Introduction to

1 Chronicles

The books of 1 and 2 Chronicles were originally one book that the translators of the Septuagint (the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT) separated into two. They showcase the grace of God and the incomparable value of a God-centered life. Unfortunately, 1-2 Chronicles are among the most neglected books of the Bible.

Author

1-2 Chronicles does not indicate its author. The most common issue considered in the authorship of Chronicles is the relationship between the author(s) of Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah. Jewish tradition understood Ezra to be the author of 1-2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. Those who propose a common author (typically Ezra) emphasize similarity in vocabulary and Hebrew syntax, a penchant for source citations and lists, overlapping ideological and theological concerns (such as the temple and priests), and Ezra-Nehemiah picking up where 2 Chronicles ends (cf. 2 Chr 36:23 with Ezra 1:1–4).

There are also a number of distinctions between Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah, such as the level of attention directed to the Davidic monarchy (high in Chronicles, low in Ezra-Nehemiah), the Sabbath (low in Chronicles, high in Ezra-Nehemiah), and the prophetic office (high in Chronicles, low in Ezra-Nehemiah). Such points of difference have caused some to reject the view of a common author for Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah, although these differences may be due to the variety of sources integrated by the Chronicler and the period of history being described.

Identifying the author(s) of Chronicles remains an unsettled area of biblical scholarship. Since God determined Chronicles to be part of the Bible as an anonymous work, it seems fitting to refer to the (human) author(s) as “the Chronicler” and focus on the theological message of the book.

Date

The setting of 1-2 Chronicles is the postexilic community of Judah. But the specific time of the writing of Chronicles remains open to debate. Proposals span from the Persian time frame (539–333 BC) to the Greek/Hellenistic time frame (333–166 BC) to the Maccabean/Hasmonean time frame (166–63 BC). The extent of Zerubbabel’s family line (1 Chr 3:19–24), along with the Jews’ resettling in Jerusalem after the exile (cf. 1 Chr 9:1–34 with Neh 11:1—12:26), indicates a date following (or toward the end of) the reforms of Ezra and Nehemiah (ca. 450–430 BC). The language and content of Chronicles does not reflect a Greek setting, indicating that the text was composed before 333 BC. All together, these observations suggest a range of 430–340 BC for the writing of Chronicles. The earlier side of this range (ca. 430–400 BC) might be preferable as it would place the completion of Chronicles before a time of significant unrest in the Levant in the early fourth century BC caused by Egyptian revolts against Persia.

Place of Composition and Destination

The Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC was followed by large-scale deportations and exile in Babylon (Ps 137:1–6). After the Persian takeover of the Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, all of what had been Judah (and the northern kingdom) fell under an administrative unit (satrap) of the Persian Empire known by the geographic description “beyond the [Euphrates] River.” Within this large region was the small province of Judah (Yehud in Aramaic; Ezra 5:8). The decree of Cyrus in 539 BC enabled those exiled to Babylon to return to their homeland and rebuild their communities (2 Chr 36:22–23; Ezra 2:1–35; Neh 7:5–73). While still under the authority of the Persian Empire, the province of Judah was granted some degree of political autonomy.

Before long, the euphoria following the decree of Cyrus gave way to the reality of the bleak situation in Judah as the returnees faced the daunting challenge of rebuilding homes, cities, social infrastructure, and the temple. Nonetheless, spurred on by the ministries of Haggai and Zechariah, work on the temple was restarted and completed in 516 or 515 BC (Ezra 6:14–15), resulting in another high point of optimism within the postexilic community. In time, however, the situation in Judah again became bleak (Neh 1:1–3), leading to the appointment of Nehemiah as governor (Neh 2:1–18; 5:14) and the commissioning of Ezra in the realm of religious affairs (Ezra 7:25–26). The leadership and rebuilding organized by Nehemiah and the spiritual revival facilitated by Ezra fostered a new era of hope and optimism. This mood of optimism was enhanced by territorial gains and the fortification and repopulation of Jerusalem. However, the end of the Ezra-Nehemiah time frame was punctuated with spiritual and societal problems (Neh 6:1–14; 13:4–28). Thus, once again, a time of hope and promise in Judah gave way to challenge and discouragement. The writing of Chronicles follows this latest downturn of hope and optimism.

