Index

Note: Figures are indicated by an italic ‘f’ following the page number.

Abaaoud, Abdelhamid  280–281
‘Abdu, Muhammad  550
Achaemenid state taxes, collection of  481–482
adultery  188, 208, 323–324
afterlife, retributive justice in the  330. See also death and afterlife
agriculture, economics of  476–477, 480
Akhenaten  22–23
Akitu (New Year’s) Festival  196
al-Albani, Nasir al-Din  550
Albertz, Rainer  97
Albrektsen, Bertil  96
Albright, William F.  96
alimentary sacrifice  75
almsgiving  543
Alt, Albrecht  95–96
altar of incense and censers  214–215
altars
construction of  493
design features  212–213
functions  213
as a link to heaven  166, 493, 527, 531
locations  213–214
replacement of  265
as sacred spaces  166–167
Amarna religion  22–23
ambiguity  130
‘amidah  417
amulets  399
Amun  24f
al-Amyuti, Ibn  551
Ancient Israelite Religion (Niditch)  97
Anglican Eucharist  530
aniconism  208–209, 219, 352–353
animal cults  33
animal sacrifice. See also burnt offering
for care and feeding of the gods  45, 74–76, 154
consumption of the  45, 74–75, 213
divination associated with  65
Greek ritual  74–75
Hittite ritual  45
Israeli ritual  154, 184, 187
location for  213
the offering person  187
participation requirements  184
a payment of vows  229
purchase of  479, 483
as ransom  226
religious power of  75
animal slaughter, Islamic ritual practices  6–7, 544–547
anthropology
conclusions  137–138
Hebrew Bible and  126
introduction  125–126
ritual theory and  126–127
symbolic interpretation, critiques of  134–136
anthropology, ritual in
defining and theorizing  127–128
representation and  128–130
as symbolic action  131–134
textual, ethnography of  136–137
antinomianism  115
Apollo  73–74, 76
apotropaic prayer texts  398
Aqhat  62–63
architecture, temples  26, 59–60, 151–152, 162–163, 170–172
ark, the  209–212, 218, 246, 247f, 350
Ark of the Covenant  244, 531
Artemis  73–74, 76
Asad, Talal  128, 135
Asherah  100–101
Ash Wednesday  535
Assyrian pantheon  11
Atenism  22–23
atonement  116, 120–122, 368
Atrahasīs, myth of  8
Avalos, Hector  323
Baal  56–59, 61, 65
Babel and Bible movement  93–94
Babylonia Job (Ludul bēl nēmeqi)  10–11
Babylonian Genesis (Enūma eliš)  10
Babylonian innovations  422
bad death, a  330–331
Baines, John  153
Balentine, Samuel E.  494
baptism
Christian  532
penitential  120
baptism ritual
artistic depictions  119
by full immersion  111–112, 113, 116, 118–122
developments of the  120–122
early church  117–119
Jewish vs. Islamic  499
places  121
repentance and atonement  116, 120–122
scriptural background  114–116
Barker, Margaret  379
Barr, James  96
Barth, Karl  468
bathing ritual  111–112, 119, 122, 306–308, 373, 401, 498
Beckman, Gary  38
Be’eri, Yeshayahu  515
Bell, Catherine  127, 367, 402
Ben-Amitai, Levi  514
Ben-Gurion, Aryeh  508
Bible, the Christian
in a digital age  268–269
divine origins, myths of  258
as an iconic book  264
legitimacy of  265
politicization of  265–268
portable  259
ritual image of  267
ritualizing through display  265, 266f
as ritual objects  263–264
rituals  264
biblical theology
conclusions  500
from ritual activity to  496–497
introduction  489–490
biblical theology, ritual in
to abbreviate and communicate complex concepts  492–493
community and  499
as integral to human existence  490–492
a medium of worship  494–495
biblical theology, ritual texts in
connecting testaments  497–498
convergence of  495–496
engendering ritual innovation  498–499
Biblical Theology Movement  96
binding spells  83
birkat ha-mazon  417–418
Blenkinsopp, J.  480
blessings
conferral of  386
ritual practices of  398–399
blood manipulation  290–294, 296, 298
Bloom, Paul  278
body politic  394, 395
body-self  394
Bomberg, Daniel  248
Book of Common Prayer (Anglican)  530, 532–533, 535
book-person blend  277–279, 281, 282
books
iconic  241–242
sacred  273–274
Bradshaw, Paul F.  526
Brand, Miryam  398
bread of the Presence  209, 214–216, 228
Brueggemann, W.  446, 448, 496
Buc, Philippe  127
burial  16, 204, 234, 277, 305
burial markers  218
burial rites and rituals  329, 374, 545, 550–551
Burke, Kenneth  129
Burkert, Walter  73, 74
burnt offering. See also animal sacrifice
accompaniments  225, 227, 230–231
altar of  212–214
for cleanliness  296–297
consumption by YHWH  226, 228
ending the plague  317
Hittite  44
Hurro-Luwian  45
meaning and usage  64, 155
necessity of  382, 453, 464
purposes of  226, 229
sacrificial ritual  225–226
transforming sacrifice  154
voluntary nature of  230
calves  351–352
Calvinism  265–266
Canaani, David  507
Canaanite Religion According to the Liturgical Texts of Ugarit (del Olmo Lete)  63
Canaanites  54–56
Catechism of the Catholic Church  525–529, 533–534
Catholicism
baptismal rite  532
Eucharist  525–528
temples and  175
Causse, Antonin  96
Chalmers, Aaron Jonathan  322
cherubim throne  209–210, 210f, 531
child cult participants  188
child sacrifice  65–66, 188
choral ritual  76
