will lead to the sure judgment of exile due to God’s wrath, but repentance can evoke God’s mercy. Judgment does not have to be the final word.

4:1 Now, Israel. This indicates an important transition from the history lesson to the meaning of that lesson for present life (cf. 10:12). hear. This command signifies not only physical hearing but hearing that leads to action, i.e., obedience. Moses does not leave the previous history lesson in the realm of abstract theory but applies it. Thus, the people must obey “the decrees and laws” given at Horeb. decrees and laws. This two-part designation for divine revelation expands the single term “law” (v. 44; 1:5) and probably refers to the entire corpus of divine instruction. “Decrees” often refer to laws that have been inscribed permanently (but cf. “ordinance” in Exod 12:24), whereas “laws” refer to decisions rendered for certain cases (cf. “judgment” in 1:17). “Stipulations” (v. 45) may refer to the two tablets of stone on which the Ten Commandments were written.

4:2 Do not add . . . do not subtract. These commands describe the unique divine authority of the revelation; they would be diluted by addition and diminished by subtraction. The canon of Scripture both restricts and liberates. It is only the divine word that demands obedience; all other words lack the same authority (12:32; Prov 30:5–6; Gal 3:15–16; Rev 22:18–19).

4:3 You saw with your own eyes. Deut 3:21 uses the evidence of eyesight as encouragement; this verse uses it as warning. Baal Peor. Many Israelites died as a result of worshiping the Baal of Peor, known as the god of Mount Peor (Num 25:1–3). Adding to God’s word proved fatal for those who, on the very edge of the promised land, followed Baal, while those “who held fast to the LORD” (v. 4) survived. The same Hebrew root for “held fast” describes both the physical bond of marriage (Gen 2:24 in which a couple is united) and a welding of two metals by an artisan (Isa 41:7). Here it means to attach oneself permanently to God and his word.

4:6 this will show your wisdom and understanding to the nations. Obedience will attract the attention of the nations, who will then proclaim the incomparability of Israel. God originally called Abraham to mediate blessing to the nations (Gen 12:3), and part of this mediation involved demonstrating an appropriate human-divine relationship by means of obedience (Gen 18:19).

4:8 righteous. Normally describes people, but here it describes the law of God.

4:9–13 Moses again marshals empirical evidence to warn Israel not to forget the vision at Horeb (Sinai) when God spoke from the fire. The people saw no form but heard words, which were then transcribed on two tablets of stone—the essence of the Horeb covenant. The text captured this unique experience and now permanently brings God’s presence near to every generation.

4:9 Teach them to your children. Israel must extend the covenant through time by intentionally transmitting it to the next generation.

4:10 Remember the day you stood. Most in the audience were not at Horeb, but in a sense they were there since God made a covenant with the nation (cf. 5:2).

4:14 decrees and laws. Here probably a reference to the Book of the Covenant (Exod 20:22—23:33), which applied the Ten Commandments (Exod 20:1–17) to the life of the nation.

4:15–31 Idolatry Forbidden. Israel is to “connect the theological dots” from the revelation at Horeb: God forbids idolatry in whatever form it might take, whether it involves worshiping human beings or animals or even celestial bodies. Created things cannot represent the Creator. Paul also regards such idolatry as the primal sin (Rom 1:23). God will judge the sin of idolatry severely.

4:16–19 The list of possible options for idolatry is based on the creation account in Gen 1 in inverse order: from humanity (the crown of creation) to inanimate celestial phenomena. One of the results of idolatry is to invert the created order. Ironically, idolatry (the activity of worshiping the creature rather than the Creator) dehumanizes human beings.

4:19 has apportioned to all the nations under heaven. Moses criticizes the idolatry of the nations. They have deified the simple elements of nature.

4:20 In contrast to the nations, Israel is “the people of his inheritance.” inheritance. Implies that Israel has a unique relationship with God (cf. Exod 4:22).

4:24 a consuming fire. This description of God can be traced back to Abraham’s vision of God (Gen 15:17), the burning bush (Exod 3:1–5), the pillar of fire by night (Exod 13:21), the fiery mountain (Exod 19–24), the fire of judgment that destroyed Nadab and Abihu (Lev 10), and the Israelites in the wilderness (Num 11:1–3). Fire frequently accompanies theophanies (manifestations of God’s presence) in the OT (Exod 3:1–6; Lev 9:24; 1 Kgs 18:38). In the NT, John the Baptist sees the coming Messiah bringing the fire of judgment to burn up sinners (Matt 3:11–12). Jesus describes his own mission as coming to cast fire down on the earth, and he experiences a baptism by fire on the cross (Luke 12:49–51). His disciples are baptized with this fire at Pentecost and are miraculously not consumed; rather, they declare the mighty works of God (Acts 2:1–11). It is this divine fire that will someday transform the heavens and the earth in judgment and redemption (2 Pet 3:10–13). a jealous God. Cf. 6:15; Exod 20:5; 34:14. A husband’s passionate claim on his wife’s fidelity begins to capture what this means. It is the healthy counterpart of love. Divine jealousy is the response when God is robbed of his rightful place, so it occurs mainly in contexts of idolatry, the theological equivalent of adultery.

4:28 There you will worship man-made gods. In exile the people will experience the consequences of idolatry: the impotence of false gods.

4:30 later days. May refer to the indefinite future or to a special time near the end of history when God decisively intervenes to manifest his kingship in the world, i.e., the Messianic era (cf. Num 24:14; Isa 2:1–5; Heb 1:3).

4:31 a merciful God. God is a consuming fire (see note on v. 24), but he is also merciful (Exod 34:6). He will not forget his covenant with the patriarchs. This tension between justice and mercy runs throughout the OT. By repenting, human beings can resolve this tension and experience God’s mercy, but God’s justice still requires a price to be paid. Paul sees the divine resolution to this tension in the cross, where God’s justice and mercy perfectly meet, demonstrating God “to be just and the one who justifies those who have faith in Jesus” (Rom 3:26).

4:32–40 The Lord Is God. A flurry of rhetorical questions signals the end of this long speech. This is not just a history lesson that began at Horeb. Moses surveys the entire scope of human history from the creation of the world to his own time to the exodus and to the revelation at Horeb. There is no historical equivalent to the covenant at Horeb. World history finds an important event in Horeb, where the living God speaks directly to his people. The divine motivation is love and fidelity (v. 37). Election is rooted in the mystery of divine love that will climactically be expressed in the new covenant (cf. 7:7–8; Matt 26:26–29; Eph 1:4–8a).

4:40 Keep his decrees and commands. The final point of the history lesson is that they are to respond in love in order to make the invisible God visible: they are to show the world what God is really like.

4:41–43 Cities of Refuge. The text supplies an addendum to the first speech of Moses by echoing the concern for justice, which is the first topic of the speech (1:9–18). Providing sanctuary for those guilty of accidental homicide is accomplished by appointing three cities of refuge in central locations in Transjordan (cf. Num 35:6–34; Josh 20). Bloodshed must not contaminate the land.

4:44—28:68 The Second Speech: The First Priority Is Absolute Allegiance to the Lord. Moses sets the divine instruction before the Israelites. This speech continues to expound the covenant obligations, first in general terms (4:44—11:32) and then in specific stipulations (12:1—26:19). Then a narrative describes how the covenant should be ratified in the land of Canaan (ch. 27). The speech concludes with a list of blessings and curses (ch. 28). The Ten Commandments are central to the law; the rest is commentary.

4:44–49 Introduction to the Law. This section sets the scene for the second speech and duplicates some of the introduction to the first speech (1:1–5). Such repetition is not unusual in Hebrew, and Moses probably repeats it because of the extraordinary length of the second speech.

4:44–45 God’s will can be expressed with one word (“law” [v. 44], i.e., instruction), a two-part phrase (“decrees and laws”; see note on v. 1), or a three-part expression (“stipulations, decrees and laws,” v. 45). These different words to describe the divine revelation point to different types of material that will be used to instruct the people.

5:1–33 The Ten Commandments. Moses rehearses the divine encounter experienced at Horeb and the resulting covenant summarized in the Ten Commandments. The encounter was to establish a relationship realized in obedience and blessing (vv. 32–33). “Hear” (4:1) was the key verb in the revelation at Horeb (ch. 4), and this first part of the second speech develops that theme. Ch. 5 begins with the command to “hear” God’s words (5:1), and this verb occurs eight more times (see vv. 23–28, “heard,” “hear,” “listen”) after the thunderous pronouncements. As in Exod 20:2–7, where the object of the verb “spoke” is “all these words” (i.e., the Ten Commandments), here in Deut 5 the same Ten Commandments—the first object of “hearing”—are placed before all the additional laws and decrees. This shows the central importance of the Commandments.

5:1 Hear. The second time (cf. 4:1) this command occurs in Deuteronomy, signaling the dramatic importance of the information about to be presented (cf. 6:3, 4; 9:1; 20:3).

5:2 not with our ancestors . . . but with us. The covenant transcends time. Most of those listening to Moses were not present at Horeb, but it is as if they were. The Lord’s covenant love lasts forever (7:9; Ps 136).

5:4 face to face out of the fire. “Face to face” is an idiom meaning “directly,” i.e., without a mediator (Exod 33:11; cf. 20:18–19); therefore, this is not to be understood literally. It expresses an intimate personal encounter since the Israelites saw no form of God at the mountain.

5:6–21 See notes on Exod 20:2–17. The Ten Commandments are the central stipulations of God’s covenant with Israel. It is impossible to overestimate the influence of these laws on subsequent history. They provide the foundation for morality throughout the Western world and concisely summarize God’s expectations for his people. Moses rehearses the Ten Commandments given in Exod 20:2–17 with a few changes to highlight some features for the Moab generation. For example, the last five commands are linked more tightly in Deuteronomy than in Exodus, which treats these commands as a single group emphasizing concern for one’s neighbor. As a whole, the commands are not arbitrary but reveal that God is characterized by mercy and justice, which is expressed in zeal for his own honor (commandments 1–3) and concern for the welfare of all his creatures (commandments 4–10). These “words” are the heart of the covenant and thus the “constitution” of Israel. All other legislation concretely applies the Ten Commandments in daily life. Commandments 1–4 and 10 are unique in the ancient world.

5:12 Observe. This variation (rather than “remember” in Exod 20:8) emphasizes action and may suggest previous laxity. as the LORD your God has commanded you. An addition to the original command in Exod 20:8, indicating its temporal priority 40 years earlier.

5:14 nor your ox, your donkey or any of your animals. The need to expand the list of animals given in Exod 20:10 suggests that the Israelites may have violated the original spirit of the Sabbath law.

5:15 Remember that you were slaves in Egypt. Moses provides an alternative motivation to the original command in Exod 20:11. Sabbath rest must be enacted weekly as a reminder of not only creation but also redemption from bondage in Egypt, where oppressive work dominated life. Israel must incorporate this pattern of remembering redemption in its weekly life as a reminder of the rest that God intends for all creation.

5:16 that it may go well with you. This is missing from the parallel in Exod 20:12, and it points out that the life the Lord desires for his people is not to be measured simply in terms of longevity.

5:21 wife . . . house. In contrast to the same law in Exod 20:17, here the neighbor’s wife is not included with the house, i.e., the possessions. She is distinguished here by being an object of a different expression (the verb “covet” versus “set your desire on”).

5:22 he wrote them. See note on Exod 31:18. two stone tablets. Each of the tablets probably contained the Ten Commandments. The practice of making two copies of a treaty document in the ancient world was common, one copy for the servant vassal and one copy for his lord. Here both documents are placed inside the ark of the covenant (10:5); the remainder of Israel’s law was written on a scroll and placed beside the ark (31:24–26).

5:23–27 Moses recounts the awesome impact that God’s revelation had upon Israel. Unlike Adam and Eve before the fall, Israel could not bear God’s immediate presence and urged Moses to be a mediator.

5:27–29 Moses compares Israel’s eagerness to obey the Lord (“We will listen and obey,” v. 27) to God’s awareness of the nation’s limitations (“Oh, that their hearts would be inclined to fear me,” v. 29). It is ultimately a matter of the heart. Moses recognizes later that God will someday rectify the problem (30:6; cf. Jer 31:33).

6:1–25 Love the Lord Your God. Moses expounds the fundamental significance of the Decalogue (the “Ten Words,” i.e., the Ten Commandments). God’s people must love the one God with their whole being (v. 5). To ensure this, Israel must avoid three dangers, which will be discussed in later chapters: paganism (ch. 7), materialism (ch. 8), and egotism (chs. 9–10). The one God demands a complete love that unites all the facets of the personality, inculcating the next generation with this vision of life through teaching (v. 7), action (vv. 8–9), memory (v. 12), worship (v. 13), ritual (v. 20), and story (vv. 21–23).