Although the Chronicler’s time frame may be one of disappointment, he nonetheless proclaims a message of hope and possibility. The Chronicler’s review of the “whole divine history” functions to shape the theological awareness of the postexilic Judahite community—much as the book of Deuteronomy recaps “divine history” for the generation born during the “exile” in the wilderness wanderings and waiting to enter the promised land. Both Deuteronomy and Chronicles are situated in the aftermath of divine judgment that included prolonged time outside the land of promise. Both emphasize hope and possibility for a covenant community wholehearted in their commitment to the Lord. Both exhort people to remember and obey their covenantal relationship with God while recounting God’s faithful acts. The recounting of the past encourages people to consider the present and pursue faithfulness in the future (Rom 15:4; Heb 11).

Particular Challenges

Challenges with Chronicles typically involve comparison with parallel (synoptic) passages from 2 Samuel and 1-2 Kings. One’s approach to synoptic issues goes hand in hand with preexisting views of biblical inspiration and inerrancy.

Issues Involving Numbers

There is complete agreement in numbers between Chronicles and parallel texts in 195 out of 213 instances, but they differ in the remaining 18. In some cases, differences reflect a distinction in the basis of counting or reckoning. For example, the Chronicler has a different tabulation in 1 Chr 9:6 from that found in Neh 11:6 (690 versus 468) that may relate to a different approach to counting (Neh 11:6 counts “men of standing,” whereas 1 Chr 9:6 reads “people”). Similar explanations can be posited for the difference in the number of priests in 1 Chr 9:13 and Neh 11:12–14 and census numbers in 1 Chr 21:5 and 2 Sam 24:9.

Another issue that involves numbers is the large numbers of soldiers mentioned at different points in 1-2 Chronicles (e.g., 1 Chr 21:5; 2 Chr 11:1; 14:8; 17:14–18; 26:13). The numbers mentioned in these texts (ranging from 200,000 to 1,100,000 soldiers) are considerably higher than the listings of other ancient Near Eastern armies. The Hebrew term translated “thousand” (ʾelep) may refer to military fighting units or tribal leaders rather than the quantity 1,000 (see Num 10:4; Josh 22:13–14, 21, 30; Zech 9:7; 12:5–6; see also Introduction to Numbers: Interpretive Issues, 3). Several passages imply that ʾelep is a unit that is smaller than a tribe (1 Sam 10:19; 23:23; Mic 5:2) and larger than a family (Judg 6:15). Using this approach, a figure such as this in 2 Chr 14:8: “three hundred thousand” (300,000) may be intended to convey “300 [military] units.” Estimates for these military units range from 10–30 soldiers each, perhaps in analogy to the units of the “three” and the “thirty” used to describe David’s core military leadership (1 Chr 11:10–47).

Other synoptic issues involving numbers are simply stylistic differences, such as rounding numbers, as reflected in the following summaries of David’s reign: “He ruled over Israel forty years—seven in Hebron and thirty-three in Jerusalem” (1 Chr 29:27). “In Hebron he reigned over Judah seven years and six months, and in Jerusalem he reigned over all Israel and Judah thirty-three years” (2 Sam 5:5). Instances in rounding may also explain differing numbers of military figures, such as the notation of 470,000 versus 500,000 men of Judah in Joab’s census (1 Chr 21:5 versus 2 Sam 24:9).