chorus, community and  73–74, 76
Christianity
Ash Wednesday  535
baptism  532
Great Vigil of Easter  535–536
introduction  523–524
offerings  532–533
Palm Sunday  535
prayers  524
priesthood  533–534
psalms  525
ritual and invariance in  536–537
ritual theory and use of Hebrew Bible worship  536–538
song in  524
temples and  175
Christianity, the Eucharist in
Anglican  530
Greek Orthodox  530–531
Lutheran  528–529
Presbyterian  529–530
Roman Catholic  525–528
Christian texts, ritualizing iconic
as American political images  265–268
by veneration  263
in a digital age  268–269
during the iconoclastic controversies  263–264
the early Christian book
technology of the  260–261
theology of the  258–259
examples of  257
icons as ritual objects  263–264
introduction  257
legitimation from  261–263
for personal use  262–263
the reformation and the ritual display  264–265
relic books  264
through
codices  259–261
oral dissemination  260–262
procession and enthronement  262
Christian worship, influence on early
…in all places  382–383
…and at all times  383
conclusion  390
holy days  389–390
imposition of hands  386–387
introduction  379
prayer posture  385–386
priesthood  380–381
psalms  387
ritual gestures  385–387
Sabbath  388
sacrifice  381–385
Chrysostom, John  262, 524
chthonic deities  28, 44
circumcision  132–133, 203, 394–395, 499, 532
cities, temples as center of urban  8
city cult/city-states, development of  8–9
civic festivals  78
clean and unclean concept
biblical use of  301
Israelite religion  99
power of ritual and  492
range of settings for  302–304
vocabulary  301–302
Clifford, R. J.  58
coinage production  475, 481, 482–483
Common Book of Worship (Presbyterian)  529
common space, ritualizing of  165
community
festivals  6, 78
individual and  81–83
Jewish, secularization of the  505–506
maat, responsibility to  24–25
purging of evil  460
purpose of the  5–6
ritual and  111, 494, 499
sacrifice and  74–75
social cohesiveness in  25
temple and  400–402
urban / kinship  8
community chorus  73–74, 76
complaint, community  438
complaint prayers  437–438
complaint psalms  433
conceptual blending theory  274–275, 277
confession of Baruch  403–405
Cosmos and History (Eliade)  196–198
covenants  372–373, 430
Crenshaw, J. L.  450
Cross, F. M.  58, 96
cultic personnel  103
cultic sin  318
cult images
Israelite religion  101–102
sacred spaces of  164–166
cult participants (lay people)
children  188
foreigners / non-Israelites  188–189
offering person  182, 186–187
women  187–188
cult places  5
cult prophets  186
cult sexuality  187–188
cult statues
in divine-human interactions  346
gods, care and feeding of the  78, 164–165, 208, 227–228, 346
ritual objects and artifacts  78, 164–165, 208–209, 212, 227–228, 346
robing and derobing rites  79
cultural anthropology  125, 129
Culture and Communication (Leach)  136
curses  83, 235, 323
David-Floyd, Robbie  128–129
Davies, Douglas  131–132
Day of Atonement
date of the  437
high priests ritual service of the  112, 121, 184, 191, 214, 231
non-sacrificial rituals of the  231–233
P’s narrative of the  298
rituals of the  493
sacred time of the  202–203
dead, the
animated existence of the  331–333
artistic depictions  242
cult of  26, 432
ghosts  332–333
impurity of  304–305
Islamic ritual practices  545
loss of memory of  330–332
material requirements of  25
‘ôb (revenant)  332–335, 341
prayer over  543
provisioning  26, 60, 228
death
a bad  330–331
the death after  330–331
double indemnity of  330–331
funerary cult, rituals of the  23, 26–27, 63
irreversibility of  328–329
Islamic ritual practices  545
magical cult of  14–16
Mesopotamian religion  14–16
the netherworld and  14–16
palace rituals, funerary and non-funerary  66
rituals of  204
witnesses to  329
death and afterlife
afterlife, retributive justice in the  330
deathly existence, nature of  331–332
introduction  327
necromantic rite in 1 Samuel 28  332–341
netherworld as consummation  330
reuniting with family lost  329
Sheol, concept of  328, 340–341
summary  341–343
debt and debt-slavery  477–478
dedications, Greek ritual  80–81
Delitsch, Friederick  93–94
del Olmo Lete, G.  63–65, 66
demons
characteristics of  12
exorcising  337, 398–399
ghosts and  13
impurity and  232–233
magic and  12, 235
netherworld  336
Old Testament  235
protecting the royal palace from  180
regard for  397
sickness and  312, 315
witches as  14
Dialectical Theology  95
disease  312–313. See also sickness
divination
garments associated  172
magic and  234–235
necromancy as  342
Old Testament  149
practices of  65
Urim and Thummin and  218
divination specialists  181
divine, the. See also YHWH
character, ethical aspects  447–448, 451
dwelling places of the  163–164, 345–346, 350, 356–358, 360
glory of  167, 355–357, 356f, 359
images of  101–102
powers of  5
divine absence
conclusions  359–360
describing  347–349
introduction  345–347
post-First Temple destruction  354
