Introduction to

Revelation

Author

The author of Revelation introduces himself as John (1:4), God’s “servant” (1:1), “your brother and companion in the suffering and kingdom and patient endurance that are ours in Jesus” (1:9). John receives divine visions and instruction “in the Spirit” and writes as an authoritative prophet in the tradition of the OT prophets (1:10–11). His message concerning the “revelation from Jesus Christ” (1:1) is “trustworthy and true” (21:5; 22:6), and we should read, hear, and heed it (1:3).

John is evidently a Jewish Christian leader who is saturated in the Scriptures and who is known to the seven churches in Asia Minor (1:4). He writes from exile on Patmos (see 1:9 and note). Despite some differences in literary style and theological emphasis between Revelation and the fourth Gospel (differences first noted by Dionysius in the third century), early witnesses such as Justin, Irenaeus, and Polycarp correctly understand that John the apostle wrote both books.

Recipients

John writes Revelation to seven historical churches located in the Roman province of Asia, in modern Turkey (1:4, 11; 22:16). The order in which he addresses these churches is the order a messenger from Patmos would travel as he made his way around Asia Minor on a circular route (see map). Through John’s prophetic pen, the risen Christ addresses the specific circumstances of these first-century churches as they face persecution, false teaching, and spiritual complacency and compromise (chs. 2–3). Two factors suggest that these seven churches represent the universal church. First, each message includes the refrain “Whoever has ears, let them hear what the Spirit says to the churches” (2:7, 11, 17, 29; 3:6, 13, 22; emphasis added; cf. 22:16). Second, John writes to only seven churches, though many others existed in Asia Minor. Elsewhere the number seven symbolizes wholeness or fullness (see “Sevens in Revelation”). Thus, John addresses seven historical churches and, by extension, the universal church, so that believers in every place and time should heed the book’s testimony concerning the climax of prophecy. As the Muratorian Fragment (ca. AD 170) asserts, “John . . . though he writes to seven churches, nevertheless speaks to all” (lines 57–60).

Date

Ancient and modern interpreters have typically dated Revelation to the reigns of Nero (AD 54–68) or Domitian (81–96). Those preferring an earlier date (68–69) appeal particularly to 17:10 and identify the five “fallen” kings as Julius Caesar, Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius and the one who “is” as Nero. They often interpret 11:1–2 as predicting that Rome will destroy the temple in AD 70 and take 13:3 as referring to a popular legend about Nero’s return that circulated after his death.

Most interpreters date Revelation to AD 95–96, following Irenaeus’s statement that John received his vision “towards the end of Domitian’s reign” (Against Heresies, 5.30.3). John addresses Christians in Asia Minor who were facing pressure to participate in Roman religious practices, particularly emperor worship (13:4, 15–16). According to the Roman historian Suetonius (ca. AD 69–122), Domitian insisted on being called “our lord and god” (Life of Domitian, 13), and each of Revelation’s seven cities became official centers for emperor worship by the late first and early second centuries. The testimony of the early church and the situation reflected in the book suggest that John most likely wrote Revelation in AD 95–96 (see notes on 2:13; 13:1, 14).

Genre

Many readers struggle with or misinterpret Revelation because they misunderstand its literary genre. The initial verses indicate that this work belongs to three kinds of ancient literature: apocalypse, prophecy, and epistle, each of which is important for considering the sort of book Revelation is and how we should interpret it.

Apocalypse

The opening phrase, “the revelation [Greek apokalypsis] from Jesus Christ,” suggests that Revelation shares characteristics of Jewish and Christian writings that scholars call apocalypses. Apocalypses feature revelatory visions within a narrative framework; utilize symbolic, figurative, and metaphoric language; and interpret present, earthly circumstances in light of supernatural, heavenly realities and the future. Like portions of Isaiah, Ezekiel, and especially Daniel and unlike some extrabiblical Jewish apocalypses, John’s apocalyptic visions are a vehicle for revealing God’s ultimate purposes in judgment and salvation.

Prophecy

Additionally, Revelation is a book of prophecy intended for public reading during Christian worship (1:3; cf. 22:7, 10, 18–19). Revelation is the climax of all the prophecies in the Bible. John announces that Jesus has fulfilled, is fulfilling, and will one day consummate all earlier prophecies by triumphing as the suffering, conquering King (10:7; 22:6). Like true OT prophets (1 Kgs 18:12; Ezek 3:12; 37:1), John receives divine revelation “in the Spirit” (1:10–11; 4:2; 17:3; 21:10) and writes what he sees and hears (1:10–11, 19; Jer 30:2; Hab 2:2). John’s commission to prophesy resembles Ezekiel’s (cf. 10:9–11 with Ezek 2:8—3:3).