Issues Resulting From Scribal Copying

Synoptic differences may relate to the process of copying biblical books. When Christians refer to the inspiration of Scripture, they are referring to the originally crafted manuscripts of biblical books (called “autographs”), not scribal transmission of the biblical texts. By the sovereign will of God, the transmission process was not inerrant, and consequently there are variations in the manuscripts of biblical books. For example, 2 Sam 24:13 has “seven” years in the Hebrew text (Masoretic Text) rather than the “three” years recorded at 1 Chr 21:12. Nonetheless, the NIV translates “three” at 2 Sam 24:13 given the Septuagint (the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT) at this verse as well as the parallel text here (see NIV text note on 2 Sam 24:13). While these variations are statistically miniscule, they do factor into some synoptic divergences. Careful textual criticism typically brings the correct reading to light.

Issues Involving Perspective

Synoptic differences may reflect a different point of reference or perspective that is not mutually exclusive. For example, note the following statements regarding the ascension of Solomon: “Solomon sat on the throne of his father David” (1 Kgs 2:12); “Solomon sat on the throne of the LORD” (1 Chr 29:23). These statements, while different, are both true. The statement in Kings stresses God’s faithfulness to fulfill his promise with respect to the Davidic covenant, while Chronicles stresses God’s kingship and the role of the Israelite king as undershepherd to God. Likewise, the inciting of David (cf. 1 Chr 21:1 and 2 Sam 24:1) reminds us that the agency of God and the actions of a supernatural adversary can operate in parallel (as seen in Job 1–2), as can the agency of God and a human adversary (1 Kgs 11:14, 23).

In addition, the Chronicler emphasizes the involvement of “all Israel” in important spiritual events in line with his focus on the whole covenantal community. For example, the taking of Jerusalem in Samuel (2 Sam 5:6–10) focuses on the efforts of a small band of warriors, while the Chronicler notes the involvement of “all the Israelites” in this important event (1 Chr 11:4–8). Likewise, the Chronicler notes the involvement of the community in the relocation of the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (1 Chr 13 versus 2 Sam 6). Lastly, the presentation of Manasseh in Kings summarizes the spiritual infidelity that characterized the vast majority of Manasseh’s reign (2 Kgs 21), while the account in Chronicles showcases the forgiving and reconciling nature of God (2 Chr 33) in line with the Chronicler’s message of covenantal hope for God’s people.

Distinctions and differences between texts should not be held against one text or the other; differing parallel texts may simply reflect selectivity, shaping, and emphasis in line with particular authorial intent (such as thematic or theological emphasis) in a given passage.

Occasion and Purpose

The text of Chronicles extends from Adam (1 Chr 1:1) through the Persian king Cyrus (2 Chr 36:22–23). But the genealogical section at the beginning of Chronicles (1 Chr 1–9) actually extends beyond the time frame of 2 Chr 36 and into the postexilic setting (1 Chr 3:19–24). In a sense, the Chronicler tells the book’s literary-theological message first as a genealogy and then as a story. The structure of Chronicles shows that while its historical time frame is postexilic, the theological time frame is exilic. That is to say, while the text was composed (or at least completed) in the postexilic time frame, the book of Chronicles nevertheless ends on the eve of the postexilic time frame (see “The Persian Empire and Postexilic Judah”).

Genre

The OT books we know as 1 and 2 Chronicles have carried a variety of names over time. The Hebrew title of Chronicles is dibrē-hayyāmîm (translated “the book of the annals” at 1 Chr 27:24). The name of Chronicles in the Septuagint (the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT) is Paraleipomenōn tōn basileōn Iouda, which means the “things omitted concerning the kings of Judah.” This title influenced the relocation of Chronicles in the Christian Bible from the end of the OT to just after 1-2 Kings. This placement unfortunately suggests that the purpose of Chronicles is simply to provide supplemental information for Samuel and Kings rather than have its own literary-theological message. By comparison, the name for Chronicles in the Latin Vulgate is Chronicon (or Chronikon) Totius Divinae Historiae, meaning “Chronicle of the Total Divine History,” suggesting a wide-ranging engagement of God’s involvement in human history. This title gave rise to the name “Chronicles,” used today in English translations.