presence and, alternation in  346–347
divine absence, describing  348–349
divine anger, fear of  7
divine cult, ritual associated with  28–30
divine-human communication
covenant of  237
daily temple service for  152–153
dedications for  80–82
difficulties in  347–348
disturbances in  348–349
divine presence and absence in  345
face of god in  347–348
festivals for  77–79
personal gods as presupposition for the cultic communication  150–151
processions for  79
ritual and worship in  345, 352
sacred places  151–152
sacrifice for  74
sanctuaries enabling  359
standing stones in  349
divine-human interactions
cult statues in  346
I-Thou encounters  469
prayer in  224
relic texts for  264
spaces of  165–167
divine-human relationships
impediments to  226
ritual in  225
divine images  352–353. See also cult statues
divine presence
absence and, alternation with  346–347
conclusions  359–360
describing  347–348, 347–349
dwelling places of  163–164, 345–346, 350, 356–358
evoking the  78
experiencing  352–353, 355
in heaven  358
in the holy spirit  357–358
introduction  345–347
the name of YHWH as a mode for  354–355
post-exilic transfers  359
post-First Temple destruction  354
rematerializations of  359
shekhinah theology  357
Torah scrolls symbolizing  359
divine presence, manifestations of
ark  350
calves  351–352
divine images  352–353
Menorah  359
standing stones  349–350
temples  350
thrones  350–351, 354
domestic cult, politics of the  431–433
Douglas, Mary  97–98, 105, 113, 126, 128, 130–132, 133, 138, 155, 304–305
Durkheim, Émile  96, 126, 132
Dussaud, René  54
Easter  389–390, 535–536
economics of worship
ancient Egypt  31–32
coinage production  475, 481, 482–483
development in Israel and Judah  476–478
Hellenistic and Roman Judaea  483
introduction  473
Jerusalem Temple  479, 481–483
landownership  474, 476–478
metallurgy  479
money, genesis of  475–476, 479
palace economies  474, 476–478
pilgrimage festivals  482
temple foundry  482
tithes, collection of  475, 479, 481
transformation from late pre-exilic period onwards  480–481
economics of worship, temples
Achaemenid state taxes, collection of  481–482
importance to  474–478
materiality of the sacrificial cult  478–479
payments, standardization of  480
tithes, collection of  479, 481
Egypt
conclusions  33–34
culture, religion and  21
deities, festivals and rituals for the  30–31
divine cult, ritual associated with  28–30
funerary cult, rituals of the  26–27
gods, characteristics compared  146–147
gods and the king, worshipping the  27
offering rituals, hierarchy of  25
religion in, characteristics of  21–22
ritual and worship in  23–25
sacred spaces, creating  25–26
temple services  152–153
worship in
informal  32–33
social and economic impact of  31–32
Egyptian pantheon  22–23
Egyptian religion
characteristics of  21–22
transactional nature of  25
Eichorn, Albert  94
Eichrodt, Walter  95
Eilberg-Schwartz, Howard  132–134
Eissfeldt, Otto  95
Eliade, Mircea  196–198
emotion, ritual and  491–492
Engness, Ivan  96
entrance liturgies  449–450
entry ritual  403
ephod and urim and thummim  217–218
Epic of Gilgamesh  16–17
epidemics  317–319
ethics, Israelite religion  105
ethics of worship (in the Psalter)
acceptable worship, essence of  448–450
conclusions  456–457
God’s character, ethical aspects of   447–448, 451
Israelite practices  450–454
the moral life  445–447
retaliation, Israelites hunger for  454–456
Eucharist, the
Anglican  530
Greek Orthodox  530–531
Lutheran  528–529
Presbyterian  529–530
Roman Catholic  525–528
Eucharistic sacrifice  384–385, 526–529, 533
Evans-Pritchard, E. E.  463
Exodus  197
exorcism  11, 14, 337, 374
expiation  289–298
faith, Islamic testament of  541–542
family gods  11–12
family religion  431–433
fasting  543
Fauconnier, Gilles  274, 278
Feast of Tabernacles  389
fertility rituals  462
festival calendars  198
Festival of Booths  201–202
Festival of Unleavened Bread  199–200, 202, 390
Festival of Weeks  200–201
festivals
civic  78
community  6, 78
for divine-human communication  77–79
economics of  482
Greek ritual  77–79
Hittite religion  41–43
Israelite religion  103–104
Jerusalem Temple  199
pilgrimage  200–202, 439, 480, 482
purposes of  228, 439
sacrificial rituals, required  228
standing stones in  166
festivals of reversal  78
figured worlds  537
First Temple  170–171, 533
First Temple period  189
Fleischer, Ezra  400
Fohrer, Georg  96
folk practices, Islamic  548–549
food and drink, ritual Islamic  544, 547
foot-washing ritual  498
foreigners / non-Israelites  188–189
Frankfort, Henri  7–8
Frazer, James G.  126, 397
full immersion, baptism by  111–112, 113, 116, 118–122
funerary cult, rituals of the  23, 26–27, 63
funerary palace rituals  66
funerary practices  545
Gabler, Johann Philipp  94–95
Geertz, Clifford  128–129, 132
Gennep, A. van  70
Gerstenberger, Erhard S.  322
gestures, ritual  236
al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid  547
