1. Peter Burke’s introduction to Carlo Ginzburg, The Enigma of Piero: Piero della Francesca (London, 2000), 4.
2. See Ben-Zion Dinur’s comments in H. Shorer, ed. Ha-pogrom bi-Kishenev bi-melot 60 shanah (Tel Aviv, 1963), 243–259.
3. Serge Dmitreyevich Urussov, Memoirs of a Russian Governor (London, New York, 1908), 14.
4. On pogroms see Hans Rogger, Jewish Policies and Right-Wing Politics in Imperial Russia (Berkeley, CA, 1986), John D. Klier, Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882 (Cambridge, UK, 2011), and a thoughtful local study, Darius Staliuˉnas, Enemies for a Day: Antisemitism and Anti-Lithuanian Violence Under the Tsars (Budapest and New York, 2015). For comparative work see Donald L. Horowitz, The Deadly Ethnic Riot (Berkeley, CA, 2001), and Roger D. Petersen, Understanding Ethnic Violence: Fear, Hatred, and Resentment in Twentieth-Century Eastern Europe (Cambridge, UK, 2002).
5. Gur Alroey, Zionism Without Zion: The Jewish Territorial Organization and Its Conflicts with the Zionist Organization (Detroit, 2016); Jonathan Frankel, Prophecy and Politics: Socialism, Nationalism, and the Russian Jews, 1862–1917 (Cambridge, UK, 1981); Adam Rovner, In the Shadow of Zion: Promised Lands Before Israel (New York, 2014).
Chapter 1. Age of Pogroms
1. The Economist, November 22, 2014.
2. Bernard Malamud, “The Jewbird,” The Complete Stories (New York, 1997), 323; Carol Brightman, ed., Between Friends: The Correspondence of Hannah Arendt and Mary McCarthy, 1949–1975 (New York, 1995), 149; Woody Allen and Marshall Brickman, Annie Hall, directed by Woody Allen, 1977 (MGM Home Entertainment, January 24, 2012); Hugh Trevor-Roper to Bernard Berenson, in Richard Davenport-Hines, ed., Letters from Oxford (London, 2007), xxi; Ian Whitcomb, Irving Berlin and Ragtime America (Pompton Plains, NJ, 1988), 19.
3. Nekula Marek, Franz Kafka and His Prague Contexts (Prague, 2016), 208; Arthur Koestler, Thieves in the Night (London, 1947), 217.
4. Report of Kahan Commission Report (Jerusalem, 2012); New York Times, June 1, 1993; Homeland, season 6, episode 4, “A Flash of Light,” directed by Leili Linka Glatter (Bonanza 2017).
5. Malamud, “The Jewbird,” 323.
6. Leo Motzkin, ed., Die Judenpogromme in Russland (Leipzig and Cologne, 1910); Abraham Ascher, The Revolution of 1905: Authority Restored (Stanford, CA, 1992), 145–154; Lamed Shapiro, “The Cross,” in Leah Garrett, ed., The Cross and Other Stories, (New Haven, CT, 2007), 8.
7. Oleg Budnitskii, Russian Jews Between the Reds and the Whites, trans. Timothy J. Portice (Philadelphia, 2012).
8. Correspondence Respecting the Treatment of Jews in Russia, nos. 1–2, Papers, vol. 81 (London, 1882); Harold Frederic, The New Exodus: A Study of Israel in Russia (New York and London, 1892).
9. David G. Roskies, Against the Apocalypse: Responses to Catastrophe in Modern Jewish Culture (Cambridge, MA, 1984), 82–92; A. R. Malachi, “Pera’ot Kishinev be-aspaklaryat be-‘ivrit ve-yidish,” Al admat Bes’arabyah 3 (1963–1964), 64–98; Australian Jewish Historical Society 11 (1992): 821.
10. Benjamin Harshav, Language in Time of Revolution (Berkeley, CA, 1993), 4; K. Baedeker, Russland: Handbuch für Reisende (Leipzig, 1901), 31–40.
11. Steven J. Zipperstein, The Jews of Odessa: A Cultural History, 1794–1881 (Stanford, CA, 1986), 9–40; Rogger, Jewish Policies, 25–40.
12. Jeffrey Veidinger, Jewish Public Culture in the Late Russian Empire (Bloomington, 2009); Steven J. Zipperstein, “Inside Kishinev’s Pogrom: Hayyim Nahman Bialik, Michael Davitt, and Burdens of Truth,” in ChaeRan Freeze et al., eds., The Individual in History: Essays in Honor of Jehuda Reinharz (Waltham, MA, 2015), 376–382; Gregory Freidin, “Isaac Babel,” in George Stade, ed., European Writers: The Twentieth Century, vol. 2 (1885–1914), (New York, 1989), 1885–1914.
13. Steven J. Zipperstein, “Fateless: The Beilis Trial a Century Later,” Jewish Review of Books (Winter 2015).
14. John Moore, A Journey from London to Odessa (London, 1833), 69–70.
15. Ibid., 74–75, 87–88.
16. Times, December 7, 1903, reprinted in Jewish Chronicle, December 11, 1903; Sam Johnson, Pogroms, Peasants, Jews: Britain and Eastern Europe’s “Jewish Question,” 1867–1925 (New York, 2011), 85–88; Sam Johnson, “Use and Abuses: ‘Pogrom’ in the Anglo-American Imagination,” in Eugene M. Avrutin and Harriet Murav, eds., Jews in the East European Borderlands (Boston, 2012), 158–166. See also David Engel’s superb “What Is a Pogrom? European Jews in the Age of Violence,” in Jonathan Dekel-Chen et al., eds., Anti-Jewish Violence: Rethinking the Pogrom in Eastern Europe (Bloomington, 2011), 19–37.