Chronicles is a chronographic or annalistic text. Understanding Chronicles through the lens of an annal aids in understanding Chronicles as theological history. Annals are historical accounts written with narrative shaping and ideology. Annals feature the use of other genres such as lists, genealogies, temple records, and other archival documents. The selectivity and literary-narrative shaping of such sources is interpretively significant as compositional strategy reveals authorial purpose and theological message. Even the genealogical survey of Chronicles (1 Chr 1–9) exhibits selectivity (note the absence of various individuals such as Seth and listings with multiples of seven) and shaping (note the presenting of family lines in such a way as to end with the person through whom God’s redemptive plan unfolds). Sources cited in Chronicles include the following:

• The genealogical records during the reigns of Jotham king of Judah and Jeroboam king of Israel (1 Chr 5:17)

• The genealogies recorded in the book of the kings of Israel and Judah (1 Chr 9:1)

• The book of the annals of King David (1 Chr 27:24)

• The records of Samuel the seer (1 Chr 29:29)

• The records of Nathan the prophet (1 Chr 29:29; 2 Chr 9:29)

• The records of Gad the seer (1 Chr 29:29)

• The prophecy of Ahijah the Shilonite (2 Chr 9:29)

• The visions of Iddo the seer (2 Chr 9:29)

• The records of Shemaiah the prophet and of Iddo the seer that deal with genealogies (2 Chr 12:15)

• The annotations of the prophet Iddo (2 Chr 13:22)

• The book of the kings of Judah and Israel (2 Chr 16:11; 25:26; 28:26; 32:32)

• The annals of Jehu son of Hanani (2 Chr 20:34)

• The book of the kings of Israel (2 Chr 20:34)

• The annotations on the book of the kings (2 Chr 24:27)

• The book of the kings of Israel and Judah (2 Chr 27:7; 35:27; 36:8)

• The words of David and of Asaph the seer (2 Chr 29:30)

• The annals of the kings of Israel (2 Chr 33:18)

• The records of the seers (2 Chr 33:19)

• The instructions written by David king of Israel and by his son Solomon (2 Chr 35:4)

Many of the sources have a prophetic connection, reflecting the role of the prophet in declaring God’s truth and mediating the covenant between God and Israel.

Themes and Theology

The central theme of Chronicles is covenant hope and possibility based in God’s faithfulness.

Chronicles tells the story of all Israel through the lens of the Davidic promise and the Jerusalem temple. A theology of covenantal hope and possibility guides the selection, shaping, and structure of the Chronicler’s message. With this in mind, commentators frequently stress the Chronicler’s tendency to cover the history of Judah from a positive light. While this positive orientation is true to an extent, given the Chronicler’s focus on covenantal hope, this perspective can be overstated as Chronicles includes significant instances of covenantal unfaithfulness (cf. 1 Chr 15:13; 21:7; 2 Chr 16; 19:1–3; 20:37). The Chronicler’s emphasis on the “good days” of Judah is consistent with his intent of spurring hope and covenantal faithfulness, while his presentation of the shortcomings of people and leaders ensures that the focus of his audience is on God, not man.

The very different context of Chronicles from that of Samuel-Kings should be kept in mind. The account of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah in Samuel and Kings addresses the questions of those in exile who had experienced the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple, the removal of a Davidic ruler, and exile. Chronicles, however, addresses the postexilic community and reminds them of their heritage as God’s people and the meaning of God’s promises for them, notably the hope of the restoration of the Davidic monarchy as God’s people seek him in prayer, humility, and obedience (e.g., 1 Chr 17:3–14; 2 Chr 7:12–22). The account of Manasseh highlights this hope of restoration.

For the Chronicler, the Levitical priesthood and the Davidic monarchy operate in tandem. The Chronicler’s extended presentation of the Jerusalem temple is intertwined with the Chronicler’s extended treatment of David and Solomon. As the temple had been rebuilt by the Chronicler’s time, the Chronicler lays out the possibility and hope that the Davidic dynasty will be restored as well.