Epistle

Finally, 1:4–6 follows the usual form of NT letter openings: author (“John”), recipients (“to the seven churches”), greeting (“grace and peace”; cf. 1 Thess 1:1). The book closes with a “grace” benediction virtually identical to those concluding many NT letters (see 22:21 and note). This epistolary form allowed John to address Revelation to his first readers’ situation and facilitated the book’s public reading in corporate worship.

Conclusion

Revelation seems to be an apocalyptic prophecy in the form of a circular letter. While chs. 2–3 are commonly called “letters,” these chapters contain prophetic messages for each church that are included within one circular letter distributed to all.

Interpreting Symbolism

Rev 1:1 alludes to Dan 2:28–30, where God reveals to Daniel the interpretation of Nebuchadnezzar’s dream. The Greek word sēmainō (“made . . . known,” 1:1; cf. Dan 2:30 in the Septuagint, the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT) can mean “signify” or “communicate by symbols.” Revelation’s symbolic visions function like parables to encourage and exhort John’s readers and transform how they perceive the world.

Virtually all of Revelation’s symbolic language alludes to the OT, and many symbols also occur in Jewish apocalyptic literature. Although Revelation rarely quotes Scripture directly, no other NT book is more saturated with the OT. Frequently John introduces a symbol with OT background, interprets that symbol for the readers, and then reintroduces that symbol later in the book (see “Self-Interpreted Symbols in Revelation”).

For example, John sees the seven golden lampstands (1:12), an image with rich OT associations. A golden lampstand with seven lamps was constructed for the tabernacle (Exod 25:31–40), and then ten lampstands were set in Israel’s temple (2 Chr 4:7). Later, Zechariah received a vision of a golden lampstand, highlighting Israel’s need for the Spirit’s presence and power (Zech 4:2–6). In 1:20, Jesus explains that “the seven lampstands are the seven churches” and he is present among the lampstands/churches (1:13; 2:1). Later John identifies the “two [prophetic] witnesses” as the “two lampstands” (11:3–4; cf. Zech 4:2, 11, 14). Jesus’ earlier designation of lampstands as churches (1:20) suggests a corporate identification of the two witnesses, though some interpret these figures as future individuals (see notes on 11:3, 4). Further, the association between lampstands and witnesses in 11:3–4 sheds light on 2:5: removing Ephesus’ lampstand may mean losing its identity as a church witnessing to Christ.

Images of Roman imperial power and pagan religion on coins, murals, statues, and temples regularly confronted John’s first readers. Sometimes Revelation recalls these popular Roman images and then prophetically recasts and critiques them. For example, the goddess Roma personified Rome’s vast power and was sometimes portrayed as a virtuous woman clothed in battle attire and reclining on Rome’s seven hills (cf. 17:9). John’s vision in ch. 17 transforms the dignified Roma into a debauched, bloodthirsty prostitute. The name “Babylon the Great” (17:5) associates Rome with Babylon, the violent, idolatrous nation that persecuted Israel and received God’s judgment (see note on 14:8). John’s satirical presentation moves readers to resist the temptation to compromise loyalty to Jesus for the pleasure and peace the world promises.

Theology

In Revelation, the one true God—the Creator, Sovereign, and Judge—has begun to execute and will consummate his end-time purposes to save his people and judge evil through Jesus, the slain Lamb, exalted Son of Man, and returning King. The opening salutation in 1:4–5 is implicitly Trinitarian, as John wishes grace and peace from God the Father, the divine Spirit, and Jesus (see note on 1:4).

The heavenly vision in 4:8–11 succinctly summarizes how Revelation portrays God the Father (cf. 1:6) as the one seated on the throne, signifying that God sovereignly rules without rivals (4:9; cf. Isa 6:1; Dan 4:34; 7:9). The living creatures declare that God is holy (three times), almighty, and eternal (4:8; cf. Isa 6:3), and the elders worship him as the Creator and Sustainer of all (4:11; cf. Job 40:10).

John’s vision in 5:5–14 is similarly foundational for how the book presents Jesus as Israel’s promised King (cf. Gen 49:9–10; Isa 11:1) who triumphs as the slain Lamb (5:5–6). The Lamb saves, forgives, and redeems God’s people (1:5; 5:9; 7:10) and will return as the conquering King (19:11–16; 22:7). The Lamb shares God’s throne (3:21; 22:1, 3) and thus executes God’s purposes in judgment and redemption (5:8; 6:1, 16; 7:10). Further, Jesus shares God’s name as “the Alpha and the Omega” (22:13; cf. 1:8 and note) and is worshiped together with God (5:13).

Revelation’s theological message is that God sovereignly rules now and will defeat evil, vindicate his suffering church, and consummate his kingdom.