17. Times, December 7, 1903.
18. Ibid.
19. Peter Steinfels, “Beliefs; A century ago, in what is now Chisinau, hundreds fell victim to a pogrom. Yesterday, a day of healing, Christians and Jews Remembered,” New York Times, May 30, 1998; Anita Shapira, Land and Power: The Zionist Resort to Force, 1881–1948, trans. William Templer (Stanford, CA, 1992), 34.
20. Anita Shapira, Yosef Haim Brenner: A Life, trans. Anthony Berris (Stanford, CA, 2015), 42; Forverts, May 10, 1903.
21. Edna Nahshon, ed., From the Ghetto to the Melting Pot: Israel Zangwill’s Jewish Plays (Detroit, 2006), 211.
22. Cyrus Adler, ed., The Voice of America on Kishineff (Philadelphia, 1904), xvii. On the Kishinev pogrom: Edward H. Judge, Easter in Kishinev: Anatomy of a Pogrom (New York, 1992) is a first-rate monograph without, however, the use of Hebrew or Yiddish-language sources. See also Monty Penkower, “The Kishinev Pogrom of 1903: A Turning-Point in Jewish History,” Modern Judaism 24, no. 3 (October 2004): 19–43; Kishinevskii pogrom, 1903 goda: Sbornik dokumentov i materialov (Chişinău, 2000); Heinz-Dietrich Löwe, The Tsars and Jews: Reaction and Anti-Semitism in Imperial Russia (Chur, Switzerland, 1993), 139–166.
23. New York American, May 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 1903; David Nasaw, The Chief: The Life of William Randolph Hearst (Boston, 2000), 163.
24. Frankel, Prophecy and Politics, 463–484; Yisrael Halperin, Sefer ha-gevurah: ‘antologyah historit-sifrutit (Tel Aviv, 1949–1950), vol. 3, 4–35.
25. Bund: Dokumenty i materialy (Moscow, 2010), 215–308; J. L. Keep, The Rise of Social Democracy in Russia (Oxford, 1963), 117–122; H. Shukman, “The Relations Between the Jewish Bund and the RSDRP, 1897–1903” (PhD diss., London University, 1961).
26. Yitshak Maor, Ha-tenuah ha-Tsiyonit be-rusyah (Jerusalem, 1973), 244.
27. James Boyland, Revolutionary Lives: Anna Strunsky and William English Walling (Amherst, MA, 1998), 136.
28. Edward H. Judge, Plehve: Repression and Reform in Imperial Russia, 1902–1904 (Syracuse, NY, 1983), 94–101.
29. See the excellent analysis of now-discredited explanations regarding the authorship of The Protocols by Michael Hagemeister, “ ‘The Antichrist as an Imminent Political Possibility’: Sergei Nilus and the Apocalyptic Reading of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion,” in Richard Landes and Steven T. Katz, eds., The Paranoid Apocalypse: A Hundred Year Retrospective on The Protocols of the Elders of Zion (New York, 2012), 79–91.
30. Bikher-velt 3–4 (1923), 241–242.
31. Chaim Weizmann, Trial and Error: The Autobiography of Chaim Weizmann (New York, 1949), 254, 343; Jehuda Reinharz, The Making of a Zionist Leader (Oxford, 1985), 149–152, 156–157.
32. Noam Chomsky, “Interview with Amy Goodman,” Democracy Now!, National Public Radio, January 13, 2014.
33. Ari Shavit, My Promised Land: The Triumph and Tragedy of Israel (New York, 2013), 102–104.
34. Ibid., 108.
35. Ibid., 131.
36. Ibid., 132.
37. A. I. Solzhenitsyn, Dvesti let vmesti (1795–1995), vol. 1 (Moscow, 2001), 321–338.
38. Steven J. Zipperstein, “Benjamin Netanyahu’s Favorite Poet—and Ours,” Forward, July 7, 2014.
39. Igor’ Petrovich Shornikov, “Obshchestvenno-politicheskaia i literaturnaya deiatelnost’ P. A. Krushevana” (PhD diss., Pridnestrovskii Gosudarstvennyi universitet im. T. G. Shevchenko, Tiraspol, 2011).
40. Forverts, April 28 and May 1, 1903.
41. “Why Netanyahu refuses to ‘turn the other cheek,’ in his response to the UN Vote,” Times of Israel, December 27, 2016.
42. Aleksandar Hemon, The Lazarus Project (New York, 2008),
Chapter 2. Town and Countryside
1. T. J. Binyon, Pushkin: A Biography (New York, 2002), 119.
2. Iulian Brescanr, “Karl Schmidt—Geschichte eines deutschen Humanisten aus Bessarabien,” Jahrbuch der Deutschen aus Bessarabien, vol. 64, 201–204.
3. New York Times, June 6, 1903.
4. Keith Hitchins, The Romanians, 1774–1866 (Oxford, 1996), 285–289.
5. Michael F. Hamm, “Kishinev: The Character and Development of a Tsarist Frontier Town,” Nationalities Papers 26, no. 1 (1998) 24–27. On the paucity of archival sources on Kishinev’s early years see V. I. Zhukov, Goroda Bessarabii, 1812–1861 (Moscow, 1964), 21.
6. Bessarabia: Handbook Prepared Under the Direction of the Historical Section of the Foreign Office, No. 51 (London, 1920), 4–5; Zhukov, Goroda Besarabii, 62; V. S. Zelenchuk, Naselenie Bessarabii i podnestrov’ia v XIX v. (Kishinev, 1979), 148–160.