6:3 Hear, Israel, and be careful to obey. The English word-pair “hear and heed” better captures the alliteration of the two Hebrew words that these commands translate, drawing attention to the command to obey.

6:4–9 These verses constitute the foremost text in Judaism identified as the Shema (Hebrew šĕma ʿ, “hear”) because of its initial word in Hebrew. It is one of the three texts in Orthodox Judaism to be recited every day (cf. 11:18–21; Num 15:37–41). Jesus agreed that this particular text was the most important commandment (Mark 12:29–30).

6:4 The LORD . . . the LORD. This double use of the divine name is unique in the OT except for Exod 34:6, where Moses alludes to and explains in more detail the meaning of the name. one. The Lord is not just God for Israel; he is God for all (cf. Zech 14:9). This is the principle of monotheism. The Lord is one of a kind, absolutely unique (32:39; Isa 44:8; 45:6). In contrast in the ancient world polytheism—the belief in many gods—was prevalent.

6:5 From the oneness of God flows a oneness in love: one must love God with the entirety of one’s being—one’s heart (mind), soul (life force or breath), and strength. Thus, what is involved here is not a love that can be reduced to a feeling or sentiment but a love for God that commands the entire personality.

6:6 These commandments that I give you today. All the teaching that Moses is giving (not just v. 4), although in principle the commands can be reduced to v. 4.

6:7 Impress. From a Hebrew word that means “repeat.” This is a rare word and may also have the meaning of “engrave.” Thus, by repeating something often enough, the teacher can “engrave” the meaning on the mind. Talk about them. The commandments should be the topic of conversation in daily life.

6:8-9 Tie them . . . Write them. Probably not literally, although it later became the practice of Jews to bind the commands to their bodies. There is evidence of this at Qumran and in the NT (see note on Matt 23:5). Jews also placed passages of Scripture in small wooden or metal containers called mezuzot and attached them to the doorframes of their houses. The commands, however, were to affect behavior—to dominate action (“on your hands”) and vision (“on your foreheads”) and to be an integral part of one’s home (“on the doorframes of your houses”) and one’s town (“on your gates”). The commands written on stone must not stay there; they must also be written on the individual heart, the family homestead, and the societal gathering place. For further support for a figurative interpretation of this command, see 11:18–20; Exod 13:9, 16.

6:10–19 This unit describes the gift of the land in all its abundance along with its peculiar temptations.

6:10-11 you did not build . . . did not provide . . . did not dig . . . did not plant. The bountiful land is a picture of pure grace. Israel certainly did not earn these gifts. The abundance of God’s grace virtually whets the appetite in anticipation of the gift of land. But these generous gifts come accompanied by a warning not to forget their Giver. Affluence can often lead to this kind of amnesia.

6:13 The Hebrew sentence structure emphasizes the priority of God by putting him at the initial grammatical position of each clause in this verse. He must never be demoted to second place. When Jesus was in the desert, Satan sought to derail his mission, but Jesus countered the attempt with this verse (Matt 4:10; Luke 4:8).

6:16 Do not put the LORD your God to the test. Jesus rebuffed Satan with these words when he was tempted to presume on divine power to perform miracles in order to prove that he was the Messiah (Matt 4:7; Luke 4:12). The Israelites are to trust rather than test God.

6:20 In the future, when your son asks you. Natural opportunities to teach children will occur if children see the importance of their parents’ faith. Such faith responds with the essential story of salvation. The children can then “own” the faith of their parents.

6:25 that will be our righteousness. Righteousness is equivalent to being in a right standing with God because of obedience to the covenant. If understood in isolation, this verse suggests that righteousness can be earned, but it is clear from the context that exodus salvation (v. 23) precedes the command to obey (v. 24). Similarly Abraham believed (Gen 15:6) before he received the command to be circumcised (Gen 17:10).

7:1–26 Driving Out the Nations. This warns of an immediate danger that would compromise the complete devotion of the Israelites that ch. 6 demands: pagan religions in the promised land. Ch. 7 begins and ends on the same note: the Israelites must eliminate every vestige of Canaanite religion. The middle of the chapter reflects on Israel’s unique status as the people of God and their special responsibilities.

7:1 seven nations. Of the 27 lists of pre-Israelite peoples in Canaan, only three lists have seven members (cf. Josh 3:10; 24:11). The number suggests completeness. larger and stronger than you. Israelite victory was dependent on divine help.

7:2-5 you must destroy them totally . . . Make no treaty with them . . . Do not intermarry . . . Break down their altars. While the Israelites were to destroy the Canaanites, most of the attention is devoted to eliminating any possibility of sharing their religion, which is the issue addressed by these commands. See Introduction: Themes and Theology (Holy War).

7:6 Moses applies Exod 19:5–6 to the Israelites. They are a holy people, dedicated to the Lord, called out by him to be his treasured possession—like a personal cache of wealth a king treasures for his private use (1 Chr 29:3).

7:8 because the LORD loved you. Moses traces back the mystery of Israel’s election to God’s love.

7:9 keeping his covenant of love. A rich theological phrase. See 1 Kgs 8:23; 2 Chr 6:14; see also Pss 89:28; 106:45. This is a covenant God makes with his people to demonstrate his unfailing love for them in such a way that all his promises to them are fulfilled. The identity of God is not in doubt; he is a God of faithful love for a thousand generations of those who follow him (v. 9) but a God who repays quickly those who hate him (v. 10). Cf. Exod 34:6–7, where the accent on God’s love is much stronger (thousands [of generations]) than his anger (three/four generations).

7:12–15 This is the first extended description of the blessings for obedience in the land (elaborated in 28:1–14; 30:1–10). Obedience will lead to extraordinary fertility and good health.

7:16–26 Moses returns to the original topic: the Canaanites and their idolatry.

7:16 snare. Associating with the Canaanites will lead to religious entrapment and ruin.

7:17–19 Moses anticipates objections (v. 17) but swiftly overrules them with object lessons from history (vv. 18–19).

7:20 hornet. A further elaboration of Exod 23:28 (see note there; cf. Josh 24:12).

7:22 little by little. The conquest will be protracted because God wishes to spare his people from the dangers associated with the multiplication of wild animals.

7:23 the LORD your God will deliver them over to you. The first description of the Lord’s help in the future conquest.

7:25 Do not covet the silver and gold on them. Anticipates the story of Achan, who did not heed this warning and contaminated his family (Josh 6:17–19; 7:1, 20–25; cf. Acts 5:1–10).

8:1–20 Do Not Forget the Lord. After conquering the enemy, Israel faces another danger: the material abundance of the land could lead to affluence, which could lead to spiritual amnesia. If idolatry distorts devotion (ch. 7), affluence could cause it to be forgotten. Beginning with God’s supernatural provision in the wilderness, Moses describes God’s natural provision in Canaan and warns of the dangers of affluence.

8:3 man does not live on bread alone. Biblical texts in themselves rarely provide a systematic doctrine of humanity, but this verse provides one in abbreviated form. Human beings need bread, but, more important, they need a word from God; the Israelites in the wilderness learned that God’s daily decree provided the bread itself. Jesus cited this verse when Satan tempted him in the desert (Matt 4:4, Luke 4:4).

8:7–9 The first extended description of the natural wealth of the land: water, grains, wine, and minerals such as iron and copper. The land is like the Garden of Eden, abounding in wealth and fertility. The mountains of southern Lebanon and the regions east of the Sea of Galilee and south of the Dead Sea also contain iron. Both iron and copper were abundant in the Arabah south of the Dead Sea.

8:9 bread will not be scarce. Unlike the wilderness, where God provided supernaturally. Whether by supernatural or natural methods, God still provides.

8:13–14 This is also why the king must not multiply wealth (17:14–20).

8:17 My . . . my . . . for me. A focus on oneself rather than God. Amnesia has become complete. Israel in such a state is much like the rich fool in Luke 12:16–20.

8:19–20 If they forget God and engage in idolatry, Israel will be destroyed like the nations before them.

9:1–6 Not Because of Israel’s Righteousness. The third danger, egotism leading to self-righteousness (see note on 6:1–25), was perhaps the most lethal of all the spiritual perils. Moses begins by focusing on the formidable size of their enemies and the coming demise of their enemies at the hands of the Lord. The temptation of self-righteousness will set in after the conquest and settlement. The Israelites might reach the false conclusion that God gave them victory because they are morally superior. Moses punctures this illusion with a vivid history lesson that extends through 10:11: they have been rebellious from the beginning.

9:4 because of my righteousness. In the ancient world victory battle was viewed frequently as a reward for righteousness in the eyes of the gods. Moses completely decimates this claim. on account of the wickedness of these nations. The first evidence to counter any claim of self-righteousness. The nations are so wicked that they are ripe for judgment (cf. Gen 15:16).

9:5 Second (see note on v. 4), to discourage a belief in relative righteousness, Moses shows that the conquest fulfills God’s promise to the patriarchs. Israel’s election was grounded in divine love and nothing more (7:8).

9:6 you are a stiff-necked people. The third piece of evidence contradicting the delusion of self-righteousness (see notes on vv. 4, 5). The metaphor suggests unnatural stubbornness. Moses will now complete this initial sketch of Israel’s character in great historical detail.

9:7–29 The Golden Calf. Israel violates the covenant as soon as it has been enacted.

9:7 Moses points out their rebellious nature from the beginning of the nation’s salvation (the exodus) up to the present moment.

9:8–21 Moses focuses on the golden calf episode at Mount Horeb to illustrate dramatically the people’s rebellion; this account is a free retelling of Exod 24:12–18; 32:1–35; 34:1–35. The covenant had hardly been made when the people rebelled by breaking the first two commandments—something like a spouse committing adultery on the wedding night. The account here is highly rhetorical, serving mainly to illustrate Israel’s sinful propensities. The people—even Aaron the high priest—owed their survival to Moses’ intercession (Exod 32:7–14, 31–35).

9:9 forty days and forty nights. See Exod 24:18; cf. 32:1. forty. A prolonged period of time often representing a period of testing (Num 13:25; Jonah 3:4; Matt 4:2).

9:17–18 In Deuteronomy the smashing of the tablets symbolizes that the end of the covenant takes place before Moses intercedes (cf. Exod 32:11–19). This emphasizes the impact of the prolonged intercession of Moses. Sinful Israel is figuratively brought back from the dead by Moses’ intercession.

9:20 I prayed for Aaron too. Not mentioned explicitly in Exodus. The retelling of this story stresses Israel’s sin by indicating that even its high priest had to be delivered from judgment.

9:21 that sinful thing of yours. The first words Moses uses to describe the idol indicate its diabolical nature. Then he names it and obliterates it.

9:22 Cf. Exod 17:1–7; Num 11:1–3, 31–34. After recalling the destruction of the idol, Moses’ mind races from Horeb to a rapid succession of places; they are not necessarily in historical order since Massah occurred before the golden calf revolt.

9:23 Kadesh Barnea. The rebellion against God climaxes at this location, as is noted by the dense concentration of the language of spiritual revolt in vv. 23–24. Moses describes the second generation with the characteristics of the first.

9:25–29 Moses resumes his description of the golden calf fiasco to show that the people owed their survival to his intercession (vv. 26–29), God’s covenant with their ancestors (v. 27), and God’s concern for his own glory (vv. 28–29). Any righteousness of Israel was a myth.

10:1–11 Tablets Like the First Ones. Moses finishes the Horeb story not with the glorious revelation of Exod 34:5–7 but with the replacement of the broken tablets. Nevertheless, these two tablets of stone contain the divine glory because the words were spoken from the divine fire (v. 4). In the interest of brevity, Moses telescopes the original story here. Thus, he describes himself making the ark for the commandments (v. 5), whereas in Exodus Bezalel does not make it until much later (Exod 37:1–9).

10:6–9 A parenthetical section provides supplementary historical information at this point because of the focus on the ark of the covenant, Aaron, and the Levites. Aaron and the Israelites survived because of Moses’ successful intercessory prayer.

10:10–11 Moses completes his speech regarding Israel’s sinful nature. If he had not interceded, Israel would have been destroyed. They should now possess the land with the right attitude: humility.

10:12–22 Fear the Lord. After pointing out the three lethal temptations (see note on 6:1–25), Moses resumes his speech demanding complete love for God (ch. 6), which is really the heart of the Ten Commandments (ch. 5).

10:12-13 fear . . . walk . . . love . . . serve . . . observe. Moses piles up five concise requirements in which the central one is love. These related statements are all integrated around love.

10:12 And now, Israel. A transitional signal directing attention to the implications of the previous discourse (cf. 4:1). what does the LORD your God ask of you . . . ? In other words, what is the meaning of the previous speech? Cf. Mic 6:6–8. For the answer, see the note on vv. 12–13.

10:14-15 To the LORD your God . . . and he chose you. The mystery and marvel of election.