ghosts  12–13, 332–333
Gibson, J. C. L.  61
Gil-White, Francis  281
Girard, René  460
goddess worship  432
god drinking  45
gods
Assyrian pantheon  11
birthplaces of the  346
cultic encounters, models for  151–156
defined  148–149
dwelling places of the  25–26
Egyptian pantheon  22–23
festivals and rituals  30–31
Hittite pantheon  37–38
individual relationships with the  31–33
kings and the  25–29
Mesopotamian religiosity/religion  5–6, 9–11
offerings to, purpose of  28–30
oracular decisions of the  31
personal  11–12, 150–151
gods, care and feeding of the
amounts of food  32
cities requirement of  8
cult statues  78, 164–165, 208, 227–228, 346
divine consumption  170, 227–228
Egyptian  152–153
Hittite  41–45
Israelite  153–156
material requirement  25
Mesopotamia  152
Mesopotamian religiosity/religion  6–8
offering rituals  28–29, 29f
sacrifice for, animal and foods  45, 74–76, 154
temple employees needed for  32
gods, characteristics compared
Egypt  146–147
Greece  148
Hittite  147
Mesopotamia  145–146
Phoenicia  148
Syria (Ugarit)  147
Goldberg, Harvey E.  126
Goldstein, Elise  308
Gordon, Aharon David  510
Gorman, Frank  104, 131–132, 493
Gottwald, Norman  97
grain offerings  225, 227–228, 290–291
Great Vigil of Easter  535–536
Greece, ancient  69
Greek gods  70, 148
Greek Orthodox Eucharist  530–531
Greek ritual
basis of  72
changes in  72–73
community in  73–76, 81–83
dedications  80–81
defined  71–73
festivals, joy of  77–79
the individual in  81–83
introduction  69–71
myth and  73–74
occasions and types  69
processions  79–80
purposes of  71–72, 77
rites of passage  76
sacrifice, wealth of  74–75
sacrifice in  75
scholarship on  70–71
Greenberg, Moshe  224
Gregg, Robert C.  499
Gressmann, Hugo  94
Grimes, Ronald L.  127
guilt offerings  155, 229, 290–291, 296–297
Gunkel, Herrmann  94
hands, imposition of  386–387
Hareven, Shulamit  509
Harris, William  261
Hasel, Gerhard F.  497
Hayes, John  97, 131
healing. See also sickness and healing
imposition of hands  386
ritual options for  319–322
heaven
altar as a link to  166, 493, 527, 531
books of  246, 259
as divine  102
God’s temple in  369, 371
host of  101
orders of hosts and angels in  531
prayer rituals and  386, 415, 530
Queen of  101
rulers of  243
sacrifices of  382
seeking to reach  493
smoke arising to  187, 218
Storm-god of  37–38
the temple as a link to  217
YHWH’s residence in  358, 360
Heinemann, Joseph  400
hekhalot  421
Hellman, Anat  515
Hendel, Ronald  132
Henrich, Joseph  281
high places  103, 172–174
high priestess  53, 180, 229
high priesthood
control of the  191, 249–250
in early Christian worship  380–381
high priests
the annointed  236
assistants to  381
Christian prophets as  380
corpses and burials, restrictions on  234, 305
dwelling places of the  59
Eucharistic celebrations  531
garments of the  217–218, 234, 399
gender of  180
holy of holies, access to the  169, 184, 215, 303
homage and praise required  228–229
incense stopping the plague  214–215, 319
in Jerusalem  404–405
Jesus as the permanent  380–381, 385, 533–534
kings as  179, 190–191
Levant, historical development in the  190–191
office of the  190–191
post-exilic era  190, 249
reciting/reading sacred texts  234
ritual service of the Day of Atonement  112, 121, 184, 191, 214, 231
unintentional sins of, cleansing  291
Hinduism  102
historiolae  66
History of Religions
conclusions  105–106
discipline of  93–94
History of Religions School  94
History of the Religion of Israel (Alberts)  97
History of the Religions [sic] of Israel (Zevit)  97
Hittite archives  38–39
Hittite ceremonies  40, 41–42
Hittite culture/civilization  38
Hittite gods, characteristics of  147
Hittite pantheon  37–38
Hittite religion
ceremonies of the  41–46
officiants  40–41
research sources  38–40
sacrifice in the  40
Hittite sacrifices
location for  43
materials  43–44
occasions for  42–43
offering, the  43
offering technique  44–45
substitute or scapegoat rituals  46
types  44–45
vocabulary  46
Hodayot, the  371–372
Hoffmeier, James  23
holiness  401, 469
Holladay, William  525
Holland, Dorothy  537
Hollender, Elisabeth  499
holy/common concept  301, 492
holy days  103–104, 389–390
holy of holies
cult symbol  154
high priests access to the  169, 184, 214–215, 303
presence of the divine  151–152, 182, 214–215
purification requirements  303
Second Temple  211
holy/profane
biblical use of  301
vocabulary  301–302
holy spirit  357–358
homage, sacrificial  228–229
Hornung, Erik  22, 28–29
Hubert, Henri  75, 126
human existence, purpose of  37
human life, purpose of  5
Humfress, Caroline  262
Humphrey, Caroline  134, 137
Hurrian Sanctuary  60
Hus, John  528
Hyatt, J. P.  464
Ibn Rushd  549
iconic Muslim texts, ritualizing. See Qur’an, iconic dimension of the
icons as ritual objects  263–264
The Idea of the Holy (Otto)  98
idolatry  213, 219, 263, 308, 353, 451
idols of deities  101, 207–209, 218, 220, 352, 352–353, 466. See also cult statues