7. Hamm, “Kishinev,” 22–23; Zhukov, Goroda Besarabii, 71, 98; George F. Jewsbury, The Russian Annexation of Bessarabia, 1774–1828 (New York, 1976), 7–54.
8. Bessarabia: Handbook, 36–38.
9. Y. Zlatova and V. Kotel’nikov, Across Moldova (Moscow, 1959), 26–27; Istoriia Kishineva (Kishinev, 1966), 83–87.
10. Bessarabia: Handbook, 30; S. Konstaninov, Kishinev: ekonomicheskii ocherk (Kishinev, 1966), 22–23.
11. Judge, Easter in Kishinev, 26–27; Bessarabia: Handbook, 30–32; Miriam Bernshtain and Yitshak Koren, eds., Sefer Bernshtain-Kogan (Tel Aviv, 1946), 101.
12. Shlomo Hillels, Har ha-keramim (Tel Aviv, 1930), 7–8, 16–17.
13. Ibid., 57–58.
14. Bessarabia: Handbook, 6; Urussov, Memoirs of a Russian Governor, 113–118.
15. Hamm, “Kishinev,” 25.
16. Bessarabia: Handbook, 28–29; Robert Edelman, Gentry Politics on the Eve of the Russian Revolution (New Brunswick, 1980), 34, 224; Rogger, Jewish Policies, 212–232.
17. Michael Davitt, Within the Pale: The True Story of the Anti-Semitic Persecutions in Russia (New York, 1903), 158–159; Istoriia Kishineva, 49, 101.
18. Zhukov, Goroda Bessarabii, 45.
19. Bessarabia: Handbook, 26–27; Konstaninov, Kishinev, 11–12.
20. Binyon, Pushkin, 123–124.
21. Ibid., 120.
22. Urussov, Memoirs of a Russian Governor, 13–14.
23. Istoriia Kisheneva, 49, 101; Judge, Easter in Kishinev, 20.
24. Michael Davitt, “Diary, Kishineff, 1903,” folder 6, Davitt Papers, Trinity College, Dublin.
25. Judge, Easter in Kishinev, 34–35; Urussov, Memoirs of a Russian Governor, 30–31; Davitt Diary, Ms. 9578, folder 16; Konstantin Korolev, Leninskaia v “Iskra” Kisheneve (Kishinev, 1970); Keep, The Rise of Social Democracy, 95.
26. Kishinevskii pogrom, 35.
27. Pavel Krushevan, Bessarabiia (Moscow, 1903), 7–40.
28. Urussov, Memoirs of a Russian Governor, 12–14.
29. Yaakov Goren, ed., ‘Eduyot nifga’e Kishenev, 1903: kefi she-nigbu ‘al-yede H. N. Byalik va-haverav (Tel Aviv, 1991), 82–160.
30. Davitt Diary, Ms. 9578, folder 11.
31. Wolf Moskovich, “Kishinev,” YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe (New Haven, CT, 2008). On Jewish population statistics, see Yitshak Koren, Yehude Kishinev (Tel Aviv, 1940), 17.
32. Yosef Arokh, Der tsen yor’riger kalendar’, 1901/2–1910/11 (Kishinev, 1901).
33. Information on Jewish occupations in the late 1880s can be found in Koren, Yehude Kishinev, 211–212.
34. Ibid.
35. Simon Geissbühler, Like Shells on a Shore: Synagogues and Jewish Cemeteries of Northern Moldavia (Bern, Switzerland, 2010).
36. Ibid., 28–32.
37. Koren, Yehude Kishinev, 165–202.
38. Yosef Rubin, ed., Dubossary: sefer zikaron (Tel Aviv, 1965).
39. A selection of documents on the Dubossary affair in the State Archive of the Russian Federation (GARF, f 102, 3) has been translated in ChaeRan Y. Freeze and Jay M. Harris, eds., Everyday Jewish Life in Imperial Russia: Select Documents (Waltham, MA, 2013), 536–550.
40. Ibid., 536–538.
Chapter 3. “Squalid Brawl in a Distant City”
1. The most detailed eyewitness account can be found in the transcript of Bialik’s interviews, ‘Eduyot, and the documentary volume Kishinevskii pogrom 1903 goda. For an edited version of the trial transcripts see Isidore Singer, Russia at the Bar of the American People (New York, 1904), 248–283. The reports of Pesach Averbach in the St. Petersburg Hebrew-language daily Ha-Zeman (Averbach would soon assist both Bialik and Davitt with their investigations) are particularly useful in their detail and likely the first published eye-witness descriptions of the massacre. See also S. M. Dubnov and G. Ia. Krasnyi-Admoni, eds., Materialy dlia istorii antievreiskikh pogromov v Rossii, vol 1 (Petrograd and Moscow, 1919); M. B. Slutskii, V skorbnye dni (Kishinev, 1930); A. Beilin, Der Kishinyever pogrom (Warsaw, 1932); and Judge, Easter in Kishinev, 107–133.
2. G. A. Pronin’s court testimony, April 29, Kishinevskii pogrom, 262–263; Singer, Russia at the Bar, 249.
3. Dubnov and Krasnyi-Admoni, Materialy dlia istorii, vol 1, 210; Judge, Easter in Kishinev, 49.
4. Singer, Russia at the Bar, 10; Times, April 25, 1903.
5. Ha-Zeman, April 10, 1903; Kishinevskii pogrom, 226–228; Singer, Russia at the Bar, 11, 16.
6. Judge, Easter in Kishinev, 50; Sefer Bernshtain-Kogan, 127; Sankt Petersburg Vedomosti, May 8, 1903.
7. Jewish Chronicle, May 8, 1903; Urussov, Memoirs of a Russian Governor, 45–49; Davitt, Within the Pale, 97–100; Singer, Russia at the Bar, 3: “One single man succeeded in making a break in these tolerable conditions [in Kishinev]. . . . To him mainly are due the horrors of the April days of 1903. Six years ago a journalist by the name of Kroushevan started in a newspaper . . . .”