Purpose

Revelation’s theological message challenges readers to repent of and resist worldly compromise, spiritual complacency, and false teaching (cf. 2:14–16, 20–23; 3:2–3, 15–19). It also encourages and strengthens believers to hold fast to their testimony about Jesus, steadfastly endure trials, and resiliently hope in God’s present and future reign (1:9; 2:10; 3:11; 12:17; 14:12; 22:7).

Interpretive Approaches

There are five major approaches to interpreting Revelation.

Preterist

Preterists hold that Revelation describes events that would “soon take place” for John and his first-century readers. For preterists, Babylon’s destruction (14:8) may refer to judgment on apostate Israel when Rome destroyed Jerusalem (AD 70) or on Rome when the empire fell in the fifth century. Some preterists allow for future fulfillment of some texts in the second coming of Christ, the final judgment, the resurrection, and the new heavens and new earth.

Futurist

Futurists typically interpret chs. 4–22 as referring to historical events in the distant future for John and the churches of Asia Minor, including a final crisis period followed by Jesus’ return to establish his kingdom on earth, judge evil, and usher in the new creation. Not all futurists agree as to how Revelation portrays the unfolding of future events. Dispensational futurists interpret chs. 6–19 as a prophecy of a literal seven-year tribulation after the church’s rapture. After the tribulation, God will fulfill his promises to bless Israel during a one-thousand-year period that does not directly pertain to the church (20:1–6). Historical premillennialists espouse a modified or moderate futurist position and hold that the church will pass through the final tribulation and will share in Christ’s future earthly rule during the millennium (see Millennial Views). Many futurist interpreters affirm key elements of preterism or idealism.

Historicist

Historicists interpret 6:1—20:6 as a prophetic outline of the major historical developments from John’s day (6:1) until Jesus’ return (19:11), often focusing on Western church history. There are many versions of historicism, though Protestant interpreters have sometimes connected the antichrist and Babylon to the Roman papacy. Few today follow a historicist interpretation of Revelation, though this approach has been very common at other points in church history.

Idealist

For idealists, Revelation symbolically depicts the ongoing conflict between the forces of God and of Satan throughout the church age. Idealists are reticent to identify John’s symbols with particular past or future historical events, though many idealists affirm that Jesus will return to establish his eternal kingdom in the new creation.

Eclecticism or Mixed View

Many readers argue for a mixed approach that combines key insights from futurism, preterism, and idealism. Preterists are probably correct that the whole book, not simply chs. 1–3, addresses the circumstances and concerns of John’s first-century readers. Idealists rightly affirm that Revelation has ongoing relevance throughout history and that John’s symbolic visions may have multiple fulfillments. Futurists correctly stress that Jesus will return to judge evil, save God’s people, and establish God’s everlasting kingdom.

Amid these many interpretive approaches, Revelation’s central message is clear: God sovereignly rules history and will complete his plans to judge and save through Jesus, the slain Lamb and returning King.

Millennial Views

The “millennium” is the thousand-year period in 20:1–6. From earliest times, orthodox Christian interpreters have been divided over the nature and timing of the millennium relative to Jesus’ second coming. In premillennialism, Jesus returns before his thousand-year reign on earth. In postmillennialism, Jesus returns after an earthly golden age. In amillennialism, the millennium is a symbolic time frame between Jesus’ ascension and his return, when deceased believers reign with Christ in heaven.

Premillennialism

Premillennialists believe that Jesus will return before (pre-) the millennium to defeat and destroy the beast and false prophet (19:11–21). Then Satan will be “bound” for a thousand years (20:2), during which time some believers (martyrs and perhaps others) will receive resurrection bodies and will reign with Christ on the earth over the descendants of those surviving the battle of Armageddon (20:4; cf. 16:16). In this view, Satan will be released after the thousand years to deceive the nations and assemble an army for battle; he will then be finally defeated and judged (20:7–10). Many premillennialists interpret the millennium to be precisely one thousand years, though some hold that the millennium symbolizes a long period of time.

Postmillennialism

Most historicist and preterist interpreters affirm postmillennialism and believe Jesus will return after (post-) a literal or symbolic millennium. Most modern postmillennialists (like amillennialists) understand a symbolic thousand-year period to be coextensive with the church age, while others understand the millennium to come at the end of the church age after the church’s gospel proclamation brings about the nations’ conversion and a golden age of God’s blessing. Then Satan will be temporarily released for a final assault on the church (20:7–9), after which Jesus returns to defeat his enemies (20:10; cf. 19:11–21).

Amillennialism

Idealists and some preterists and historicists view the millennium as a symbolic time frame between Jesus’ ascension and his return when deceased believers reign in heaven with Jesus. Amillennialism is sometimes called “inaugurated” or “realized millennialism” to clarify the nature and timing of the millennium. Amillennialists believe that Satan was bound through Jesus’ death and resurrection and is prevented from deceiving the nations and hindering the gospel’s spread during the church age (20:2–3; cf. Matt 12:28–29; John 12:31–32). At the end of this age, Satan will be released for a final onslaught against the church (20:7–9). Then Christ will return to judge his enemies, vindicate his people, and usher in the new creation.