illness  313
immersion ritual  111–112, 113, 116, 118–122, 308
Implicit Meanings (Douglas)  97
incubation ritual  82
index, defined  135–136
individual
community and the  81–83
cult of the  11–16
infocopying  281
initiation, mystic  73
initiation rituals and rites
of adolescents  76, 82
baptism  111, 120, 532
choral  76
Judaism  499
laying on of hands  386–387
at Qumran  365–366
sacrifice in  229
Islam, temples and  175
Islamic ritual
activities included in  541
dress code and personal appearance  544
figures of authority  551
five pillars  541–544
food and drink  544
future directions for the study of  553
internal and external boundaries  552
religious-social dimensions  550–552
scholarly discussions of  552–553
Shi’i tradition  541
slaughter of animals  544–545
Sunni tradition  541, 543
Islamic ritual, variations in
folk practices  548–549
identifying the  545–546
interior and esoteric interpretations  547–548
rationalist approaches  549
reformist approaches  549–550
Shi’i differences  546–547, 551
Israelite and Judean History (Hayes & Miller)  97
Israelite religion, historical outline of
clean and unclean  99
cultic personnel  103
cult images  101–102
festivals  103–104
holy days  103–104
law and ethics  105
monotheism, developments toward  102
purity and pollution  99
religious specialists  103
the sacred and profane  98
sacred space  103
sacred time  103–104
sacrificial system  104
worship
objects of  99–101
places of  103
ritual of  104
Israelite religion, study of the history of
1970–2020  96–98
pre-WWI  94–95
WWI-1970  95–96
Jacobsen, Thorkild  5
Jains, Shvetamber  134
James, Wendy  127
Janzen, David  459, 466
Jay, Nancy  135–136
Jerusalem Temple
architecture  172
control of the  250
cult images in the  100–101
dedication of the  201
destruction and restoration  221, 245
divine presence  355, 357
economic importance  479–483
festivals at the  199
gifts to the  524, 538
Jews and the  175, 368
lampstand, the golden  216
post-exilic  473
Qumran rejection of  400
ritual services, Day of Atonement  112
rivals to the  439
sacred space  172–173, 175, 209
synagogues relation to  401, 413
tree-related iconography  216
validity of the  369
wash basins  216–217
worship in the  173, 209, 413, 462
Jesus  380–381, 385, 533–534
Jewish body, individual ritual and liturgical practices
apotropaic prayer texts  398
blessings  398–399
circumcision  394–395
daily prayer  399–400
magic  397–398
popular  397–399
Sabbaths as a temporal sanctuary   395–397
Jewish community, secularization of the  505–506
Jewish texts, ritualizing iconic
ancient  242
codex form for  248, 259–261
dimensions of  251f
Esther scrolls  249
haggadahs  248
iconic books  241–242
legitimation from  249–252
other  248–249
in the Pentateuch  243–244
Psalms  248
rabbinic bible  248
siddurs  248
summary  252–253
through
mortuary scrolls  242, 243f
myth in  243
portraiture  242
relic texts  244, 252
Torah scrolls  242, 244–252, 247f, 251f
jihad  545, 546
Johnson, Dru  490
Johnson, Maxwell E.  524, 526
Judaism, ritual and worship in early
emergence of  393
introduction  393
Jewish body, individual ritual and liturgical practices  394–400
liturgical body, the community and the temple  400–402
ritual innovation  402–405
suggested reading  405
justice  24–25, 83, 300
Kapelrud, A. S.  57
Keret  62–63
Kertzer, David I.  127–128, 130, 133
Key Concepts in Religion series (Stewart & Strathern)  127
Khonsu  29f
kibbutzim
background  505–507
conclusions  519
educating children about Shabbat  511–512
generational differences  509, 512, 516
Judaism and the  507–509
Kabbalat Shabbat ceremonies  510–519
privatization, changes post-  518–519
Sabbath candles, lighting the  516–518
Sabbath on the  509–510
kings
authority of  28
cult of the  25–27
cult specialists  103
duties of  23–27
the gods and the  25–29
high place removals  173–174
as high priests  40–41, 179, 190–191
legends or epics  62–63
memorial/funerary temple  26
ritual experts and participants  182, 186
roles and responsibilities  40–41
semi-divine status  25, 27, 103, 435–436
kingship, ideology of  434–437
kingship cult  434–437, 439
Klawans, Jonathan  133, 133–134
Kovner, Abba  508
Kugler, Robert A.  494
Laidlaw, John  134, 137
Lambert, W. G.  10
lamentations, Sumerian  7
lament psalms  433, 437
lampstand, the golden, a
landownership  474, 476–478
Langer, Suzanne  129
language, importance of liturgical  533, 536–537
Laum, B.  475
law and ethics  105
Leach, Edmund  131, 133, 136
leprosy  120–121, 232, 302–305, 313, 316, 318–323, 384
Levites/levitical priests
the exile  190
First Temple period  189
office of the High Priest  190–191
ritual experts and participants  185–187
Second Temple period  190
Leviticus as Literature (Douglas)  97, 133
Lévy-Brühl  96
Lewis, Gilbert  134–135, 137–138
life-force essentialism  278, 282
liturgy
Holy Week  535–536
practice and artifacts in the  538
Qumran, ritual and worship at  372–374
ritual and  536–537