The Chronicler’s stress on the Davidic covenant (1 Chr 17; 2 Sam 7) is reflected in the accounts of David and Solomon, which occupy 28 out of the 65 chapters of 1-2 Chronicles. The Davidic covenant focuses on David’s son Solomon as ruler and temple builder (2 Chr 6:6–10) but also transcends a human king. The Aaronic priestly covenant (Num 25:10–13; Mal 2:4–7) is connected to the Mosaic covenant and focuses on the role of the priests in mediating reconciliation between God and people and teaching God’s people all the decrees the Lord had given them (cf. 1 Chr 6; 16; 24–26). Idealized depictions of Judahite kings such as David, Solomon, Asa, Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah, and Josiah function as a literary-theological means of hope for the coming of a promised son of David who would reign in Jerusalem. This ideal leader would embody truth and righteousness (Deut 17:14–20). For Christian readers of Chronicles, this hope has ultimate fulfillment in Jesus Christ, the Son of God and descendant of David, who embodied divine presence and perfect righteousness and in grace and love brought about reconciliation between God and humankind that is open to all peoples of the earth and whose authority will culminate in an everlasting kingdom.

The centrality of reconciliation and divine presence in the spiritual vibrancy and covenant fidelity of Israel is seen in the extended treatment of the Jerusalem temple. The importance of a temple relates to the notion of sacred space—a place where the human realm could intersect with the divine realm and facilitate atonement, divine presence, and blessing. The careful attention to the design of the temple and stipulations pertaining to the temple reflects the importance of properly respecting God’s holiness. In short, building a temple for the Lord is a spiritual exercise as much as it is a building enterprise (1 Chr 22:11–13). The essence of Solomon’s temple dedication prayer (2 Chr 6:12–42) is that God hear the prayers of the people (both Israelites and foreigners). Prayer and repentance are central to the Chronicler’s message of true spirituality. Grace, forgiveness, and reconciliation are the focus of the Jerusalem temple (where the shedding of blood for sin would take place). As the episode of Manasseh shows, there is no limit to divine grace (2 Chr 33:12–13).

Repeated exhortations to be strong and courageous remind readers/hearers of the same words spoken to Joshua (Josh 1:5–9). Being strong and courageous is based on God’s presence, a reality greater than any challenge an individual might face. Exhortations to devote heart and soul to seeking God are inseparably connected with obedience to God’s word (1 Chr 22:17–19; 2 Chr 14:4; cf. the words of Christ in John 15:10, 14). God’s presence enables such obedience. Reminders of God’s faithfulness encourage leaders and people that God will complete the good work he has begun in the covenantal life of Israel. Conversely, the fundamental issue behind covenantal unfaithfulness is lack of setting one’s heart to seek God. For Israel’s leaders, the distinction of whether or not a king sets his heart on seeking God establishes the trajectory of that king’s reign.

Lastly, the Chronicler is careful to emphasize that deeper internal issues such as faithfulness, obedience, and personal purity must coincide with external acts of worship. The core of God’s revealed will through the Sinaitic/Mosaic covenant (Exod 19–20; Lev 26; Deut 28) taught what was pleasing to God within the context of the Israelite covenant community and was based in loving God with all one’s heart (Deut 6:5) and one’s neighbor as oneself (Lev 19:18). The Chronicler repeatedly focuses on God and his covenantal faithfulness and reconciling nature. Even God’s chastening has a teaching function (“teach them the right way to live,” 2 Chr 6:27) as well as a sanctifying function (“so that they will fear you and walk in obedience to you,” 2 Chr 6:31). This perspective makes the tone of Chronicles didactic, almost sermonic, in its literary style and presentation. The final sentence of the Chronicler’s work (“you may go up,” 2 Chr 36:23) leaves the audience with anticipation of what might happen next and the realization that they (the Chronicler’s audience) are the ones who will finish this story. Thus, the Chronicler ends his work with a message of the hope and possibility that comes with covenantal faithfulness (Jer 29:11–13).