10:16 Israel’s history of rebellion points to the basic issue: a sinful heart. This is the Bible’s first command to circumcise the heart (cf. Lev 26:41). Circumcision removes the skin of the male sexual organ, and circumcision of the heart removes the “skin” of a hard heart. Physical circumcision reminds people that they need spiritual circumcision (cf. 30:6; Jer 9:25; Rom 2:29).

10:17–19 God’s activity in stooping down to care for the fatherless, widow, and foreigner graphically shows what will happen when the hearts of the Israelites are circumcised. Biblical law often displays concern for this “trio of the marginalized” (24:17–21; cf. Exod 22:21–22; Ps 146:9; Jer 7:6; Zech 7:10). The Israelites must replicate God’s compassion in their own lives and behavior (vv. 18–19). They must love refugees from other lands, because they were once refugees in Egypt. As God had granted them an exodus to a new way of life, they are to do the same for others.

10:20 Moses returns to the theme of single-hearted devotion to God by essentially repeating 6:13.

10:21–22 The call to love the Lord is not arbitrary, and the call to praise him is not irrational since he liberated them from oppressive slavery in Egypt and made a mere 70 individuals into a great nation. He not only delivers from death; he gives abundant life.

11:1–32 Love and Obey the Lord. As Moses finishes this part of his speech, he points to the past to motivate obedience, to the future to encourage, and to the present to ensure longevity in the land. He sums up the speech by giving his people two choices.

11:1 In both the OT and NT, the way to love God is never vague and nebulous; it is inextricably connected to doing his will (cf. John 15:14; 1 John 5:2–3).

11:2–7 Moses always confronts the present generation with their responsibilities. Just as in 5:3 it was not the parents with whom the covenant was made but the children, now it is not the children who experienced God’s discipline but the parents. There is no substitute for present obedience.

11:3–4 The most complete description thus far in Deuteronomy of God’s power in destroying Egypt. Moses intends to impress the Israelites with the importance of their obedience.

11:6 Another historical reminder to instill obedience (cf. Num 16). As the sea overwhelmed the Egyptian rebels, the earth did the same for Israelite rebels in the desert.

11:8–9 After warning the Israelites with historical examples of ruin, Moses expounds on the gift coming to Israel: the land of Canaan.

11:10 not like the land of Egypt. Herodotus once called Egypt the “gift of the Nile.” It was a strip of flat land irrigated by the Nile River. In contrast the promised land had rich geographic variety watered by dew and rainfall, making it much less dependent on human labor for irrigation.

11:13-15 if you faithfully obey . . . then I will send . . . I will provide. Obedience will lead to fertility. The autumn rains usually appear in October and are essential for fertility, while the spring rains normally begin in March-April. The former rains break the drought of summer and facilitate plowing and seeding, while the latter rains provide the final catalyst for a rich crop of “grain, new wine and olive oil” (v. 14; cf. Jer 5:24; Joel 2:23).

11:16 The nations in the land worshiped fertility gods (e.g., Baal was the rain-god). These gods, with their promise of material abundance, would be an alluring temptation for the Israelites.

11:18–21 Moses again reminds the people of his important words at the beginning (6:4–9). He has come now full circle, stressing the importance of the people intentionally placing God’s will in the forefront of life through constant repetition so that it becomes a habit of the heart.

11:22–23 Moses again emphasizes the importance of obedience for the successful invasion of Canaan.

11:24 set your foot. A sign of ownership and a way of describing conquest and occupation of a territory (cf. Josh 1:3). The image occurs also in Gen 13:17, where God told Abraham to “Go, walk through the length and breadth of the land, for I am giving it to you.”

11:26–28 The speech ends with a dramatic choice between life and death, obedience and disobedience. Moses develops this at the very end of the second speech (chs. 27–28).

11:29 The first act of worship in Canaan will be a ceremony that formally depicts the crucial choice before the eyes of the entire nation. A fuller description of this ceremony is found in 27:1–14. Mount Gerizim. The fertile mountain symbolizes life. Mount Ebal. The barren mountain symbolizes death.

11:30 This is the general area of central Canaan, near Shechem, where Israelite faith had its formal beginning in the land when Abraham built his first altar to the Lord (Gen 12:6–7).

11:32 This recalls the first words of the speech (4:45; 5:1) and provides a bridge to the next section, which spells out the content of these decrees and laws (see 12:1).

12:1–32 The One Place of Worship. Moses now begins to apply the Ten Commandments to the new situation, when the Israelites are living in the land of Canaan.

12:1–7 The previous discourse (chs. 4–11) speaks of the oneness of God and the singleness of devotion required for worship. The first commandment forbids other gods. Now Moses practically applies this commandment. This law about the exclusivity of the divine name in the land of Israel and the elimination of all competitors will finally be realized when all creation will confess that Jesus Christ is Lord (Phil 2:10–11).

12:1 Links with 4:45; 5:1; 11:32.

12:2 Destroy completely. Every vestige of Canaanite religion had to go, particularly places of worship throughout the land, whether on mountains or hills or under trees, complete with their images, altars, sacred stones, and Asherah poles (v. 3).

12:3 Asherah poles. Carved images of a goddess or stylized fertility trees. wipe out their names. The Canaanite gods had names representing aspects of nature: e.g., Baal was the rain-god and storm-god; Dagan was a grain-god; Asherah was a female fertility goddess. The NT links idols with demonic presences behind the idols (1 Cor 10:19–20); to eliminate idols is to engage in spiritual warfare, which helps disempower demons.

12:5 the place. In contrast to the multiplicity of pagan worship centers, emphasizing a multiplicity of gods, there must be one central Israelite location for sacrifices and offerings. Deuteronomy never specifies that central location. In the history of Israel its location changed from time to time until it eventually became Jerusalem, and it did not necessarily exclude other legitimate altars used in special circumstances as long as God appointed them (cf. Exod 20:24–25; 23:17). to put his Name there for his dwelling. In contrast to the command to wipe out the name of the Canaanite gods (v. 3). This is the first appearance of what becomes a virtual idiom in the book (14:23; 16:6; 26:2). To put a name on something meant to declare ownership; it was also a sign of presence since the name represented the character, authority, and reputation of the person. Thus, ancient texts from Amarna describe a pre-Israelite ruler of Jerusalem appealing for military help to an Egyptian pharaoh who has “set his name” over Jerusalem. This theme of the placing of the divine name in Israel further develops the heart of the covenant, which declares that God will be with his people (Exod 6:7; Lev 26:12; Num 6:26). The theme develops further in the birth of Immanuel (Matt 1:23) and climaxes in the new heaven and new earth, where the divine name will be written on believers’ foreheads (Rev 22:4).

12:8 everyone doing as they see fit. A surprising characterization of the Israelites; but Israel’s history up to this point has been morally checkered. This same expression is also found in Judges (Judg 17:6; 21:25), where it also indicates a lack of moral discipline. Moses insists that this practice of everyone doing as they see fit must change as soon as the occupation of the new land occurs.

12:10 rest. See note on 3:20.

12:12 Formal worship is a time of celebration for all people, even for those with no tribal inheritance. It is fitting that fellowship among the people and the Lord takes place at a meal. The practice continued in the NT as Jesus was known as someone who had table fellowship with sinners (Luke 15:2) and wished to be remembered in the meal of the Eucharist (Matt 26:17–30). One of the last visions of the Bible is that of a wedding feast (Rev 19:9).

12:15 slaughter. Virtually always used for “sacrifice” in the OT, which suggests that a holy act is still taking place by a holy people wherever they are, although there is a special sanctity attributed to the central place. in any of your towns. For many Israelites wanting to eat meat in the new land, it would have been a great burden to have to sacrifice an animal at the central sanctuary or even another appointed altar. Some of the towns would be too far away, so an exception is made. Animals may be slaughtered at home as long as the blood is completely drained (v. 16).

12:22 gazelle or deer. Clean game animals that do not meet sacrificial regulations; Israelites may hunt and eat them as long as they drain the animal’s blood (v. 24; cf. 14:5). Both the ceremonially unclean and the clean may eat. One had to be ceremonially clean to eat sacrificial meat (Lev 7:19–21), but one need not be ceremonially clean to eat this meat.

12:31 burn their sons and daughters in the fire. True and false worship have consequences, and human sacrifice was one such consequence of false worship in Canaan. Although there is no real extra-biblical evidence of child sacrifice in Canaan (aside from a possibility on the Merneptah relief of Ashkelon), there is evidence of such child sacrifices at Carthage in North Africa, a colony founded by the Phoenicians, who shared the religion of their Canaanite neighbors in Israel. Many urns containing the ashes of children have been discovered in a cemetery there, and these point to child sacrifice. Unfortunately the Israelites later succumbed to the worldview of their neighbors and ended up doing the same thing (cf. Judg 11:30–40; 2 Kgs 16:3; 17:17; 23:10; Mic 6:7).

12:32 do not add to it or take away from it. See note on 4:2. In the Hebrew Bible this verse more suitably begins ch. 13 rather than closing ch. 12 (13:1–19 in Hebrew texts is numbered 12:32—13:18 in English Bibles). Thus, in Hebrew texts it is a warning about adding to the divine revelation, whether by a miracle-working prophet, an intimate family member, or a large group. God’s people must categorically reject such words, whatever the source.

13:1–18 Worshiping Other Gods. Moses continues to apply the initial commands of the Ten Commandments: God’s people must forcefully resist the temptation to follow other gods.

13:1–5 The litmus test of prophecy, even if accompanied by a miraculous sign, is whether the prophet urges obedience to the first commandment. Another test is whether or not a prophecy is fulfilled (18:21–22).

13:2 gods you have not known. In contrast to the well-known God who redeemed Israel (v. 5).

13:3 whether you love him with all your heart. Links this command with the call to total devotion in 6:4–9; 11:18–21. God permits this “rebellion” (v. 5) for the purpose of testing Israel’s commitment to the first commandment.

13:4 It is the LORD your God. The English word order, with its emphasis on “the LORD,” reflects the importance of serving God alone.

13:5 put to death. False prophecy inciting rebellion against God was a capital crime (18:20; 1 Kgs 18:40; Jer 28:15–17). purge the evil from among you. The first time this expression occurs in the Bible; it occurs frequently in Deuteronomy as a motivation to execute a criminal for a heinous crime (17:7; 19:19; 21:21; 22:21, 24; 24:7) or to atone for pollution of the land (19:13; 21:9). The land is holy and must not be defiled by evil, which has to be removed. Also, the punishment will act as a deterrent (19:20). This particular demand occurs similarly in the subsequent historical books (Judg 20:13; 2 Sam 4:11 [“rid the earth”]; 1 Kgs 22:46 [“rid the land”]; 2 Kgs 23:24 [“got rid of”]) and metaphorically in the NT as a motivation for church discipline (1 Cor 5:13 [“Expel”]).

13:6–11 If the first test warned the Israelites of spiritual seduction from nonfamily members (vv. 1–5), the second alerts them to a danger closer to home. Even if the person encouraging apostasy is an intimate family member or a best friend, that person must be exposed and executed. There can be no competition for absolute loyalty to God (cf. Matt 10:37).

13:9 Your hand must be the first. While the execution by stoning mentioned here is a corporate matter, the accuser/witness must take the lead (cf. 17:7; John 8:7).

13:12–18 The third example of apostasy arises as a result of troublemakers inciting a town to depart from the Lord. Even if the entire town apostatizes, Israel must wage holy war against it, condemning it to the same fate as the Canaanites.

13:13 troublemakers. This Hebrew term in the OT can describe rapists (Judg 19:22 [“wicked”]), despicable priests (1 Sam 2:12 [“scoundrels”]), and slanderers (1 Kgs 21:13 [“scoundrels”]). In the NT the Hebrew term used here (Belial) is another name for Satan (2 Cor 6:15), the father of evil.

13:14 you must inquire. An accusation cannot be based on hearsay. There must be a responsible investigation.

13:15 destroy it completely. See note on 7:2–5. When idolatry occurred among its ranks, Israel declared holy war on its own members. The first commandments transcend all other loyalties and commitments. Cf. Judg 19–20 for the use of similar language when Israel punished an apostate Israelite town, virtually annihilating the tribe of Benjamin. In his defense of the gospel, Paul pronounces a holy curse on anyone—even an angel from heaven—who would change the message of salvation (Gal 1:8–9).

14:1–29 Holiness. The entire chapter deals with the fundamental theme of holiness and thus may be loosely linked to a special concern for the divine name (the third commandment). God’s name is holy and not to be profaned. God’s people must embody that holiness, honoring the special name of God. The chapter begins with a prohibition of certain mourning practices involving laceration of the body and then focuses on bodily dietary restrictions; then there is a command for annual celebration and triennial provision for the economically vulnerable. The motivation for such legislation is the new identity of the people: they are children of God, a holy people. Holiness is not just for the realm of the spirit; it is also for the body. Being “holy” means being totally dedicated to God and, by implication, separated from everything else. Holiness is particularly associated with life and wholeness: the signs of death must not mark the bodies of Israelites (vv. 1–2), their diet (vv. 3–21), or their economic existence (vv. 22–29). See “Holiness.”