A Liturgy for a Rite of Atonement for the People of Ugarit (Wyatt)  65
Luther, Martin  528, 532, 534
Lutheran Book of Worship  529
Lutheran Eucharist  528–529
ma’amad, custom of  412
Maat  23–24, 24f
Magen, Amnon  517
magic  234–235, 397–398
magical cult  11–16
magical texts  66
maiden choruses (partheneia)  76
Malinowksi, Bronislaw  125
Marduk  9–11
Marduk no.2 (prayer)  14–16
market fairs  77
marriage. See also women
priestly, to foreign women  250
a rite of passage  82, 203–204, 374, 490, 548
romantic  83
sacred  6, 31, 61
victim and corpse  13
Marx, Karl  475
Mason, Steve  395
Mauss, Marcel  75, 126
McKay, Heather  395–396
meals
communal  366, 369, 373
Eucharistic  384
kibbutzim  516–517
ritual  373
Meletz, David  513
Menorah  359
menstrual impurity  99, 276, 301–302, 304–305, 308, 542, 551
menstruation
male  137–138
purpose of  137
as sickness  313
Merlo, P.  64
Mesopotamia
cities in, birth and settlement of  7–8
gods, characteristics compared  145–146
temple services  152
Mesopotamian pantheon  9–11
Mesopotamian religion
basis of  5–8
Epic of Gilgamesh  16–17
magical cult  11–16
metallurgy  479
midrash  421–422
Milgrom, Jacob  229, 290–292, 297, 497
Millard, A. R.  55
Miller, J. Maxwell  97
mindful body  394
miniatures  81
Mitchell, Nathan  536
molten sea  217
money, genesis of  475–476, 479
monotheism  22–23, 102, 208
Moore, Roy  268
morality, biblical  267
the moral life, worship and the  445–447, 466–468
Morgan, David  267
mortuary art  242, 329
mortuary rites and rituals  13, 16, 63
mortuary scrolls  242, 243f
mosques  175, 542
mouth-washing ritual  6, 163
Mowinckel, Sigmund  96, 196
multivocality  130
myth
of divine origins  258
Greek ritual and  73–74
ritual and  109
in ritualizing iconic Jewish texts  243
mythical texts  243, 258
Nadel, Siegfried F.  127
Nam, R. S.  477
name theology  354–355
national religion and centralization  427–429
Natural Symbols (Douglas)  130, 133
nature, religion of  21
Nebuchadnessar I  10
necromantic rite in 1 Samuel 28  332–341
Neo-Assyrian empire  11
nepheš (life)  340–341
Nergal no.2 (prayer), 14–16
netherworld  12, 14–16, 328, 330–337, 340–341
netherworld deities  230
Niditch, Susan  97
non-sacrificial ritual activities. See also sacrificial rituals
divination  234–235
elimination  231–233
elimination of Azazel’s goat  232, 236
magic  234–235
performance, procession, lifestyle  233–234
purification rituals  231–233
sacred texts, reciting/reading  234
speech  234
Noth, Martin  95–96
al-Nu’man, al-Qadi  548
‘ôb (revenant)  332–335, 341
Ofaz, Gad  512
offering person  186–187
offering rituals  25–26, 28–30, 32, 34, 182. See also specific offerings
Olyan, Saul M.  133
1 Samuel 28, necromantic rite in  332–341
Opening of the Mouth ritual  32, 163
opening of the mouth ritual  208
Oppenheim, A. Leo  7
oracular decisions  31
otherness, God’s  469–471
Otto, R.  98, 471
palace economies  474, 476–478
palace rituals, funerary and non-funerary  66
Palm Sunday  535
Pan-Babylonianism  94
Pantheon lists  58–59
Pardee, D.  55–56, 63, 65, 66
Parsons, Talcott  128
Passover  197–199, 201–202, 389, 494, 498, 526, 535–536
Passover Haggadah  419, 507, 526
Passover sacrifice  433
Paul VI  526
Peirce, Charles Sanders  135–136
penitence  404, 465
penitential prayer  373, 404, 413, 438, 495
penitential rite  535
Penner, Jeremy  399
Pentateuchal texts  243–244
Pentecost  201, 389–390, 536
Peters, F. E.  259
Phoenicia  148
Phoenicians  55
piety, evidence of  60
pilgrimage
Catholic  161
early Iron Age  463
economic importance  480
First Temple period  189
Israelite  199–200
to Jerusalem  401, 412
Second Temple  307
pilgrimage (hajj)  543–544, 546, 550
pilgrimage festivals  200–202, 439, 480, 482
pillars  167, 172–174, 218–220
plague  314–317
Platvoet, Jan, 491
poetry, liturgical  421
poles, sacred  172–174, 218–220
polis-festivals  78
political rituals
belonging, expressing  430
communication  431
local to the national, relating the  430
organizational distinctiveness  430
power, investing and divesting  430–431
power relationships, constructing  429
politics, the Bible and  265–268
politics of worship
across cultures  461
between the family and the nation  433–434
domestic cult, politics of the  431–433
in identity development  439–440
introduction  427
kingship, ideology of  434–437
kinship (clan) relationships  433–434
national religion and centralization  427–429
sacrifice and its substitutes  437–440
portraiture  242
prayer
Christian  524
of complaint  437–438
confessional  403–405
daily  399–400
Eucharistic  525–531
failure of  224
at fixed hours  370–371, 383, 396, 400
Islamic ritual of  542, 550
magic and  397
of offering  533
over the dead  543
penitential  373, 404, 413, 438
personal  413–414
Qumran, ritual and worship at  370–371
rabbinic  413–419
ritual elements within  495
Sabbath  396
scripturalized  402, 404–405
Second Temple period  367, 398–399, 402, 413, 418, 438
supplicatory  418
without ceasing  383