8. ‘Eduyot, 66; Davitt Diary, 9578, Davitt Papers, folder 17.
9. ‘Eduyot, 65–66; Ha-Zeman, April 14, 1903; Jewish Chronicle, December 16, 1903.
10. ‘Eduyot, 65; Motzkin, ed. Die Judenprogromme in Russland, vol. 2, 11; Ha-Zeman, April 10 and April 12, 1903.
11. ‘Eduyot, 65–66; Singer, Russia at the Bar, 252; Judge, Easter in Kishinev, 50.
12. Davitt, Within the Pale, 125; ‘Eduyot, 65–67.
13. Ibid., 76–78.
14. Singer, Russia at the Bar, 13; New York Times, August 13, 1903; Judge, Easter in Kishinev, 49.
15. Sankt Petersburg Vedomosti, May 8, 1903; New York American, May 17, 1903.
16. ‘Eduyot, 107.
17. Ibid., 110; Davitt, Within the Pale, 118.
18. ‘Eduyot, 87.
19. Kishinevskii pogrom; Ha-Zeman, May 8, 1903.
20. ‘Eduyot, 98; Kol shire H. N. Byalik (Tel Aviv, 1956), 364. The best English translation is Atar Hadari, ed. and trans., Songs from Bialik: Selected Poems of Hayim Nahman Bialik (Syracuse, NY, 2000), 1.
21. ‘Eduyot, 99.
22. Ibid., 100–101.
23. See Singer, Russia at the Bar, 11–13.
24. ‘Eduyot, 69–72.
25. Ibid., 91–92.
26. V. H. C. Bosanquet and C. S. Smith, Dispatch from His Majesty’s Consul-General at Odessa, Forwarding a Report on the Riots at Kishinev (London, 1903). A summary was published in the New York Times on August 13, 1903.
27. ‘Eduyot, 100, 135.
28. Ibid., 133; Davitt Diary, Ms. 9578, folder 21, 1 v.
29. Davitt Diary, Ms. 9578, folder 19, r.
30. ‘Eduyot, 80–81; Michael Gluzman, “Pogrom and Gender: On Bialik’s Unheimlich,” Prooftexts 25 , nos. 1 and 2 (Winter-Spring 2005): 45–46.
31. Urussov, Memoirs of a Russian Governor, 147; Davitt Diary, Ms. 9578, folder 39.
32. V. G. Korolenko, “Dom No. 13-yi: epizod iz kishevskago pogroma” (Berlin, 1904).
33. ‘Eduyot, 82–83, 139.
34. Slutskii, V skorbnye dni, 35; ‘Eduyot, 85–93.
35. ‘Eduyot, 122–124.
36. Ibid., 131.
37. Ibid., 141.
38. Korolenko, “Dom No. 13-yi”; Slutskii, V skorbnye dni, 146.
39. Slutskii, V skorbnye dni, 146.
40. Urussov, Memoirs of a Russian Governor, 13.
41. Roskies, Against the Apocalypse, 84.
42. Halperin, Sefer ha-gevurah, vol. 3, 15.
43. ‘Eduyot, 159–160.
44. Ibid., 160–161.
45. Ibid.
46. Ibid., 76.
47. Boris Tarnopolsky, “The Gomel Pogrom of 1903: A Case Study in Russian-Jewish Relations in the Pale of Settlement” (MA thesis, University of Haifa, 2007).
48. Michael Stanislaswski, Zionism and the Fin de Siècle: Cosmopolitanism and Nationalism from Nordau to Jabotinsky (Berkeley, CA, 2001), 178–202.
49. ‘Eduyot, 92, 109–110.
50. Ibid., 93–94.
51. Pronin argued in an article published in Novoe Vremia on October 16, 1903, that Jewish aggression was the cause of the pogrom. It is reprinted in Kishenevskii pogrom, 148–150. Much the same charge was leveled by the procurator of the Odessa Chamber of Justice, ibid., 151–152, and the Kishinev chief of police, ibid., 216–221.
52. ‘Eduyot, 113–14, translated in Gluzman, “Pogrom and Gender,” 43–44.
53. Sefer Bernshtain-Kogan, 127–128,
54. I draw for my analysis from William C. Fuller Jr.’s excellent Civil-Military Conflict in Imperial Russia, 1881–1914 (Princeton, NJ, 1985), 109–110; see also Kishinevskii pogrom, 22–26, 224.
55. Fuller, Civil-Military Conflict, xviii.
56. Ibid., 77–98.
57. Urussov, Memoirs of a Russian Governor, 15–18; Judge, Easter in Kishinev, 46, 62–68.
58. Judge, Plehve, 96.
59. Times, May 6, 1903. For examples of how news of the Plehve letter now comes to dominate Jewish coverage of Kishinev, see Forverts, May 14 and 15, 1903, and Jewish Chronicle (London), May 29, 1903: “That the riots were pre-arranged down to the smallest detail there is no longer the slightest reason to doubt.” A detailed sketch of Plehve appeared in the Jewish Chronicle, June 5, 1903.