14:1–21 Clean and Unclean Food. See Lev 11 and notes there. These laws demonstrated to Israel that their God was the Lord of all life, including their diet. For some of the possible reasons for the distinction between clean and unclean foods, see note on 14:3. The NT makes clear that these laws have been abrogated (Mark 7:19b; Acts 10:9–16). All foods are now “clean,” and such distinctions between the various types of food have become obsolete with the arrival of the Messiah. They served their temporally defined purpose of helping Israel make important distinctions and showing the nation that the Lord is sovereign over all of life. Perhaps their obsolescence is a sign of the new world to come, where the creation itself has begun its transformation in Christ: all old distinctions between foods have been erased because everything has become new. Similarly, the distinction between the days in the calendar has vanished, and every day has become holy because of the coming of the Messiah (see Rom 14:5–6).

14:1 children of the LORD. Cf. 1:31; 8:5. Israel as an entire people, not just a select few, was the family of God. As Seth was the image of his father Adam (Gen 5:1–3), Israel was to be God’s face (image) to the world. cut yourselves. It was common in other cultures to gash the body because of overwhelming grief. The Israelites, with their faith in the Lord, were to face death differently. For mutilation in the context of pagan worship, see 1 Kgs 18:28. shave the front of your heads for the dead. Shaving the forehead was a practice of mourners in Canaan. The children of God were not to deface their bodies.

14:2 a people holy to the LORD. See Exod 3:5 and note. treasured possession. See notes on 7:6; Exod 19:5.

14:3 Do not eat any detestable thing. Holiness must distinguish the Israelite’s eating habits (vv. 3–21) as well as their mourning practices (vv. 1–2). In general, these eating practices considerably restrict the killing of animal life. Some suggest that the suitability of the animal to its habitat determines whether it could be eaten. For example, among marine animals, only those with fins and scales could be consumed. The various animals are characterized by their locomotion in the created spheres described in Gen 1, whether land (Gen 1:24–25), sea or air (Gen 1:20–23). When there is little difference in the physical appearance of the animals, e.g., in the case of various birds, those that prey on animals or that eat carrion are not to be eaten since they exemplify death.

14:21 Do not eat anything you find already dead. Since the blood was not properly drained. Do not cook a young goat in its mother’s milk. Although this law became the basis for much later Jewish kosher legislation (milk and meat products are not to be eaten together), it more likely has a humanitarian thrust (20:19; 22:6; cf. Exod 23:19; 34:26). It was considered particularly cruel to use the life-giving milk of the mother to kill its young. This may also critique other religious practices.

14:22–29 Tithes. There is a smooth transition from diet to tithing as the Israelites are now commanded to have a yearly feast with their Lord, consuming their tithes in fellowship with him.

14:22 Cf. Num 18:21–29. Tithing (giving a tenth of one’s income, mainly understood in the Bible as agricultural produce) was to be practiced once a year, regularly, and it was to be a time of celebration and joy. The people were to enjoy a feast of their firstborn clean animals and a tenth of their produce in an annual family celebration. If the sanctuary was too distant, the produce was to be converted to “cash” so that worshipers could purchase the food necessary for the “tithe” feast at the place of worship. The Israelites were being commanded to come to the Lord’s house as a family to enjoy a meal and fellowship with their divine host (Ps 23).

14:27–29 A law distinctive to Deuteronomy (cf. Amos 4:4). Every three years the Israelites were to gather a tithe in the local villages and distribute it to those without natural means of support (i.e., land): Levites, foreigners (refugees), the fatherless, and widows. God wanted his people to remember the landless in the midst of plenty. He desired his people to enlarge the circle of celebration and fellowship to include this “quartet of the vulnerable.” He attaches a special blessing to the tithe: “so that the LORD your God may bless you in all the work of your hands” (v. 29). Tithing required faith; it was a powerful temptation to use the tithe for one’s own personal good, but that would mean forfeiting the divine blessing (26:12–15; cf. Mal 3:8–10).

15:1–11 The Year for Canceling Debts. Cf. Lev 25:8–28. This new section largely applies the fourth commandment (notice the repetition of the number “seven” in vv. 1, 9; cf. v. 12), but it does not merely repeat it. It extends its principles deep into the structure of society. The Sabbath principle was to transform culture so that the ideal society would have regular periods of rest and relief from debt; in this way poverty might become obsolete. The principle stressed freedom, rest, generosity, and šālôm (see “Shalom”). The previous tithing law with its concern for the marginalized is now broadened to include all society. Throughout this text there is a reminder that the Israelites are family members, not rivals. Such a Sabbath principle had been developed in the past through the Sabbath year for the land (Exod 23:10–11) and through the Year of Jubilee (Lev 25:8–55), and the prophets projected it into the future to describe an ultimate release for the entire world (Isa 61:1–3). Jesus announced such a year at the beginning of his ministry (Luke 4:16–21), and the early church embodied such a view (Acts 2:42–47).

15:1–6 In the ancient world a new king would occasionally proclaim a debt amnesty as an act of grace for the impoverished. The Lord, Israel’s king, institutionalized this practice every seven years within Israel. Every Israelite creditor had to forgive debts to Israelite debtors at the beginning of the sabbatical year. This was understandably not required for foreigners, who were mainly temporary residents.

15:4 there need be no poor people among you. This contrasts the ideal vision of a poverty-free society with the reality of impoverishment. See note on v. 11.

15:6 you will lend to many nations. Individual acts of blessing for the poor have international significance as an obedient Israel will have worldwide influence.

15:7–11 The ideal vision is also realistic; thus a generous spirit is encouraged. Those who are “tightfisted” (v. 7) must become “openhanded” (v. 8).

15:11 There will always be poor people. The clash with v. 4 describes the actual situation versus the ideal one.

15:12–18 Freeing Servants. Cf. Exod 21:2–6; Lev 25:39–55. This law provides for landless Hebrews (see note on v. 12) who have been forced into servitude because of economic insolvency. In vv. 12–15 Sabbath rest is extended to slaves on the basis of the exodus from Egypt. They are also in need of a sabbatical, an economic exodus. In Exod 21 there is provision for allowing the freedom of a male slave, while here there is allowance for freedom of a female slave as well. Moreover, it is important to ensure the economic viability of the man and woman once released.

15:12 Hebrew. A term often used of a landless social class made up of those who had joined the Israelites, but it is more likely that here it distinguishes Israelites from non-Israelites.

15:14 Supply them liberally. This addition to the original law was probably necessary to show that the spirit of the law reflected the compassionate generosity of God.

15:15 Remember that you were slaves. Cf. Exod 22:21; 23:9. The law is thus to exemplify a mini-exodus based on compassion.

15:17 take an awl. If a debt-servant for some reason did not desire freedom, his ear was physically marked to indicate lifelong servitude.

15:18 Do not consider it a hardship to set your servant free. Contrasts with Pharaoh’s hard heart when he would not release the Israelites (Exod 13:15).

15:19–23 The Firstborn Animals. There is a natural link from freedom of slaves (vv. 12–18) to the exodus from Egypt, which entailed deliverance of firstborn males. Verse 19 alludes to Exod 13:2, 11–16; cf. Exod 22:29–30; Num 18:15–18. As God had delivered Israel’s firstborn sons from Egypt, the people are to make an annual sacrifice of the firstborn males of their herds and flocks at the worship sanctuary.

15:21 If an animal has a defect. The principle of sacrifice excludes blemished animals (cf. 2 Sam 24:24; Mal 1:6–8), which could be consumed at home as long as they were drained of their blood.

16:1–17 Cf. Exod 23:14–19; 34:18–26; Lev 23:4–44; Num 28:16—29:40. The holy days of Passover, Festival of Weeks, and Festival of Tabernacles extend the sabbatical principle into the entire yearly calendar. As if to underline the significance of the Sabbath, the number seven is repeated (in the Hebrew) seven times (vv. 3, 4, 8, 9 [twice in the Hebrew],13, 15).

16:1–8 The Passover. The first of the great festivals at the beginning of the year. The new year was to begin on a note of freedom.

16:1 Aviv. The first month in the Hebrew calendar; it means “the month of the ears of grain,” the time when the grain started sprouting.

16:2 at the place the LORD will choose. The Israelites are now to commemorate Passover at the central sanctuary as opposed to their own dwellings (Exod 12). This does not mention spattering the doorframes with the blood of the sacrificial animals (Exod 12:7), presumably because most worshipers are now pilgrims living in tents.

16:4 in all your land for seven days. Even though the formal worship occurs at the central sanctuary, yeast must be removed from the entire land. Worship thus envelops the whole nation.

16:7 return to your tents. Probably refers to their temporary dwellings during the festival since the assembly of the people seven days later assumes the location of the central sanctuary (v. 8).

16:9–12 The Festival of Weeks. This occurred seven weeks after Passover, 50 days after the first ripe sheaf of barley appeared. It was the time of the wheat harvest. “Pentecost” is the Greek name for this festival, meaning “fifty” (see Acts 2).

16:11 rejoice before the LORD. The note of joy is unmistakable. “Holy day” and “holiday” were synonymous in Israel. Verse 11b mentions no less than seven categories of people. This is a festival of total inclusion that will someday be fulfilled when there will be neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, neither male nor female in the future thanksgiving celebrations in the Christian church (Gal 3:28).

16:12 Remember that you were slaves in Egypt. The memory of slavery was to provide the incentive for the celebration of freedom for everyone at the central sanctuary.

16:13–17 The Festival of Tabernacles. The third major festival, the fall fruit harvest. See note on Lev 23:34.

16:13 The Festival of Tabernacles was to be celebrated for seven days after the fruit harvest in the fall. Again the celebration is marked by radical inclusion (see note on v. 11).

16:15 your joy will be complete. Can also be translated “you will have nothing but joy!”

16:16–17 This summarizes the three festivals and their importance (cf. Exod 23:14–19). These pilgrimages of joy are not just nature festivals; they commemorate God’s historical salvation of his people, so attendance helps form national identity. This trio of festivals began the new year on a note of salvation, and the year was to be continued on the notes of harvest and joy.

16:18—18:22 This section develops the principle underlying the command to honor parents (the fifth commandment): there is to be respect for authority in general, including the judicial, royal, sacral, and prophetic spheres.

16:18–20 Judges. Judges have a special position in Israelite society since they are mentioned here first among all the leaders.

16:18 Cf. Exod 18. The first leaders to be appointed are not kings but “judges” and legal “officials.” These were the first leaders Moses appointed at Horeb (1:12–17). Israel was to be preeminently a just society with everyone being subject to the divine law and everyone having equal access to the judicial system.

16:19–20 Moses exhorts the elected officials to maintain law and order (Exod 23:6–8).

16:19 a bribe blinds the eyes. At a much later time, Rome had Lady Justice as one of its gods; she was blindfolded to ensure impartiality. For the Hebrews the judges must see reality clearly and make their decisions fairly and justly. At all costs, judges had to repudiate bribes since bribes destroyed vision.

16:20 Follow justice and justice alone. God’s priority for Israel is justice, and his blessing is conditioned upon a just society.

16:21—17:7 Worshiping Other Gods. Though this seems like an intrusion between the appointment of judges and the administration of law courts, it naturally belongs to this section on justice because of the underlying theology. The root of all injustice is idolatry since it distorts reality. Whenever the true God does not occupy the center of worship, some aspect of his creation will take his place, and this false center cannot hold: other aspects of creation will be diminished or destroyed. Examples abound from the brutal tyrannies of the ancient world to those in our own contemporary societies. Only when all worship the one God will there be true peace and justice (Isa 2:1–5; 2 Pet 3:13).

16:21 God’s people must not attempt to introduce pagan elements that might lead to syncretism, because the result will inevitably be injustice.

17:1 Using a defective animal does not properly honor God and therefore is implicit idolatry.

17:2–7 This textbook case of idolatry differs from its counterpart in 13:6–11 because of its concern for the proper legal procedure: detection (“investigate it thoroughly,” v. 4), proof (“two or three witnesses,” v. 6), conviction (“it has been proved,” v. 4), and sentence (“death,” v. 7). Also, in ch. 13 seduction to idolatry is the primary issue, while here it is covenant violation.

17:8–13 Law Courts. This is a provision for complex cases at the central sanctuary, where a higher court consisting of Levitical priests and an appointed judge adjudicated.

17:14–20 The King. This is one of the most radical laws in the ancient world. Kingship is accepted as a matter of fact, but this law transforms kingship by making the king a living, breathing servant of God and the people. This law finds its final expression in the coming of a fellow Israelite who is a Servant-King and not only washes the feet of his people (John 13:1–17) but lays down his life for them as well (John 10:11, 17–18).