Structure

Revelation has a clearly defined introduction (1:1–8) and conclusion (22:6–21) that share many verbal and thematic links (see “Links Between Revelation’s Introduction and Conclusion”).

The main body (1:9—22:5) is difficult to structure with precision. Some interpreters view 1:19 as indicating a threefold outline for the book: “what you have seen” (ch. 1), “what is now” (chs. 2–3), and “what will take place later” (chs. 4–22). Others make no attempt to outline the book on this basis, maintaining that there is a mixture of “now” and “later” throughout Revelation. Other readers argue that Revelation is structured in seven parallel sections or cycles: (1) Christ in the midst of the lampstands (1:1—3:22); (2) the vision of heaven and the seven seals (4:1—8:1); (3) the seven trumpets (8:2—11:19); (4) the persecuting dragon (12:1—14:20); (5) the seven bowls (15:1—16:21); (6) the fall of Babylon (17:1—19:21); the great consummation (20:1—22:21).

Revelation includes four series of sevens: churches (2:1—3:22), seals (6:1—8:1), trumpets (8:2—11:19), and plagues or bowls (15:1—16:21). John’s four visions “in the Spirit” (1:10; 4:2; 17:3; 21:10) serve as additional structural markers. John’s opening vision of Christ (1:9–20) is foundational for the messages to the churches (chs. 2–3). Likewise, John’s throne-room vision (chs. 4–5) initiates three judgment cycles: seven seals (6:1—8:1; cf. 5:5), trumpets (8:6—11:19; cf. 8:2), and bowls (15:1—16:21; cf. 5:8).

Outline

I. Introduction (1:1–8)

A. Prologue (1:1–3)

B. Greetings and Doxology (1:4–8)

II. Body (1:9—22:5)

A. Christ in the Midst of the Lampstands (1:9—3:22)

1. John’s Vision of Christ (1:9–20)

2. Prophetic Messages to the Seven Churches (2:1—3:22)

a. To the Church in Ephesus (2:1–7)

b. To the Church in Smyrna (2:8–11)

c. To the Church in Pergamum (2:12–17)

d. To the Church in Thyatira (2:18–29)

e. To the Church in Sardis (3:1–6)

f. To the Church in Philadelphia (3:7–13)

g. To the Church in Laodicea (3:14–22)

B. The Heavenly Throne Room and the Seals (4:1—8:5)

1. The Throne in Heaven (4:1–11)

2. The Scroll and the Lamb (5:1–14)

3. The Seals (6:1–17)

4. 144,000 Sealed (7:1–8)

5. The Great Multitude in White Robes (7:9–17)

6. The Seventh Seal and the Golden Censer (8:1–5)

C. The Seven Trumpets (8:6—11:19)

1. The Trumpets (8:6—9:21)

2. The Angel and the Little Scroll (10:1–11)

3. The Two Witnesses (11:1–14)

4. The Seventh Trumpet (11:15–19)

D. The Cosmic Conflict Between the Dragon and the Lamb (12:1—14:20)

1. The Woman and the Dragon (12:1–17)

2. The Beast out of the Sea (13:1–10)

3. The Beast out of the Earth (13:11–18)

4. The Lamb and the 144,000 (14:1–5)

5. The Three Angels (14:6–13)

6. Harvesting the Earth and Trampling the Winepress (14:14–20)

E. The Seven Bowls (15:1—16:21)

1. Seven Angels With Seven Plagues (15:1–8)

2. The Seven Bowls of God’s Wrath (16:1–21)

F. Destruction of Babylon, the Prostitute (17:1—19:10)

1. Babylon, the Prostitute on the Beast (17:1–18)

2. Lament Over Fallen Babylon (18:1–3)

3. Warning to Escape Babylon’s Judgment (18:4–8)

4. Threefold Woe Over Babylon’s Fall (18:9–20)

5. The Finality of Babylon’s Doom (18:21–24)

6. Threefold Hallelujah Over Babylon’s Fall (19:1–10)

G. The Final Victory, Judgment, and Restoration (19:11—21:8)

1. The Heavenly Warrior Defeats the Beast (19:11–21)

2. The Thousand Years (20:1–6)

3. The Judgment of Satan (20:7–10)

4. The Judgment of the Dead (20:11–15)

5. A New Heaven and a New Earth (21:1–8)

H. The New Jerusalem and God’s Glorious Presence (21:9—22:5)

1. The New Jerusalem, the Bride of the Lamb (21:9–27)

2. Eden Restored (22:1–5)

III. Conclusion (22:6–21)

A. John and the Angel (22:6–11)

B. Epilogue: Invitation and Warning (22:12–21)