60. Times, May 6, 1903.
61. Judge, Easter in Kishinev, 120–133; A. A. Lopukhin, Otryvki iz vospominanii (Moscow, 1923), 15, 16.
62. Rogger, Jewish Policies, esp. 40–55 and 188–211.
63. Kishinevskii pogrom, 67–68, 121–134.
64. Singer, Russia at the Bar, 4–9; Urussov, Memoirs of a Russian Governor, 45–47.
Chapter 4. Burdens of Truth
1. New York Times, May 12, 1903.
2. Scott D. Seligman, “The Night New York’s Chinese Went Out for Jews: How a Chinatown Fundraiser Event for Pogrom Victims United Two Persecuted Peoples,” Forward, January 26, 2011; New York Tribune, November 19, 1903.
3. New York American, May 18, 1903; Adler, The Voice of America on Kishineff, 334.
4. Malachi, “Pera’ot Kishinev,” 24–64; Roskies, Against the Apocalypse, 83–86; Monty Penkower, “The Kishinev Pogrom of 1903,” 192–193; J. B. Weber, The Kishineff Massacre and Its Bearing upon the Question of Jewish Immigration into the United States (New York, 1903).
5. Frankel, Prophecy and Politics, 473–474.
6. New York Times, May 17, 1903.
7. Taylor Stults, “Roosevelt, Russian Persecution of Jews, and American Public Opinion,” Jewish Social Studies 33, no. 1 (1971): 15.
8. “Kishineff,” NCOF+p.v.344, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts.
9. Philip Ernest Schoenberg, “The American Reaction to the Kishinev Pogrom,” American Jewish Historical Quarterly 63 (March 1974): 264–265.
10. Mark Bornstein, The Colors of Zion: Blacks, Jews, and Irish from 1845 to 1945 (Cambridge, MA, 2011), 125; Lawrence Marley, Michael Davitt (Dublin, 2007), 256–259; Carla King, “Michael Davitt and the Kishinev Pogrom,” Irish Slavonic Studies 17 (1996): 19–44; Dermott Keogh, Jews in Twentieth-Century Ireland (Cork, 1998), 27–32.
11. Davitt Papers,” Ms. 9501/5296–5396; Jonathan D. Sarna, JPS: The Americanization of Jewish Culture, 1888–1988 (Philadelphia, 1989), 64, 69.
12. See Dan Miron, “Me’ir ha-haregah,” in Michael Gluzman, Hanan Hever, and Dan Miron, eds., Be-’ir ha-haregah ve-hala—bikur me’uhar (Tel Aviv, 2005), 154. Biographies in Hebrew and English have appeared, both written by Avner Holtzman: Hayyim Nahman Bialik (Jerusalem, 2009) and Hayim Nahman Bialik: Poet of Hebrew (New Haven, CT, 2017).
13. Miron, “Me’ir ha-haregah,” in Michael Gluzman et al., eds., Be-’ir ha-haregah ve hala—bikur me’uhar, 152–154; Moshe Ungerfeld, Byalik ve-sofre doro (Tel Aviv, 1974), 277. Perlman’s critical essay is reprinted in Gluzman et al., eds., Be’ir ha-hagirah, 181–187; on Davitt’s arrival in Kishinev, see Sefer Kogan-Bernshtain, 135–136.
14. Chaim Tchernowitz [Rav Tsa’ir], Masekhet zikhronot (New York, 1945), 116–125.
15. Steven J. Zipperstein, Elusive Prophet: Ahad Ha’am and the Origins of Zionism (Berkeley, CA, 1993), 21–66.
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid., 105–169.
18. Ibid., 195–199.
19. Ibid.
20. Holtzman, Hayyim Nahman Byalik, 74–130.
21. Steven J. Zipperstein, “Odessa,” YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, vol. 2 (New Haven, CT, 2008); Guido Hausman, Universität und städtische Gesellschaft in Odessa: 1865–1917 (Stuttgart, 1998).
22. Zipperstein, Elusive Prophet, 72–73.
23. Kol shire, 156; Atar Hadari, ed. and trans., Songs from Bialik: Selected Poems of Hayim Nahman Bialik (Syracuse, NY, 2000), 11; Dan Miron, The Prophetic Mode in Modern Hebrew Poetry and Other Essays on Modern Hebrew Literature (New Milford, CT, 2010), 91.
24. Robert M. Seltzer, Simon Dubnow’s “New Judaism”: Diaspora Nationalism and the World History of the Jews (Leiden, 2014), 133–226.
25. Yeruham Fishel Lachower, Byalik, vol. 2 (Tel Aviv, 1934–1935), 424–426; Kol shire, 158.
26. For the text of Bialik’s “Be’ir ha-harigah” see Kol shire, 364–376. An insightful analysis can be found in Alan Mintz, Hurban: Responses to Catastrophe in Hebrew Literature (New York, 1984), 141–154.
27. Pesach Averbach, “H. N. Byalik ve-‘ir ha-harigah,” in Ha-pogrom be-Kishinev, 28; Miron in Be-‘ir ha-haregah, 80–85; Holtzman, Bialik: Poet of Hebrew, 91.
28. Simon Dubnow, Kniga zhizni, vol. 2 (Riga, Latvia,1934), 240–243.
29. Ha-Zeman, April 10, 1903; Zipperstein, Elusive Prophet, 203–208; Eric Zakim, To Build and Be Built: Landscape, Literature, and the Construction of Zionist Identity (Philadelphia, 2006), 23–26.
30. Zipperstein, Elusive Prophet, 205–207.
31. Ibid., 203, 207.
32. Halperin, Sefer ha-gevurah, vol. 3, 17–20.
33. Ibid., 19.
34. Ibid., 19–20.
35. King, “Michael Davitt,” 10–60; Richard Ellmann, James Joyce (Oxford, 1982), 25.
36. Marley, Michael Davitt, 256–259. The banner headline above a photograph of Davitt in the New York American, May 15, 1903, reads: “I am going, resolved to find the truth.”