prayer posture  385–386
Presbyterian baptism rite  532
Presbyterian Eucharist  529–530
prestige psychology  281
priesthood
of Christ  532–534
Christian worship, influence on early  380–381
hereditary  103, 180, 181–183
Levitical  534
Qumran, ritual and worship  367–370
priests. See also ritual experts and participants
cult specialists  103
in exile  190
First Temple period  189
healing by  320–322
hierarchy of  180, 182
numbers of  32
ordination ritual  493, 497
purification of  303
responsibilities of  183–185
profane time, sacred time vs.  196–197, 200
prophecy, worship and  464–466
Protestantism  265–268
Psalm 104  23
psalms
Ash Wednesday  535
Christian  387, 525
of complaint  433
Holy Week liturgies  535–536
of lament  433, 437
Qumran, ritual and worship  371–372
royal  435–438
Second Temple period  387, 412
psychological essentialism  275, 277–278
pure/impure concept  113–114, 301–302
purification
requirements for  307
rules governing Islamic  541, 546, 548
of the sanctuary  165, 202, 232
Temple function in  401
washing for  111–112, 119–122, 304–308, 373, 542
purification offerings  45, 214, 227, 229–231, 291, 295, 463
purification rituals
baptismal  115, 120
for the body  121, 232, 305
full immersion  121–122
high priests access to the holy of holies  303
Islamic  542, 546, 548, 552
language of  120–121
modes of  232, 305
for pollution  165
priestly  28, 182, 217, 303
requirements for  280, 296, 303–305
ritual baths  111–112, 119, 122, 306–308, 373, 401, 498
sacrifice and  292
spaces of  165
washing  111–112, 119–122, 304–307, 373, 542
washing of the mouth  6, 208
purification vocabulary  120–121, 296
purity, holiness and  401
Purity, Sacrifice, and the Temple: Symbolism and Supersessionism in the Study of Ancient Judaism (Klawans)  133
Purity and Danger (Douglas)  97, 126, 130–131
purity and pollution concept  99, 165, 231–232, 276–277, 546
purity system  304–308
Quirke, Stephen  27
Qumran, ritual and worship at
further study, directions for  374–375
introduction  365–366
liturgies and rituals  372–374
materials for study  366–367
prayers, fixed for set times  370–371, 396, 400
priesthood  367–370
psalms, the Hodayot  371–372
sacrifices  367–370, 381
temples  367–370
Qur’an, as sacred scripture
desecrating  277
etiquette with the  281
protecting  276–277, 280, 282–283
respecting  276–277, 279, 282–283
translations  279–280
Qur’an, iconic dimension of the
conceptual blending theory in explaining  274–275, 277
conclusions  283–284
introduction  273–274
kinship and appearance in  278–279
language, importance of  279–280
power of the text  282
psychological essentialism in explaining  275, 277–279
social prestige and  280–281
Qur’an, performance of the five pillars  544
rabbinic Judaism, influence on
Babylonian innovations  422
formulas  412
land of Israel  420
liturgical notions  414
ma’amad, custom of  412
midrash  421–422
Passover Haggadah  419
pietism  415
poetry  421
prayer
personal  413–414
rabbinic  415–419
reasons  422–423
siddurim, first  423–424
synagogue, development of the  413, 419–420
temple, the  411
temple rejection  412
theological priorities  414–415
Rad, Gerhard von  95
Radcliffe-Brown, A. R.  125, 128
Ramadan  543
Ramesses II  24f
Ramesses IV  29f
Rappaport, Roy A.  127, 135–136, 460, 467, 537
rationalist approaches, Islamic ritual  549
reformist approaches, Islamic ritual  549–550
Reif, Stefan  395–396
relic texts  244, 252, 264
religions
history of. see History of Religions
religions, communal  6
religiosity, private  81–83
religious practices, ritual and. See non-sacrificial ritual activities; sacrificial rituals
religious specialists  103
Renger, J.  474
reparation offerings  226, 229–230, 470
repentance  116, 120–122, 404
rhyton temple  59–60
Rida, Rashid  550
righteous, the  446
Ringgren, Helmer  96
rite(s) of passage
baptism  113, 532
burial  16
Greek  76
marriage  82, 203–204, 374, 490, 548
meaning of  104
for women  76, 104
Ritual and Cult at ugarit (Pardee)  63
ritual complex  225
ritual experts and participants, ancient Near East
Egypt  182–183
Hittite Anatolia  181–182
Mari (Euphrates)  181
Mesopotamia  179–181
priests/priestess  180
ritual purification requirement  180, 181, 182
summary  191
ritual experts and participants, Hebrew Bible
cult participants (lay people)  186–188
cult prophets  186
the king  186
Levites  185–187
priests  183–185
summary  191
ritual gestures  236
ritual innovation  402–405
ritual objects and artifacts
altar of burnt offering  212–215
altar of incense and censers  214–215
the ark  209–212, 218
bread of the Presence, golden table for the  214–216
conclusions  220–221
cult statues  78, 164–165, 208–209, 212, 227–228, 346
the ephod and urim and thummim  217–218
illicit  218–220
introduction  207–208
lampstand, the golden  214–216
wash basins and the molten sea  216–217
ritual purity and pollution  99
rituals. See also specific rituals
building community  494
bureaucracy of  109