17:14 Let us set a king over us. The desire for a king comes from the people’s concern to be “like all the nations.” Kingship in Israel does not have an auspicious beginning since pagan notions of kingship could corrupt Israel. In contrast to the nations, Israel was to be a kingdom of priests marked by divine rule in which all its members were royal (Gen 1:26–28; but see 1 Sam 8:4–9). God accepts this desire of the Israelites but transforms kingship into something no longer recognizable.

17:15 a king the LORD your God chooses. God’s election is paramount. from among your fellow Israelites. An Israelite is to be chosen because of the Israelite value system that sees God’s law as central.

17:16 not acquire great numbers of horses. Horses were the ancient equivalent of rapid deployment military forces, thus emphasizing superior military power. This is how kings could enforce their will. Solomon flagrantly broke this command with his large military arsenal (1 Kgs 4:26). You are not to go back that way again. Egypt represented a former way of life, a life from which God redeemed Israel.

17:17 not take many wives. Royal marriages often ratified political alliances, increasing political power. In the ancient world kings married many wives to cement treaties with other nations, thus showing that politics was more important to them than theology and trust in God. Polygamy is neither prohibited nor sanctioned by this text. This command was intended to regulate the practice. Both David (2 Sam 5:13; 12:11) and Solomon (1 Kgs 11:3–4) ignored this warning to their own detriment and that of their nation. not accumulate large amounts of silver and gold. Economic power must not become a royal goal.

17:18–20 The king must make his own personal copy of the law of the Lord, read it daily, organize his life and the nation’s life around the law, and be a humble servant to his people. The king is to be an ordinary Israelite whose mind is daily informed by the law of God (cf. Ps 1:1–3).

18:1–8 Offerings for Priests and Levites. The third group of authority figures in Israel were the priests and Levites, the priests being a special class within the tribe of Levi. The male members of the tribe were full-time religious professionals supported by the offerings and sacrifices of the people since the Levites had no land inheritance to cultivate. Some towns and pasturelands were set aside throughout the land for their use (Josh 21:41–42).

18:2 the LORD is their inheritance. The Levites’ inheritance is a realization of the ultimate inheritance of the believer. Ps 16:6 reflects on the property boundary lines of the land being drawn up for the tribal allotments (Josh 15–19); the boundary lines for the Levites are drawn up around the Lord.

18:3–4 The portions of the sacrifices used here are different from those used in earlier legislation where the breast and right thigh were allocated for the priests (Lev 7:29–34). The difference may reflect different customs and traditions in Israel, or this legislation may institute a slight change.

18:9–13 Occult Practices. The fourth category of leader is the prophet. In order to emphasize the distinctive prophetic role, Moses forbids a virtually exhaustive list—the most complete list in the entire Bible—of occult practices used in the ancient world for understanding the world and predicting the future. Examples of such practices in the OT abound, from using child sacrifice for influencing the outcome of the future (2 Kgs 3:26–27) to inspecting the entrails of animals for discovering the future (Ezek 21:21) to consulting the dead for information (1 Sam 28:3–25). These practices were part of the religious and mental culture of the surrounding nations and had to be categorically rejected.

18:13 blameless. Not sinless but having integrity (cf. Noah in Gen 6:9; Job in Job 1:1) and rejecting occult practices for ascertaining the divine will.

18:14–22 The Prophet. The divine will is not to be found by searching desperately in the depths of animals’ organs or in the grave or in the esoteric signs of nature, but it is found in intelligible speech. The Lord puts his words in the prophet’s mouth.

18:15 a prophet like me. The context envisions a series of prophets who function like Moses to continue divine revelation after the Mount Sinai experience. This is therefore a collective reference to the prophets after Moses—a type of prophetic succession. But since no one equaled the great Moses (34:10), this text is the basis for a future Messianic expectation of a new Moses and receives a unique fulfillment in Jesus (see John 1:21, 25, 45; 5:46; 6:14; 7:40; Acts 3:22–26; 7:37).

18:17–18 Prophecy continues the Mount Sinai revelation, which was given when God spoke from the fire and Moses became his messenger. Moses is thus the preeminent prophet and will be followed by a line of prophets who will transmit the divine will to future generations.

19:1–14 Cities of Refuge. Cf. 4:41–43; Num 35:6–34; Josh 20:1–9. This series of laws develops the underlying sixth commandment, which forbids murder. A paramount concern of this legislation is to not pollute the land by shedding innocent blood. It deals with manslaughter, perjury, war, unsolved murder, building codes, etc. The land, like the people, must be holy.

19:2 set aside for yourselves three cities. Like their counterparts east of the Jordan (4:41–43), these cities would offer sanctuary throughout the land west of the Jordan for those who might kill someone unintentionally. The location of the cities allows for accessibility throughout the country.

19:6 avenger of blood. The closest family member, who must avenge the loss of innocent blood by shedding the blood of the guilty. One of the main points of the law is to prevent a vendetta.

19:9 set aside three more cities. Not mentioned anywhere else in the Bible. These three cities were to be added to the other six when the Israelites took full possession of the land (1:7; 11:23–24), something that never happened. This suggests that the promise was never fully attained because the people disobeyed.

19:13 Innocent blood that has been shed by murder cries out from the land for justice (cf. Gen 4:10). The guilt of the criminal must be addressed with his death. This concern resurfaces in later legislation (21:8; 27:25).

19:14 boundary stone. Indicated the borders of a person’s land. Stones were usually moved to increase land holdings, but to do this unlawfully was a serious crime because of the inextricable relationship between land and life (27:17; Hos 5:10). Land had spiritual significance (the fulfillment of God’s promises to the individual) and economic potential, so loss of land often meant loss of life, particularly for the vulnerable (Prov 15:25; 23:10).

19:15–21 Witnesses. The question of truth is also linked to the protection of life.

19:15 Two or three eyewitnesses in a court are required for a successful conviction (cf. 17:6).

19:16 malicious witness. Such a witness seeks to hurt a person rather than help and is ruthless (cf. Ps 35:11–12). One person presumably would have to enlist the support of another for a charge to be taken seriously.

19:17 in the presence of the LORD before the priests and the judges. The chief court in Israel, where difficult cases would be decided (cf. 17:8–12).

19:18–19 Judges take legal measures to establish truth; perjury is a deadly serious matter.

19:21 life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth. The first occurrence of the so-called lex talionis (law of retaliation/compensation) in Deuteronomy (cf. Exod 21:23–25; Lev 24:19–20). Modern popular culture usually considers this law barbaric, but its original context shows its concern to protect and enforce justice (cf. Exod 21:18–27; see note on Exod 21:23–24). The malicious witness will be judged according to his malice—no less and no more. This protects truth, which protects innocent life.

20:1–20 Going to War. War legitimizes killing, and thus this legislation is linked to the sixth commandment (“You shall not murder”). But just as there is the death penalty for capital crimes, killing is legalized in certain cases in war. Israel, of course, is preparing to go to war in Deuteronomy, and this particular legislation involving three texts (vv. 1–9, 10–18, 19–20) seeks to relate the command to war.

20:1–4 The entire section on war is prefaced with preparation procedures that prioritize faith rather than strenuous physical training. The enemy’s military superiority is assumed, and thus Israel must depend on the Lord for victory.

20:2–4 Remarkably, charismatic military leaders are largely absent: it is the priest who is the first to speak. Far from being the equivalent of a timid chaplain, he rallies the troops by asserting that the antidote to fear is faith in the divine Warrior.

20:5–8 Surprisingly, the first instructions provide for exemptions from military duty. What kind of an army is this? This army is concerned that its members experience blessing. The first three exemptions ensure that war would not deprive a young soldier of the blessings of a new home, vineyard, or marriage. Cf. 28:30, where curses deprive people of such blessings. The last exemption is for the benefit of the army itself. Someone afraid in battle might demoralize other soldiers and thus lead to their deaths.

20:5 officers. Military officials responsible for organizing the troops.

20:9 appoint commanders. The real military organization is mentioned last.

20:10–18 This section lays out the rules of engagement for war outside the promised land versus war inside it.

20:10–15 Outside the promised land, a city that surrenders will be subject to forced labor. If it resists, an Israelite victory results in the destruction of the enemy soldiers and the capture of the rest of the city.

20:16–18 Inside the promised land, there must be a “take no prisoners” policy—not only the soldiers but also their families are to be devoted to destruction. Any survival of the enemy will result in learning the practices of these idolatrous nations, which will destroy Israelite faith. It is possible that vv. 16–18 are qualified by the offer of peace that is made to the far-off nations in v. 10, but if the near nation refuses, a complete ban results. This then would be similar to what happened east of the Jordan in Heshbon and Bashan (2:24—3:11).

20:19–20 In the midst of the horror of war, it is ironic that there is concern for the environment. But trees are not corrupt moral agents. When protracted sieges occur, Israel is to use only the wood of non-fruit-bearing trees for building siege ramps. Such a law was not always put into practice (2 Kgs 3:25).

21:1–9 Atonement for an Unsolved Murder. No other law regarding human life shows the importance of eradicating blood guilt from the land more than this law does. If there is an unsolved murder, it is the responsibility of the elders of the community nearest in proximity to the murder to perform a ritual act to atone for the shedding of innocent blood. The ritual act is unique in the Bible and shows the connection between bloodshed and the land. The land is in some sense defiled until atonement can be made (cf. 2 Sam 21:1–9). If the murderer is found, his punishment (death) atones for the crime (Num 35:33), but in his absence, another means of atonement must be made.

21:3–4 While the heifer is not sacrificed (no blood or altar), its neck is broken, with no blood being spilled. The heifer’s death is probably required as a substitute for the unknown criminal. The atonement rite consists of using elements that have been uncontaminated by contact with humanity (the heifer and the land); the flowing stream suggests the removal of sin from the community.

21:3 elders of the town. Legal responsibility of towns for their surrounding area was known in the ancient world.

21:5–8 Priests preside over the rite, giving it official status. The elders wash their hands in the flowing water of the brook. This act both asserts their innocence (cf. Ps 26:6) and perhaps removes any taint of sin from their community. Then they declare their innocence in the death of the man and offer the corpse of the animal, representing the criminal, as an atonement rite (cf. Gen 9:6).

21:10–14 Marrying a Captive Woman. This law relates to the previous commands dealing with human life and war and the following command regarding polygamous marriage. Both laws show the importance of respecting human life in compromising situations. The first law is striking in its limitation. A perennial problem in war is rape, but this was forbidden in Israel. If a soldier was attracted to a woman, he had to marry her, but he could do so only after she had lived with him in a state of humiliation and mourning for a month. If he changed his mind after they were married, she had to be granted her freedom. Her dignity had to be guarded, and she could not be treated like a slave. The fact that female prisoners of war could be taken as wives by the Israelites does not sanction the practice so much as regulate and transform an existing evil.

21:12-13 shave her head, trim her nails and put aside the clothes. More than just humiliation and mourning but indicating a complete break with her past to join a new community. By changing her clothes she symbolically embraced a new life.

21:14 dishonored. The Hebrew verb occurs 12 other times in the Bible and is used to refer to men forcing women to have sexual intercourse with them (22:24, 29; Gen 34:2; Judg 19:24; 20:5; 2 Sam 13:12, 14, 32; Lam 5:11; Ezek 22:10–11).

21:15–17 The Right of the Firstborn. In a polygamous marriage, the right of the firstborn son had to be protected against favoritism. The inheritance—and thus life—was not to be determined by personal feeling but was an objective right and thus had to be protected. The firstborn son would receive a double portion of the inheritance. This probably also applied in the case of remarriage after the death of the first wife. Elisha’s request for a double portion of the estate of Elijah—the Holy Spirit—showed figuratively that he was Elijah’s firstborn son (2 Kgs 2:9).

21:18–21 A Rebellious Son. This law apparently deals with violating the fifth commandment; it appears here because of the concern with sons in the previous law. Firstborn status did not guarantee the son a license to do as he pleased. It was important to prohibit a type of disrespect and dishonor of parents that amounted to a form of killing. Unless checked, such an incorrigible (“stubborn and rebellious,” vv. 18, 20) son could turn out to be a grave danger to the entire community.

21:19 his father and mother. Both parents are involved in the decision, but it is not theirs alone; the entire community has a stake.

21:20 a glutton and a drunkard. Cf. similar terminology in Prov 23:20–22 in the context of parental obedience. Such a law is unique in the ancient world; however, it is important to remember that it deals not with a young child but with a much older son who has become a reprobate, bringing disgrace to the family and a threat to its continuity. Perhaps he also has struck and cursed his parents (cf. Exod 21:15, 17). Capital punishment is taken out of the hands of the parents and delivered to the community. The son’s execution is to provide a deterrent.