37. Michael Davitt, The Boer Fight for Freedom (New York, 1902), 28; Davitt, Within the Pale, ix, 89.
38. H. H. Hyndman, Further Reminiscences (London, 1912), 52.
39. Ibid., 55. On Hyndman’s views of Jews, see Colin Holmes, Anti-Semitism and British Society, 1876–1939 (London, 1979), 22, 69. I thank Bryan Cheyette for this reference.
40. Davitt, Within the Pale, 86–87, 91–93, 126–127, 199; Keogh, Jews in Twentieth-Century Ireland, 27–32.
41. Davitt, Within the Pale, 103–104, 111; Sefer Bernshtain-Kogan, 135–136.
42. Davitt Papers, Ms. 9578, Ms. 9501/5301; Davitt, Within the Pale, 17–27; King, “Michael Davitt,” 29–30. See Pesach Averbach’s obituary in Davar, April 4, 1945.
43. Davitt, Within the Pale, 101.
44. Gluzman, “Pogrom and Gender,” 39–59; Holtzman, Bialik: Poet of Hebrew, 92.
45. Gluzman, “Pogrom and Gender,” 50–54.
46. Ibid., 52.
47. Ziva Shamir, Li-netivah ha-ne’elam: ikvot parashat Ira Yan bi-yetsirat Byalik (Tel Aviv, 2000), esp. 7–50; Holtzman, Bialik: Poet of Hebrew, 92–112. The director of Beit Bialik, Moshe Ungerfeld, marked the ninetieth birthday of Manya Bialik in a commemorative article in Davar, December 31, 1965.
48. Lachower, Byalik, 442–443; Holtzman, Bialik: Poet of Hebrew, 96–97.
49. Lachower, Byalik, 442–443; Holtzman, Bialik: Poet of Hebrew, 104–105.
50. Ariel Hirschfeld, Kinor ‘arukh (Tel Aviv, 2011); Holtzman, Hayim Nahman Byalik, 116.
51. Ben-Zion Katz, Zikhronot (Tel Aviv, 1963–1964), 133–137.
52. Kol shire, 364; Hadari, Songs from Bialik, 1.
53. Miron, Be-‘ir ha-harigah, 103.
54. Kol shire, 365; Hadari, Songs from Bialik, 2.
55. Kol shire, 368; Hadari, Songs from Bialik, 4.
56. Kol shire, 370; Hadari, Songs from Bialik, 5.
57. Dan Miron, “Hayim Nahman Bialik’s Poetry: An Introduction to Songs from Bialik,” in Hadari, Songs From Bialik, 38.
58. “Listovka Odesskoi organizatsii bunda po povodu pogroma v Kishineve,” Kishinevskii pogrom 1903 goda, 60–62.
59. Kol shire, 367; Hadari, Songs from Bialik, 3.
60. Kol shire, 365–66; Hadari, Songs from Bialik, 3.
61. See, for example, Shlomo Dubinsky’s article on self-defense during the Kishinev pogrom in Ha’aretz, August 10, 1928.
62. Roskies, Against the Apocalypse, 89.
63. Michael Davitt Papers, Ms. 9577/5.
64. Ibid.
65. Ibid.
66. Ibid.
67. Ibid.; King, “Michael Davitt and the Kishinev Pogrom,” 30.
68. Davitt, Within the Pale, 170. On the impulses behind Bialik’s poem, see Olga Litvak’s provocative article, “The Post in Hell: H. N. Bialik and the Cultural Genealogy of the Kishinev Pogrom,” Jewish Studies Quarterly 12, no. 1 (2005): 101–128.
69. Moznayim 45, no. 1 (1967–1968).
70. Ungerfeld, Byialik ve-sofre doro, 277; Stanislawski, Zionism and the Fin de Siècle, 178–202; David Ben-Gurion, Mikhtavim (Tel Aviv, 1972), vol. 1, 127; Holtzman, Bialik: Poet of Hebrew, 84.
71. Y. T. Helman, As’arah perakim le-shire H. N. Byalik (Tel Aviv, 1953–1954), 13–48.
72. Tali Tadmor-Shimony, Shi’ur moledet: ha-hinukh ve-khinun medinah (Beersheba, 2011); Leora Y. Bilsky, “When Actor and Spectator Meet in the Courtroom: Reflections on Hannah Arendt’s Concept of Judgment,” History and Memory 8, no. 2 (Fall-Winter 1996): 137–173.
73. Al Ha-Mishmar, August 13, 1967; Di presse (Buenos Aires), August 4, 1976.
74. Ha-Hinukh, July 23, 1967.
Chapter 5. Sages of Zion,
Pavel Krushevan, and the Shadow of Kishinev
1. V. I. Lenin, “The Second Duma and the Second Revolutionary Wave,” in Lenin Collected Works, vol. 12 (Moscow, 1962), 113–118. Reference to Krushevan in Anna Shternshis and Psoy Korolenko, collectors and recorders, “Lost” Yiddish Songs of World War II (2017), was discovered recently by Moshe Beregovsky and his colleagues at the Kiev Cabinet for Jewish Culture. I thank Anna Shternshis of the University of Toronto for this information.
2. Benjamin W. Segel, A Lie and a Libel: The History of The Protocols of Zion, Richard S. Levy, trans. and ed. (Lincoln, NE, 1995); Norman Cohn, Warrant for Genocide: The Myth of the Jewish World-Conspiracy and the Protocols of the Elders of Zion (London, 1967), 108. See also Richard S. Levy, “Setting the Record Straight: Regarding The Protocols of the Elders of Zion: A Fool’s Errand,” in William Collins Donahue and Marthe B. Helfer, eds., Nexus: Essays in German Jewish Studies, vol. 2 (Rochester, NY, 2014), 43–62.