Outline

I. Genealogies: From Adam to Saul (1 Chr 1:1—9:44)

A. From Adam to the Sons of Israel (1:1—2:2)

B. The Tribes of Israel (2:3—7:40)

1. Judah (2:3—4:23)

2. Simeon (4:24–43)

3. The Transjordan Tribes (5:1–26)

a. Reuben (5:1–10)

b. Gad (5:11–22)

c. Manasseh (5:23–26)

4. Levi (6:1–81)

5. The Northern Tribes (7:1–40)

a. Issachar (7:1–5)

b. Benjamin (7:6–12)

c. Naphtali (7:13)

d. Manasseh (7:14–19)

e. Ephraim (7:20–29)

f. Asher (7:30–40)

C. The Genealogy of Saul the Benjamite (8:1–40)

D. Genealogical Summary (9:1)

E. Postexilic Resettlement in Jerusalem (9:2–34)

F. The Genealogy of Saul (9:35–44)

II. The Decline of Saul and the Rise of David (10:1–14)

III. The Reign of David (11:1—29:30)

A. David’s Enthronement and Consolidation of Power (11:1—12:40)

B. Return of the Ark of the Covenant (13:1—16:43)

C. The Davidic Covenant (17:1–27)

D. David’s Military Victories and Regional Power (18:1—20:8)

E. David’s Census and Selection of the Temple Site (21:1—22:1)

F. David’s Temple Preparations and Leadership Transfer (22:2—29:30)

IV. The Reign of Solomon and the Construction of the Temple (2 Chr 1:1—9:31)

A. Solomon’s Wisdom, Wealth, and Power (1:1–17)

B. Construction and Dedication of the Jerusalem Temple (2:1—7:22)

C. Solomon’s Other Activities (8:1–18)

D. The Queen of Sheba Visits Solomon (9:1–12)

E. Solomon’s Splendor (9:13–28)

F. Solomon’s Death (9:29–31)

V. The Divided Monarchy (10:1—36:19)

A. The Reign of Rehoboam and the Division of the Kingdom (10:1—12:16)

B. Abijah King of Judah (13:1—14:1)

C. Asa King of Judah (14:2—16:14)

D. Jehoshaphat King of Judah (17:1—21:3)

E. Jehoram King of Judah (21:4–20)

F. Ahaziah King of Judah (22:1–9)

G. The Coup and Rule of Queen Athaliah (22:10—23:21)

H. Joash King of Judah (24:1–27)

I. Amaziah King of Judah (25:1–28)

J. Uzziah King of Judah (26:1–23)

K. Jotham King of Judah (27:1–9)

L. Ahaz King of Judah (28:1–27)

M. The Reign of Hezekiah (29:1—32:33)

1. Hezekiah Purifies the Temple (29:1–36)

2. Hezekiah Celebrates the Passover (30:1—31:1)

3. Contributions for Worship (31:2–21)

4. Sennacherib Threatens Jerusalem (32:1–23)

5. Hezekiah’s Pride, Success, and Death (32:24–33)

N. Manasseh King of Judah (33:1–20)

O. Amon King of Judah (33:21–25)

P. The Reign of Josiah (34:1—36:1)

1. Josiah’s Reforms and the Discovery of the Book of the Law (34:1–33)

2. Josiah Celebrates the Passover (35:1–19)

3. Josiah’s Confrontation With Pharaoh Necho and Death (35:20—36:1)

Q. Jehoahaz King of Judah (36:2–4)

R. Jehoiakim King of Judah (36:5–8)

S. Jehoiachin King of Judah (36:9–10)

T. The Reign of Zedekiah and the Fall of Jerusalem (36:11–19)

VI. The Exilic Period (36:20–21)

VII. The Decree of Cyrus (36:22–23)