21:22—22:12 Various Laws. Some of these laws further develop the idea of the respect for life.

21:22 guilty of a capital offense. Probably murder given the context (cf. 19:6), but other capital offenses could be included. exposed on a pole. After execution, the body would be hung to show the accursed nature of the act and the shameful curse (death) the criminal incurred (cf. Gen 40:19; Josh 10:26–27; Esth 2:23).

21:23 overnight. Prolonged exposure desecrated the land; the corpse must be removed from the tree and buried the same day. This law combined with the previous two laws, the inheritance of the firstborn son (vv. 15–17) and the stubborn and rebellious son who is executed (vv. 18–21), certainly played a role in the apostle Paul’s thought. His reflection on the disobedience of Israel as God’s firstborn son and the execution of Jesus, the obedient son, on a tree connects the theological “dots” in these laws (Gal 3:10–13). Christ accepts the curse for a lost and rebellious humanity.

22:1–12 The regulations in this brief section continue the theme of stressing respect for life while perhaps expanding the seventh commandment (regarding adultery) with injunctions to respect God-ordained boundaries (vv. 9–12).

22:1–4 These two laws dealing with the loss of property and potential damage of property show the concern for the total welfare of the covenant community. Lost property cannot be confiscated but must be returned. Animals of neighbors that need help must not be ignored.

22:5 This law forbids cross-dressing (transvestism), which confuses the created categories of sexuality. The God-created differences between men and women are not to be disregarded (see Lev 18:22, 20:13). Transvestism may have been derived from Canaanite practices of cross-dressing in the context of the worship of pagan deities. This law would thus reflect the value of not crossing boundaries that God has established (see note on vv. 9–11).

22:6–7 The sixth commandment (regarding murder) applies also to the treatment of wildlife (cf. Prov 12:10). The means of life (the mother) must be respected. In other ancient cultures such respect and care for the creation was disregarded.

22:8 Ancient Israelite houses had flat roofs for relaxation and rest. This law is the equivalent of an ancient building code to protect residents and guests of the house.

22:9–11 Like the law on transvestism, creational categories are to be kept separate whether in planting gardens or plowing fields or wearing clothes. The symbolism is clear: it is dangerous to blur these boundaries.

22:12 This perhaps alludes to another command that makes the tassels a reminder of the covenant to protect against spiritual adultery (see Num 15:37–41, especially v. 39). Thus, this text is a segue to the next section, which deals with the theme of the seventh commandment. In contrast to the confusion of the creational categories in vv. 9–11, the tassels remind the Israelites that the Creator is to be so woven into their lives that he is part of the clothing they wear (cf. Rom 13:14).

22:13—23:14 Marital and Spiritual Fidelity. Linking these laws is a dominant theme of illicit sexuality. Consequently, they reflect the underlying principle of the seventh commandment: “You shall not commit adultery” (5:18). As God symbolically was to be woven into the Israelite’s clothing (see note on 22:12), his revelation was woven into the ancient cultural context of Deuteronomy. Sadly, rape victims in the ancient Near East would not only have to endure the humiliation and degradation of the crime itself, but also the consequence in this culture would be shame, ostracism, and destitution. They frequently would be driven to prostitution for survival. Some of these laws were intended to protect the victim from such a fate. Similarly, arranged marriages, payments for the bride, and dowries given to the bride were inextricably connected to the culture. While customs vary from culture to culture, the following laws extrapolate the principle of the seventh commandment into ancient Israelite culture.

22:13–30 Marriage Violations. Laws dealing with sexual fidelity.

22:13–21 This law occurs at the beginning of this section because it involves a newly married couple, with the bride suspected of unfaithfulness before the marriage actually occurred. In ancient culture, it was a universal expectation that a bride be a virgin (except in the case of divorce and widowhood).

22:14 proof of her virginity. Perhaps a bloodstained wedding sheet from the night of their consummation. It is clearly a cloth of some sort (v. 17) that was customarily given to the parents.

22:19 a hundred shekels of silver. An expensive fine. Thus, an attempt to retrieve the original amount given to cement the marriage boomerangs, and the false accuser pays a costly penalty. he must not divorce her. The attempt to end the marriage results in no possibility of divorce.

22:21 promiscuous while still in her father’s house. In the context, this woman who is “still in her father’s house” was betrothed (viewed as a binding relationship) but had not yet been united to her husband. If in this context she was “promiscuous,” the sexual sin was seen as adultery owing to the binding nature of betrothal.

22:22 The death penalty for both parties in adultery indicates that the woman was not simply the property of her husband. In the ancient Near East, the offended husband could reduce the sentence if he wished.

22:23–29 Betrothal was significant in ancient Israel; it was tantamount to marriage apart from consummation. The first example (vv. 23–24) assumes that adultery has taken place between consenting parties since the act happens in the city, where other people could hear a cry for help. Thus, the penalty is the same as in the previous law. The second case (vv. 25–27) assumes that rape has occurred since the act happened in the countryside, where no one would be able to hear a cry for help. Consequently, only the male offender must die. The third case (vv. 28–29) develops earlier legislation in Exod 22:16–17; if there is no betrothal and rape occurs, the woman becomes the wife of the offender with no provision of divorce.

22:29 fifty shekels of silver. Not a bride-price, which in many cultures is a payment to the family of the bride. This is a serious fine. The implication is that the man would be indentured to the woman’s family to pay off the debt.

22:30 father’s wife. Probably not the son’s mother (cf. the case of Reuben and Bilhah in Gen 35:22). The relationship is forbidden even if the father has died.

23:1–8 Exclusion From the Assembly. The assembly of the Lord is the dominant theme in this passage, which is concerned with formal worship. For the Israelite the transition from marriage legislation to laws dealing with formal worship is natural and anticipates a later prophetic theme of Israel as the bride of the Lord (Hos 1–3). The exclusion of both groups, the Ammonites and the Moabites, is due to their failure to provide Israel with the basic necessities in their sojourn in the desert and their hiring of Balaam to curse God’s people (Num 22–24). The text here indicates that the Ammonites were also involved in the curse (vv. 3–4), a point not mentioned in Num 22–24. Provision is made for Edomites and Egyptians to enter into worship because of genetic bonds in the case of the former and generosity in the case of the latter, foreshadowing the inclusion of the nations in the blessing of Abraham (Gen 12:1–3).

23:1 emasculated. Castration was not practiced in Israel. Wholeness in health and holiness are related. This requirement for participation in formal worship is not unlike a requirement for the priest (Lev 21:17–20). Although eunuchs were excluded from formal worship in OT times, Isaiah looks forward to a time when this restriction will be removed (Isa 56:4–5); the Ethiopian eunuch’s conversion in the book of Acts shows that this hope was realized (Acts 8:27, 38–39). assembly of the LORD. A rare phrase since the more usual expression is “assembly of Israel.” An equivalent phrase in Nehemiah is “assembly of God” (Neh 13:1).

23:2 born of a forbidden marriage. Born of an illicit union between an Israelite and a Canaanite (cf. 7:3–4) and thus a foreigner to Israel’s ways (cf. Zech 9:6). tenth generation. Possibly “forever” since the phrase symbolizes completeness. The gospel does away with this restriction since the cross demolishes every barrier to radical inclusion (Gal 3:26–29).

23:3–4 The OT itself revokes this exclusion when Ruth showed love to Naomi, embraced her God, and became a full member of the Israelite community, even becoming the great-great-grandmother of David (see Ruth 1–4; but cf. a strict application in Neh 13:1–3).

23:7 Edomite . . . Egyptian. Genetic bonds allow for including Edomites, and the generosity of the Egyptians permits their inclusion.

23:8 third generation. Shows the importance of socialization in faith since there must be two generations of exposure to the Israelite way of life before Edomites and Egyptians can become full members in the congregation.

23:9–14 Uncleanness in the Camp. These laws relate to God’s presence and ritual purity (cf. 14:3–21; Lev 11–15). Nothing indecent is to be found in the relationship between Israel and their God; the expression “anything indecent” (23:14) occurs only one other time in the Bible, and it represents the only legitimate reason for a divorce in the OT (24:1; but cf. Neh 13:1–3). The military camp is to be kept ritually clean because of God’s presence. The NT abounds with similar moral injunctions since the church must be a pure and spotless bride for her divine spouse (2 Cor 11:2; cf. Rev 14:4).

23:15—25:19 Miscellaneous Laws. The various laws in this grouping appear to be a miscellany, nonetheless there are some significant underlying themes. Although there are some exceptions, there are applications of the eighth commandment in 23:15—24:7, the ninth commandment in 24:8—25:4, and the tenth commandment in 25:5–19. In these cases, there is wide latitude as to how these commandments relate to life. For example, oppressive slave owners steal the dignity of their slaves (23:15–16); prostitutes steal money with their services (23:17–18); money lenders steal income with their interest charges (23:19–20). In addition, truth demands following commands (24:8), respecting privacy (24:10–11), paying for services (24:14–15), punishing the offender and not his child (24:16), and providing a descendant for a dead brother while not coveting his dead brother’s property (25:5–10).

23:15–16 Runaway slaves must receive asylum and freedom. This does not indicate whether the slave is foreign or indigenous, but it probably does not matter. This extraordinary law is unique in the ancient world and implicitly critiques certain types of slavery. When slavery leads to oppression, Israel must grant an exodus.

23:17 shrine prostitute. Male and female prostitution was at times practiced in worship centers in Canaan due to the belief that this would increase fertility through sympathetic magic. Fees earned were donated to the religious institutions (v. 18). The practice was forbidden in Israel—not always with success (Mic 1:7).

23:19–20 Perhaps the financial profit from interest amounts to a type of theft, particularly given the exorbitant interest rates in the ancient world. This is an extraordinary law since this practice was institutionalized in ancient cultures, often extracting huge economic payments from needy debtors. International trade was exempt from the law forbidding interest (v. 20) since a foreign merchant would come into Israel for financial advantage.

23:21–23 Breaking a vow amounts to withholding from God a pledge, so it is important to either keep vows or not make them.

23:24–25 This remarkable law indicates that ultimately the Lord owns Israel’s land. Israelites have a right to alleviate their hunger when in need (cf. Matt 12:1–8).

24:1–4 This is the only OT law that explicitly deals with divorce. The syntax (“If . . . then”) suggests that Israelite society accepted divorce. This law is intended to restrict a practice that could lead to treating women as a commodity. Cavalier divorce would rob the wife of not only her dignity but also her wealth. By divorcing his wife, a husband would acquire her dowry, which was her father’s marriage present to her. Thus, the law protects the second marriage by imparting a solemn gravity to the first divorce.

24:1 something indecent. Probably implies something sexual since the Hebrew word translated “indecent” is usually translated as “nakedness.” Jesus remarked that this law conceded to the hardness of the human heart; his disciples are called to a higher standard (see notes on Matt 19:1–12; 1 Cor 7:10–16).

24:5–7 This trio of laws may apply the principle of theft (the eighth commandment). (1) The military draft must not deprive a newly married wife of her husband (v. 5); she has the right to a first year of wedded bliss (cf. 20:7). (2) Collateral for loans must never affect a person’s means of sustaining life, so taking a millstone used for grinding grain is a far worse crime than stealing the shirt from someone’s back (v. 6). (3) Kidnapping (stealing human beings for human trafficking) is a particularly offensive crime and worthy of capital punishment (v. 7); it is the only theft law that requires death.

24:8—25:4 Some of these laws may apply the principle of truthfulness (the ninth commandment), but they mainly have to do with the powerless in society.

24:8 skin diseases. An infectious skin disease not to be identified with leprosy (see NIV text note; cf. Lev 13:1–46). follow carefully. Since the priests’ instructions are trustworthy.

24:9 Miriam. An example of someone who slandered Moses by questioning his authority and ended up with a skin disease (Num 12:1–16).

24:10–15 Pledges and payments for services rendered must be honored, but the dignity of the debtor and employee must be respected (cf. Exod 22:26–27).

24:16 each will die for their own sin. This law was enforced during the time of Amaziah when he executed the assassins of his father, Joash, but not their children (2 Kgs 14:5–6). Ezekiel stresses the same principle (Ezek 18:1–4). This law is not to be viewed as being in conflict with the statement that God punishes the children for the sins of their parents (5:9). The former is a legal injunction; the latter, a divine prerogative. The latter probably means that God permits the consequences of sin to affect the extended family (for three to four generations).

24:17–22 These laws mainly deal with the socially marginalized and economically deprived. Twice within this short collection of laws, the Israelites are to remember their deliverance from oppression in Egypt to motivate them to show compassion to the poor (vv. 18, 22).

25:1–4 Even the sentenced criminal has dignity. His punishment must be fair (cf. 2 Cor 11:24 for evidence that later Jewish tradition avoided breaking the law by requiring one less lash). Similarly the ox deserves its proper “wage” when performing its service (v. 4). The apostle Paul sees this law as an illustration of a larger principle of provision for labor in the church (1 Cor 9:9–10; 1 Tim 5:17–18).