3. American Hebrew and Jewish Tribune, June 15, 1934.
4. Chemu uchit nas pokuyshchenie Pinkhusa Dasheshskago? (n.p., 1903); Ha-Zeman, June 13, 1903; Michael Hagemeister, Die “Protokolle der Weisen von Zion” vor Gericht (Zurich, 2017), 543. Biographical material on Krushevan may be found in GARF, Fond 102, Opis 231 (October 1903).
5. Michael Hagemeister, “Zur Frühgeschichte der Protokolle der Weisen von Zion, I: Im Reich der Legenden,” Die Fiction von der jüdischen Weltverschwörung (Göttingen, 2012), 140–160.
6. D. I. Storov, introductory essay in Pavel Krushevan, Znamia Rossii, ed. O. A. Platonov (Moscow, 2015), 5–60.
7. Ibid., 35–55.
8. Michael Hagemeister, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion: Between History and Fiction,” New German Critique 35 (2008); Cesare G. De Michelis, The Non-Existent Manuscript: A Study of the Protocols of the Sages of Zion (Lincoln, NE, 2001). The linguist Henryk Baran is at work on a comprehensive study of The Protocols.
9. Krushevan, Bessarabiia, and Krushevan, Delo Artabanova (reprint, Moscow, 1995); S. Reznik, Krovavaia karusel’ (Moscow, 1991); Umberto Eco, The Prague Cemetery (Boston, 2011), 192; Krushevan, Znamia Rossii; Urussov, Memoirs of a Russian Governor, 46.
10. Irving Howe and Ruth R. Wisse, eds., The Best of Sholem Aleichem (New York, 1979), 115–119.
11. Krushevan Papers, item 1, 1–5, now deposited at the Hoover Institution, Stanford, CA.
12. Ibid.
13. Mikhail Khazin, Kostiuzheny i vokrug (Boston, 2015), translated in Khazin, “The Forgery,” 6.
14. See the eulogy for Krushevan in Moskovskie Vedomosti 7, June 13, 1909; Urussov, Memoirs of a Russian Governor, 116.
15. Khazin, Kostiuzheny, 167–169; Krushevan Papers, item 29.
16. Krushevan’s nephew’s memoir manuscript in the Krushevan Papers; Khazin, Kostiuzheny, 158.
17. Ibid., 159–160.
18. Arkadii Mazur, Stranitsy istorii sorokskikh evreev (Chişinău, 1999); Zhukov, Goroda Bessarabii, 38.
19. American Hebrew and Jewish Tribune, June 14, 1934.
20. Rogger, Jewish Policies, 188–211.
21. “Sestra Krushevana—Evreika” appeared on December 21, 1933, probably in Novoe russkoe slovo; the longer, more fanciful version, translated from the Yiddish report in Forverts, appeared as “Krushevan’s Kin Now a Jewess: Sister of Infamous Instigator of Kishinev Pogroms (Here Interviewed) Does Penance for Him in Hebrew Prayers,” American Hebrew and Jewish Tribune, June 14, 1934.
22. Ibid.
23. Krushevan Papers, item 24.
24. P. A. Krushevan, Chto takoe Rossiia? putvyia zamietki (Moscow, 1896), 355.
25. Ibid., 356.
26. Ibid., 356–357.
27. Ibid., 357.
28. Ibid., 358.
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid., 359.
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid.
34. See the list of Bessarabets columns in Krushevan Papers, item 12.
35. Judge, Easter in Kishinev, 40.
36. Krushevan Papers, item 23; Urussov, Memoirs of a Russian Governor, 10.
37. Krushevan Papers, items 31, 33.
38. De Michelis, The Non-Existent Manuscript, 73–86.
39. Richard Landes and Steven T. Katz, eds., The Paranoid Apocalypse: A Hundred-Year Retrospective on The Protocols of the Elders of Zion (New York, 2012).
40. Michael Hagemeister, “ ‘The Anti-Christ as an Imminent Political Possibility’: Sergei Nilus and the Apocalyptical Reading of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion,” in Landes and Katz, The Paranoid Apocalypse, 79–91.
41. L. Wolf, The Jewish Bogey and the Forged Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion (London, 1920).
42. De Michelis, The Non-Existent Manuscript, 33–34.
43. Ibid., 23–45.
44. Michael Hagemeister, “The American Connection: Leslie Fry and the Protocols of the Elders of Zion,” 68; Marina Ciccarini et al., eds., Kessarevo Kesarju: Scritti in onore di Cesare G. De Michelis (Florence, 2014), 157–168.
45. De Michelis, The Non-Existent Manuscript, 2.
46. Ibid.,8–9.
47. Ibid., 65.
48. Ibid., 80–82.
49. The Russian text can be found reprinted in De Michelis, The Non-Existent Manuscript, 285–290.
50. Ibid.
51. Ibid.
52. Ibid.
53. Ibid., 369–370.
54. Ibid., 64–66; Yosi Goldshtain, Ben Tsiyonut medinit le-Tsiyonut ma’asit: ha-tenuah ha-Tsiyonit be-Rusyah be-reshitah (Jerusalem, 1991), 40–41, 98–99.
55. Khazin, Kostiuzheny, 157.
56. Mordekhai Nurock, Ve’idat Tsiyonei Rusyah be-Minsk (Jerusalem, 1963–1964); Moshe Cohen, “Ahad Ha’am bi-kenesyat Minsk,” Netivot 1 (1913): esp. 11–13.