25:5—26:15 Again, there are varied laws in this collection, some of which can be viewed as reflecting the underlying principle of the tenth commandment (“You shall not covet,” 5:21).

25:5–10 In Israel there was provision for the redemption of family property (Lev 25:23–28), the life of a relative (Num 35:19), and a man’s name, i.e., his descendants (Gen 38; Ruth 4). This last law, the right of levirate marriage, is linked to all three but in particular to the name. The refusal of a brother to perpetuate the name of his dead brother by marrying his dead brother’s wife and producing an heir shows that he is more concerned with his own financial loss than the welfare of his dead brother’s house. To marry his brother’s widow would incur a substantial economic burden by providing for a widow, raising a child, and looking after his brother’s land until his brother’s “son” inherited it. Interestingly, Onan’s refusal to perform his sexual duty to his brother’s widow in order to provide a descendant to carry on his brother’s name may have been rooted in greed (Gen 38:9). If a child had been born, not only would Onan have had to provide for the mother and child, but he would not have acquired his brother’s land. While he married his brother’s widow, he refused to raise up a child to be the heir of his brother’s property.

25:9 take off one of his sandals. The foot symbolized authority and ownership (cf. 11:24; Ps 8:6). Thus, Moses was to relinquish authority and ownership of the land near the burning bush by removing his shoes in the presence of God (Exod 3:1–5). spit in his face. A sign of gross contempt (cf. Num 12:14; Job 30:10).

25:10 The Family of the Unsandaled. The covetous brother was to be publicly insulted by having his household’s name marked by homelessness. Since he brought an end to his brother’s house through his refusal to marry the widow, his own house becomes a symbol of notoriety and shame.

25:11–12 These verses are linked to the previous command by the concern for posterity. Whereas the man refuses to provide children for his dead brother’s wife in the previous example, now a living man’s wife attacks his opponent’s ability to bear children. She bears the shame of her attempted “castration” in her mutilated hand. This is the only law in the Bible in which mutilation functions as a punishment; this is in sharp contrast to its common occurrence in the ancient world.

25:13–16 Greedy merchants would use different weights and measures that were marked with the same measuring weight or capacity. Thus, one would be heavier or larger for buying and the other lighter or smaller for selling. The laws concerning fairness and equity in business dealings discourage theft by prohibiting even the possession of unjust weights and measures.

25:17–19 The Amalekites may be an example of the power of greed and covetousness, for they ambushed worn and weary stragglers for personal profit (cf. Exod 17:8–16; Num 14:45). Such behavior is rooted in the absence of the fear of God.

25:19 blot out. The Amalekites are to be eliminated not because of their race but because of their character. Saul was ordered to fulfill this command (1 Sam 15), and his descendant Mordecai completed the task (Esth 9:7–10; see notes on Esth 3:1; 8:11).

26:1–15 Firstfruits and Tithes. An antidote to covetousness is generosity, reflected in offerings and tithes. As the legislation draws to a close, this text echoes the importance of worship at the central sanctuary found in 12:1–18.

26:2 take some of the firstfruits. As a one-time offering at the central sanctuary and therefore distinct from a similar annual offering (18:4).

26:5–10 This recites a mini-history of salvation: election, oppression, exodus, and the gift of land. The first formal declaration of worship in the new land begins with recounting the old story of salvation. Thus, the offering springs from genuine gratitude. This identifies the current generation with previous ones through the use of the first person pronouns (“us,” “we”).

26:12–15 The three-year tithe is specifically directed to the “quartet of the vulnerable”—“the Levite, the foreigner, the fatherless and the widow,” vv. 12, 13—and the Israelites must declare that nothing has been withheld (v. 14), perhaps as a means to counteract covetousness. A prayer for blessing suitably ends this section of the laws (v. 15).

26:16–19 Follow the Lord’s Commands. A solemn conclusion to the paradigmatic application of the Ten Commandments in the life of the nation (12:1—26:15).

26:16 with all your heart. Obedience is not a matter of adhering to legalistic ritual requirements but is a matter of the heart (6:5).

26:17 You have declared. Evidence of a formal treaty ritual in which Israel has taken a solemn vow to keep the covenant. Both forms of the verb “declared” (here and in v. 18) are unique forms of the verb in the original text and emphasize a formalized, ritual vow, much like a modern-day marriage covenant. the LORD is your God. The heart of the covenant for Israel.

26:18 the LORD has declared. Evidence of a formal treaty ritual in which God has taken a solemn vow to keep the covenant (see note on v. 17). you are his people, his treasured possession. The heart of the covenant for the Lord.

26:19 praise, fame and honor high above all the nations. The accumulation of accolades shows the Lord’s extraordinary desire to bless his people. This theme is resumed in 28:1, which concludes the speech with blessings and curses after the narrative interlude of ch. 27.

27:1–8 The Altar on Mount Ebal. This expands on an earlier command to renew the covenant upon entering the land of Canaan (11:29–32) and interrupts the second speech of Moses, which continues in ch. 28. Continuity between the formal declaration (26:17–18) and the future ratification ceremony in the land produces this narrative pause in the speech. The national task of erecting an altar in the land parallels the individual’s presentation of firstfruits in the new land (26:1–11). Mount Ebal may have been one of the first places where the central sanctuary was set up, but the altar built here is different from the altar of the tabernacle, which suggests that such earthen altars could be erected for special purposes in the life of the nation (Exod 20:24–26; cf. Judg 6:24; 21:4; 1 Sam 7:17; 1 Kgs 18:30; 19:10, 14). What makes this particular altar different from all others is that stones are set up nearby on which are inscribed the words of the covenant. Setting up stones inscribed with messages to be remembered was common in the ancient world.

27:2 large stones. Cf. vv. 6–7; Exod 20:24–26. coat them with plaster. Plastering for writing was an Egyptian custom.

27:4 Mount Ebal. Selected probably because Israelite faith began here in the new land. Abram built an altar in Shechem between the two mountains of Ebal and Gerizim when he first entered the land of promise (Gen 12:6–7). Shechem literally means “shoulders,” which are represented in the geography of the two mountains.

27:5 iron tool. Dressed stones were forbidden probably because the stone could be defiled by an instrument that could also shed human blood, which would then desecrate the altar (cf. Exod 20:25). David could not be involved in building the temple because his hands had shed blood (1 Chr 22:8). Perhaps also there is a desire to use natural elements formed directly from the hand of the Creator.

27:6–7 Cf. Exod 20:24.

27:6 burnt offerings. Reserved totally for God; they are consumed by fire (see Lev 1 and note on 1:3–17).

27:7 fellowship offerings. Most of these could be shared between the priests and the worshipers (see Lev 3 and note on 3:1).

27:8 The focus on worship leads to “the words of this law.” As each individual household is to have words of the law inscribed on its doorframes (6:9), so also is the national home or worship center. words of this law. Probably refers to the Ten Commandments.

27:9–26 Curses From Mount Ebal. Moses formally pronounces the covenant renewal and obligations to the new generation.

27:11–13 When the Israelites enter the land to formalize the covenant, they will not only have to build the altar at Mount Ebal but also to invoke the blessings and curses. Six tribes that have Rachel and Leah as their ancestral mothers are to stand on Mount Gerizim to pronounce the blessings for obedience, while six tribes that have Leah, Bilhah, and Zilpah as their mothers are to stand on Mount Ebal to pronounce the curses for disobedience (cf. Gen 29:31—30:24).

27:14–26 Remarkably there are no blessings mentioned here, only 12 curses. Since the list of blessings and curses found in 28:1–19 consists of six blessings (28:3–6) and six curses (28:16–19), it seems that before the tribes pronounce the blessings and curses, the Levites, who are to stand on Mount Gerizim, invoke 12 curses for covenant violations that predominantly have an air of secrecy (vv. 15, 24) about them. These are followed by a comprehensive curse for any covenant violation (v. 26). The covenant is thus interested in self-censorship and, ultimately, heart transformation. This shows again Deuteronomy’s concern for more than a strictly legal understanding of the law. A renovation of the heart is required to keep the law. While the list of curses is somewhat unusual, the underlying value system presented here assumes a concern for both God (v. 15) and neighbor (vv. 16–25).

27:26 Paul cites this text in Gal 3:10–14 to indict the entire human race before God. Since no one is able to keep the law fully (Jas 2:10; 1 John 1:8, 10), no one can be justified by personal merits. Disobedience results in a curse (21:18–21), but the solution to this universal problem is that Jesus Christ, who was able to keep the law completely, bore the curse for humanity (cf. 21:22–23; Gal 3:13–14).

28:1–68 Blessings and Curses. Cf. Lev 26. After the narrative interlude of ch. 27, Moses resumes his second speech by picking up the last threads of the promise that God would set Israel high above all the nations if Israel obeys (cf. 26:19). The speech is continued with a flourish to hammer home the gravity of the choice set before Israel in the renewal of the covenant. The curses far outnumber the blessings in the speech. Perhaps this expresses Moses’ ultimately negative view of Israel’s ability to keep the law. But it is also a fact that Hittite treaties from the same time period have a much longer and colorful list of curses than blessings.

28:1–14 Blessings for Obedience. There are six specific blessings that presumably the six tribes on Mount Gerizim will pronounce. The word “bless” first occurs in Gen 1:22, where God blesses the marine life with the ability to reproduce and fill the waters with life. It refers to fullness of life. The six blessings (vv. 3–6) stress location (everywhere in the land), fertility (human, crops, livestock), fullness (plenty of food), and time (comprehensive).

28:1 high above all the nations. Signals that Moses is resuming the second speech (cf. 26:19).

28:7–12 Moses expands the original blessings (vv. 3–6) on the tribes for rhetorical effect, emphasizing success against enemies (v. 7) and the prospering of all of their activities and ways (vv. 8–12).

28:13–14 Blessing is contingent on obedience.

28:15–68 Curses for Disobedience. Disobedience leads to curses that are just as negative as the blessings are positive. As the blessings represent the fullness of life, the curses represent the opposite: the deprivation of life, the presence of death, disease, defeat, and exile. But these curses are multiplied far more than the blessings so that they never seem to end. Probably the tribes on Mount Ebal pronounce an initial group of curses (vv. 16–19) that reverses the initial group of blessings (vv. 3–6). This expands to include multiple curses in the land of Canaan (vv. 20–44), which then increases to include curses suffered under siege (vv. 45–63), followed by exile (vv. 64–67). This leads to an ultimate exile when Israel will return to Egypt in ships (v. 68). This return to Egypt by ordinary means completely reverses salvation history, in which Israel miraculously escaped Egypt by crossing the Red Sea on dry ground. It thus shows the full extent of Israel’s damnation.

28:23-24 bronze . . . iron . . . dust and powder. The total absence of fertility as moisture is removed from the land.

28:26 carcasses. Exposed corpses were a particularly horrible fate in the ancient world.

28:27 boils of Egypt. Israel would experience one of the hardships brought by God upon the Egyptians (Exod 9:9).

28:29 unsuccessful. In contrast to the one who meditates on the law of God day and night (Ps 1:2–3).

28:30-33, 38–42 A standard list of “futility curses” in the ancient Near East.

28:35 from the soles of your feet to the top of your head. They will experience sufferings like those Job suffered—but for a very different reason (cf. Job 2:7).

28:45–48 This break from the avalanche of curses explains their cause: blatant disobedience.

28:47 Because you did not serve the LORD your God joyfully and gladly in the time of prosperity. Rather than joyously serving God and being grateful for his gifts of prosperity, Israel has only “served” God reluctantly and halfheartedly.

28:49 ends of the earth. A metaphor for distance. like an eagle. A simile for speed and power.

28:53 eat the fruit of the womb. Cannibalism could happen during prolonged sieges (cf. 2 Kgs 6:28–29). Desperate situations produce desperate measures.

28:58 This verse introduces a final flurry of curses. Israel’s final disaster coincides with profaning God’s majestic “name,” which here uniquely emphasizes the gravity of the offense since God himself “signs off” on the coming annihilation with his own personal imprimatur.

28:60 diseases of Egypt. Cf. 7:15; Exod 15:26.

28:61 not recorded in this Book of the Law. The floodgates of possible curses are opened to any curse imaginable.

28:62-63 few in number . . . uprooted from the land. This reverses the Abrahamic promise (Gen 13:15; 15:5, 18). See “Covenant.”

28:67 morning . . . evening. God established this rhythm at creation; a world of blessing is now a world filled with anxiety and deprivation.

28:68 This completely reverses salvation history because of disobedience (see note on vv. 15–68).

29:1—30:20 The Third Speech: Covenant Ratification, Failure, and Future Hope. After presenting Israel’s history to encourage present obedience (1:6—4:43), declaring the content of the obedience (4:44—26:15), stating the initial steps to formalize the covenant in the present (26:16–19) and in the new land (ch. 27), and listing the blessings and curses (ch. 28), the formal covenantal proceedings for the Moab generation are now finalized. The speech divides into three main sections: the Moab covenant (29:1–29), future hope (30:1–10 or 30:1–14), and final challenge (30:11–20 or 30:15–20). This covenant does not merely repeat the Horeb covenant, which revealed the failure of Israel to keep the law; it looks beyond such failure to a future solution that God himself provides. While renewing the covenant, God will finally deal with the intractable problem of the human heart and provide a new one. This is grounded in his covenant with Abraham (cf. 4:30–31).

29:1–29 Renewal of the Covenant. The finalizing of the Moab covenant has four discrete units: a history lesson (vv. 1–8), a covenantal ceremony (vv. 9–15), warnings (vv. 16–28), and a conclusion (v. 29).

29:1 This verse can be understood either as a concluding postscript for the previous speech (as in the Hebrew Bible) or as an introduction for the next speech (as in most English versions). Its opening words signal a new beginning in the rest of the book (cf. 1:1; 4:45; 12:1; 33:1). Whatever view is taken, the basic understanding is not affected since the covenant at Moab has been the subject of chs. 5–28, which revises the Sinai covenant for the new generation. in addition to. The covenant at Moab incorporates the Sinai covenant within its framework and seeks to spell out the covenant obligations in more detail. It sharpens and expands the demands of the covenant and points Israel to the future when God will fulfill his promise to the patriarchs (cf. 4:30–32; Lev 26:40–42) and help his people do his will as easily as they speak his words in their mouths (30:11–14).

29:4 The people have been spiritually obtuse and need new minds, eyes, and ears, just like the people in Isaiah’s time (Isa 6:10–12). Paul later applies this passage to Israel’s failure to receive the gospel (Rom 11:8).

29:9–15 Although there is no mention here of covenant ratification through a sacrifice (cf. Exod 24), this text presents a solemn ritual in which the people and the Lord are entering into a covenant so that they might have a new relationship. Moses has already provided instructions for a formal covenant renewal when the Israelites enter the land (cf. ch. 27). The covenant is also completely comprehensive. This list of various groups is the most complete in the OT, including even future generations not present (vv. 14–15).

29:16–21 A solemn warning to individuals, clans, or tribes who do not take the covenant seriously.

29:19 watered land . . . dry. Possibly metaphors for the righteous (“watered land”) and wicked (“dry”). Private acts have public consequences.

29:20 Cf. the NT’s severe warnings about such a resolve to sin (Mark 3:29; Heb 6:4–6; 12:16–17).

29:22–28 From the individual to the nation, the sin has spread and contaminated everything, leading to wholesale idolatry and apostasy. This is the most complete description of God’s anger in the book. All the curses of the law are consequently invoked, and the country is turned into a vast burning wasteland like the cities of the plain in Gen 19:24–29. The survivors go into exile.

29:29 These famous words look back to the warnings about curses and exile (vv. 16–28) and look ahead to a future of hope (30:1–14). How could the nation continue to exist in light of its foretold destruction? Only God knows such “secret things.” secret things. This expression links up with the inaccessible knowledge found in the heavens and beyond the seas (30:12–13) and probably pertains to the future. The people will never be able to gain knowledge of such mysterious matters, but they do have access to what God has clearly revealed in his word.

30:1–10 Prosperity After Turning to the Lord. Cf. Lev 26:40–45. Moses looks to the future, beyond the success and ultimate failure of the people to keep the requirements of the covenant, to show that the point of the Moab covenant (29:1) is to cast Israel upon the grace of the Lord, based on the Abrahamic covenant to which Moses has already alluded (4:25–31). Turning to the Lord (v. 10) and returning to him (v. 2) result in the Lord restoring his people (v. 3). These different English words—“turn,” “return” and “restore”—translate the same Hebrew word that abounds in this passage. God turns to Israel when Israel turns to God.

30:1–4 The books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings detail this fulfillment. But these words ensure that exile and curse are not the final word. In exile, Israel will consider the meaning of it all, repent, and be restored.

30:5–10 This will happen not because Israel has within itself the ability to do God’s will but because the Lord himself will finally circumcise their hearts to enable Israel to love God completely (cf. Jer 4:4; Rom 4:1–12). The same imagery occurs in Lev 26:40–45, where an uncircumcised heart will be humbled in the exile.

30:11–20 The Offer of Life or Death. Israel is now presented with two critical choices.

30:11–14 This text can be interpreted in different ways: (1) These verses begin a new section of discourse, with Moses returning to the present and challenging Israel to keep the covenant, reminding them that they can do it. (2) These verses continue Moses’ prediction about Israel, pointing out that when their hearts are circumcised in the future, it will be easy to obey the law. The vast majority of interpreters (including those responsible for the divisions in the NIV text) hold to the first interpretation, while the second interpretation is a relatively recent one.

In the first interpretation the focus is on the present challenge to obey the law since it is not inaccessible (neither up in heaven nor across the sea, vv. 12–13) but has been given to be spoken in the mouths of the Israelites. It is thus in contrast to the “secret things” (29:29). The text is seen to be fulfilled when Jesus, the ultimate Word from God, becomes flesh and by faith becomes resident in the mouths and hearts of believers (Rom 10:6–9).

In the second interpretation, the verses are understood to continue the future prediction about Israel (30:1–10), with the major break occurring at v. 15, returning the discourse from the future to the present. Thus, when the Lord has circumcised the heart of the exiles, they will not find the law too difficult to obey. They will not have to go up to the mountain like Moses to bring it down or cross the Red Sea like Israel to have it revealed and then be unable to do it. Now it will be just as easy to do as it is to speak. Thus, Jeremiah’s prophecy of a new covenant reinforces this passage: God’s law will be written on the hearts of his people (Jer 31:31–34). Paul sees it fulfilled when people do not try to perform the law on their own but instead confess with their mouths that Jesus is Lord (Rom 10:7–10). Jesus is the goal of the law.

Of the two interpretations, the first reads more naturally, especially in the light of the use of the word “today” (v. 11), which suggests a shift from the future time of return from exile to the present time on the plains of Moab.

30:15–20 Depending on the interpretation (see note on vv. 11–14), either Moses continues the new discourse begun at v. 11 (the more natural reading), or he now returns to the present situation at Moab after discoursing about Israel in the future. In these verses Moses concludes his third speech by passionately presenting the two choices before the people: life or death.

30:19 the heavens and the earth as witnesses. Ancient Near Eastern treaties often invoked a plethora of gods as witnesses to the proceedings. But in a monotheistic worldview, apart from the one God, there could be no more comprehensive or enduring witnesses than heaven and earth. Here they witness to what Moses has done, not to the treaty itself (31:28). choose life. Moses does not present a detached description of the alternatives. He wants Israel to embrace life.

31:1—32:52 Planning for the Future. The material in chs. 31–34 is frequently treated as an appendix to the book since it wraps up a few details. But a structural marker at 33:1 (see note on 29:1) suggests that chs. 31–32 are part of the fourth section—underlining distinctive emphases in the speech of chs. 29–30 and bringing them to a climax with a prediction of apostasy (ch. 31) and a poem of witness (ch. 32)—which seeks to bring about the repentance necessary for the future heart-circumcision of Israel. However, because of its different genre, narrative and poetry, it is considered a separate section that further develops the themes of the fourth section, emphasizing planning for the future, culminating in a dramatic poem about Israel’s future defection that results in judgment and then final salvation and atonement for the land (ch. 32). What is also important in this section is the provision for the leadership transition from Moses to Joshua. While Moses will soon become absent physically, his words will continue to provide authoritative guidance.

31:1–8 Joshua to Succeed Moses. After the speech of chs. 29–30, the section returns to the imminent future and the conquest. Joshua will be the new leader, and Moses encourages him and the people for the task set before them. The defeats of Sihon and Og continue to be object lessons of God’s power.

31:9–13 Public Reading of the Law. Moses commands that the law be read to the entire community every seven years.

31:9 When ancient treaties were ratified, a copy was often deposited in a sacred place before the gods of the covenant-makers. Moses similarly writes a copy of the law and gives it to the priests, who place it beside the ark (v. 26).

31:10 The priests are responsible for publicly reading the law to all Israel during the Festival of Tabernacles. every seven years. A seven-year period marked the release of debts; thus, reading this book at the end of such a period emphasizes liberation. The purpose of the public reading is worshiping God and educating the next generation.

31:14–29 Israel’s Rebellion Predicted. Despite having every advantage, Israel will defect.

31:23 For the first time God speaks directly to Joshua, assuring Joshua of his presence (cf. Josh 1:1–9).

31:26 The Levites must place the completed speeches beside the ark containing the Ten Commandments. In form and purpose, this law comes close to the Book of the Covenant in Exod 21–23, which expands on the Ten Commandments in Exodus. This book will serve as a second witness for the divine court.

31:28 the heavens and the earth. See note on 30:19. Here the heavens and the earth are the second pair of witnesses against Israel, matching the two literary ones, the Ten Commandments and the Book of the Law (v. 26).

31:30—32:47 The Song of Moses. This song, given by God and written down by Moses (cf. 31:19–22), looks back on Israel’s history and forward to the future. It captures in inimitable poetry the story of Israel’s rise, demise, and resurrection from death, which earlier parts of the book anticipate (4:25–31; 30:1–10). It frequently tells the story from the perspective of the divine parent, and it is filled with frustration and sadness. Israel had every advantage; it came from nothing to become “the apple of [God’s] eye” (32:10), protected by a hovering mother eagle (32:11). This forcefully echoes creation language, which describes the beginning of the world as nothing but emptiness, with the Spirit of God hovering over the dark and wild waters (Gen 1:2). Such language shows what God had in mind with Israel: nothing less than a new creation. But the unfortunate result was idolatrous affluence, apostasy, and judgment. But judgment is not the end. This gives the audience a window into God’s heart, showing his concern for his reputation and resolving to make atonement for his people and his land. This magnificent poem anticipates some of the main ideas of Paul’s theology in the book of Romans because its themes include election, judgment, outreach to the nations, and the triumph of God’s mercy in atoning for sin (Rom 9–11).

32:4 He is the Rock. The first time this metaphor for God is developed (cf. Gen 49:24, where a different Hebrew word is used). It signifies solidity, strength, and permanence. This poem uses it this way five times (vv. 4, 15, 18, 30, 31).

32:8 Most High. The only occurrence of this name for God in the book. according to the number of the sons of Israel. Israel is distinguished from the nations; its number becomes the figure by which the boundaries of the nations are determined. In Exod 1:5 the number of Israelites going down to Egypt is 70, which corresponds to the 70 nations in the great “table of nations” in Gen 10. The Septuagint, the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT, offers a different reading of Deut 32:8: “When God separated the sons of man, he determined the boundaries of the nations according to the angels.”

32:10 apple of his eye. The pupil, a delicate part of the eye that is essential for vision and must be protected at all costs.

32:13–14 A lush picture of prosperity with images suggesting a virtual cornucopia of blessing.

32:14 choice rams of Bashan. The fields of Bashan were noted for their fertility and their prized cattle and livestock (cf. Amos 4:1–2).

32:15 Jeshurun. See NIV text note. The name is used sarcastically here. grew fat. Has the same Hebrew root as “oil” in v. 13; it is ironic that the recipient of blessing becomes corrupted by it.

32:19–27 God speaks in the first person, revealing his plan to judge his people, make them jealous, and afflict them with a virtual avalanche of curses. He decides not to destroy them in order to stop the boasting of Israel’s enemies.

32:21 Used in Rom 10:19 to explain Israel’s rejection and the inclusion of the Gentiles. Israel provoked God’s jealousy with idolatry, and God makes them jealous by including the Gentiles in the divine plan (cf. Rom 11:11, 14).

32:23–25 The curses (cf. 28:15–68).

32:27 lest the adversary misunderstand. God’s reputation is at stake, and concern for his reputation is the decisive reason for his intervention to save Israel (cf. 9:28; Exod 32:12–13).

32:29 wise. The essence of wisdom is being able to see the connection between choices and consequences.

32:35-36 It is mine to avenge; I will repay . . . The LORD will vindicate his people. God’s judgment is final and inevitable. Paul quotes v. 35a in Rom 12:19 to show that only God has the right to judge finally; Heb 10:30 quotes this verse as a warning against rejecting the Son of God.

32:39 At the end of the song, the focus dramatically shifts to the Lord’s transcendent power. Hannah (1 Sam 2:6) and Isaiah (Isa 45:5) later use similar language. God uses this unique power to save his people and judge their enemies. Someday he will even resurrect his people from death (cf. Hos 6:1–2).