57. Zipperstein, Elusive Prophet, 187–193; A. J. P. Taylor, introduction to John Reed, Ten Days That Shook the World (London, 1977), ix.
58. Maor, Ha-tenuah ha-tsiyonit, 149–161.
59. De Michelis, The Non-Existent Manuscript, 47–50, 113–114.
60. Tazkir Lopuhin: duah ha-mishtarah haha’it ha-Russit ‘al tenu’ah ha-Tsiyonit, 1897–1902 (Jerusalem, 1988), trans. Yael Ha-Russi, 133–154.
61. Ibid., 28–29. For a detailed description of Bernstein-Kogan’s Zionist activity, see Goldshtain, Ben Tsiyonut medinit, 30–40.
62. Sefer Bernshtain-Kogan, 79–92.
63. Ibid., 122–125.
64. Ibid., 127.
65. Ibid., 129.
66. Ibid., 131; Raphael Patai, ed., The Complete Diaries of Theodor Herzl (New York, 1960), 1526.
67. Davitt Papers, Ms. 95–1/5305; Sefer Bernshtain-Kogan, 136–137.
68. Khazin, Kostiuzheny, 166.
Chapter 6. Remains of the Day
1. David S. Foglesong, The American Mission and the “Evil Empire” (Cambridge, UK, 2007), 21.
2. Ibid., 21, 24–25.
3. Martin Miller, Kropotkin (Chicago, 1976), 160–173.
4. Christine Stansell, American Moderns: Bohemian New York and the Creation of the New Century (New York, 2000), 65.
5. Jonathan Kaufman, “Blacks and Jews: The Struggle in Cities,” Struggles in the Promised Land: Toward a History of Black-Jewish Relations (New York, 1997), 108; Charles L. Lumpkins, American Pogrom: The East St. Louis Riot and Black Politics (Athens, OH, 2008), 127.
6. W. C. Stiles, Out of Kishineff: The Duty of the American People to the Russian Jew (New York, 1903), 21. See the review in the Jewish Chronicle (London), July 24, 1903.
7. Foglesong, The American Mission, 28; Adler, The Voice of America on Kishineff, passim.
8. Valleri J. Hohman, Russian Culture and Theatrical Performance in America, 1891–1933 (New York, 2011), 41–45; Stansell, American Moderns, 123–125; Emma Goldman, Living My Life, vol. 1 (New York, 1931), 359, 369–370.
9. Hohman, Russian Culture, 40–48.
10. Stansell, American Moderns, 123–124; Goldman, Living My Life, vol. 1, 367.
11. E. N. Chirikov, Evrei (Munich, 1910); Christopher John Tooke, “The Representation of Jewish Women in Pre-Revolutionary Russia” (PhD diss., University College London, 2011), 114; Hohman, Russian Culture, 41.
12. Tooke, “The Representation,” 118–121; Goldman, Living My Life, vol. 1, 367; Stansell, American Moderns, 124.
13. Ibid., 125.
14. Broad Axe, June 20, 1903.
15. Cleveland Gazette, May 23, 1903.
16. Ibid., August 15, 1903.
17. Boyland, Revolutionary Lives; Leon Fink, Progressive Intellectuals and the Dilemmas of Democratic Commitment (Cambridge, MA, 1997), 114–146.
18. Ernest Poole’s essay in William English Walling: A Symposium (New York, 1938), 25; Earle Labor, Jack London: An American Life, 130.
19. Labor, Jack London, 146–147, 154–155.
20. Fink, Progressive Intellectuals, 122.
21. Walling (Anna Strunsky) Papers, Ms. 1111, Box 32, Folders 387–388, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library, New Haven, CT.
22. Mary White Ovington, “William English Walling,” Crisis, November 1936; Charles Elliot Kellogg, NAACP: A History of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (Baltimore, 1967), 12.
23. William English Walling, Russia’s Message: The True World Import of the Russian Revolution (New York, 1908), 46, 52, 56–58, 61–65.
24. Anna Strunsky Walling, The Homel Massacre: An Address Delivered Before the New York Section Council of Jewish Women (New York, 1914).
25. Walling (Anna Strunsky) Papers, Ms. 111, Box 32, Folders 387, 235, Yale University Library, New Haven, CT.
26. Boyland, Revolutionary Lives, 152.
27. William English Walling, “The Race Riot in the North,” The Independent, July–December 1908.
28. Ibid.
29. I thank David Fort Godshalk, author of Veiled Visions: The 1906 Atlanta Riot and the Reshaping of American Race Relations (Chapel Hill, 2005), for sharing his typescript “African Americans, American Jews, and the Pogroms: How Russian Ethnic Violence Transformed American Racial Politics Between 1903–1909.”
30. Walling, “The Race Riot.”
31. Mary White Ovington, How the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Began (New York, 1914), n.p.
32. Boyland, Revolutionary Lives, 156.
33. Kellogg, NAACP, 19.
34. Boyland, Revolutionary Lives, 159–160.
35. Strunsky Papers, File 387, n.p.
36. Aviva F. Taubenfeld, Rough Writing: Ethnic Authorship in Theodore Roosevelt’s America (New York, 2008), 16.
37. Nahshon, From the Ghetto to the Melting Pot, 363; Leftwich, Israel Zangwill, 256; Nathan Glazer and Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot: The Negroes, Puerto Ricans, Jews, Italian and Irish of New York City (Cambridge, MA, 1963), 289.
38. Alroey, Zionism Without Zion; Glazer and Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot, v.
39. Leftwich, Israel Zangwill (New York, 1957), 255.
40. Ezra Mendelsohn, On Modern Jewish Politics (New York, 1993), 18.