culturally oriented  111
defined  70, 71–73, 111, 128–130, 491
emotive power of  491–492
magical  397–398
purposes of  109, 111, 116
repetitive factor / patterns in  111–113
royal  6
successful  111–112, 113
textualization of  402–405
rituals, study of. See also specific rituals
linguistic domain of  119–120
preliminary methodological considerations  109–111
theology, rituals and  113–114
ritual times  198, 204–205
Roberts, J. J. M.  96
Roman Catholic baptismal rite  532
Roman Catholic Eucharist  525–528
Roman Missal  529
Roman Missal  525–526
rûach (spirit)  340–341
Rumi  551
Sabbath
Christian worship, influence on early  388
Kabbalat Shabbat ceremonies  510–519
observance of the  395–397
Sabbath candles  516–518
Sabbath day, the  196–197
sacred and profane concept  98
sacred space(s)
accessing  163, 166, 168–170, 180, 182
after the temple  174–175
creating, ancient Egypt  25–26
defined  161–162
in the home  166, 172
introduction  161–162
in Islam  542
Israelite religion  103
legitimate  173
mosques  542–543
standards for  174
synagogues  401
thresholds, symbolism of  151–152
Torah as  359
sacred space(s), ancient near east
additional, purposes of  165–166
common space divided  163
cult image  164–166
divine service  164–165
the temple  162–164
sacred space(s), of the Hebrew Bible
alters  166–167
biblical assessment of  172–174
dedication and service  169–170
function  169
other  171–172
spatial hierarchy and access  168–169
standing stones  167
tabernacles  167–168, 170–171
temples  170–171
sacred texts, reciting/reading  234
sacred time  195–196
conclusions  204–205
creation and  195, 197
Israelite religion  103–104
in the life cycle  197, 203–204
Mircea Eliade and  196–198
profane time vs.  196, 200
sacred times of the year  198–204
sacrifice
Christian worship, influence on early  381–382
Christian worship, influences on early  381–383
community and  74–75
Eucharist as  384–385
Eucharistic  384–385, 526–529, 533
expiation and  290–298
as a gift and a feast  153–156, 186–187, 225
politics of  437–440
prayer as substitute for  174–175
prophetic critique of  453–454
shared with offerers, gift of  226
smoke form of  223, 226
terminology  155
of thanksgiving  526–528
twofold system of  153–154
types of  290
worship as an alternative to  400
sacrifice (personal), power of  470–471
sacrificial cult  478–479
sacrificial rituals. See also non-sacrificial ritual activities
Greek  74–75
prophetic critique of  453–454
Qumran  367–370, 382
required
festivals  228
grain offerings  227–228
homage and praise  228–229
regular care of deities  227–228
restoration of the divine-human relationship  229–231
votive payment  229
traditional  155–156
voluntary
burnt offering  225–226
grain offerings  227
sacrifice shared with offerers  226
sacrificial system  104
sacrificial worship, social meaning of  470
Salafism  550
salvation, oracle of  436
salvation and rebirth  22
sanctuary
borders of  152
defined  151
high places  172
purification rituals  165, 202
Sabbath as  395–397
Torah as  359
Ugarit (Ras Shamra)  59–60
sanctuary cult  227
Sanders, E. P.  394
Saphon  56–58
scapegoat  184, 202, 386, 460
scapegoat rituals  46
Schaeffer, Claude  54
Scherer, Rebecca  499
Schmid, Konrad  489
Schmidt, Werner  96
scripture
post-exilic era  393
rise of, early Judaism  402–403
Seaford, R.  475
Second Temple
architecture  171
ark of the  211
cultic objects  359
divine presence in the  357–358, 360
golden lampstand in the  216
ritual objects of the  216, 221, 359
Second Temple period
amulets in the  399
ancient Israelite religion, distinct differences from  393
blessings  398–399
economics of worship  483
in the Levant  190
Levant, historical development in the  190
liturgical ritual  372–373
material images of YHWH  353
Passover sacrifice  433
Pentateuch  250
prayer, prayer texts, and traditions  367, 398–399, 402, 413, 418, 438
psalms  387, 412
purity laws  306–308
ritual practices  394
synagogues, function of  174–175, 359
temple alternatives  400, 412
temples, function of  174–175
Torah in the  246, 249
serpent, bronze  218, 220
sexuality  187–188
Seybold, Klaus  322
Shang Dynasty  461
Shapira, Avraham (Pachi)  509
Shdemot Circle  509
shekhinah theology  357
Shelem, Matitiyahu  508, 513
shema,’  416–417
Sheol, concept of  328, 340–341
Shimonovich, David  507
Shokhat, Eliezer  510
Shua, Zvi  513–514
sickness
demons and  312, 315
epidemic vs. individual  317–319
menstruation as  313
as a punishment for sin  316–319, 322
vocabulary of  313
YHWH of  314–319, 321
sickness and healing
afflicted individuals  319–322
definitions of  312–313
family religion addressing  433
in the Hebrew Bible  314–317
methodological difficulties in writing about  311
summary  324
women’s diseases  322–324
siddurim, first  423–424
Simon, Marcel  397
sin
confession of  373
defined  296
effects of  214
origin of  398
responses to  289–290
sacrificial expiation of  290–298
sickness as a punishment for  316–319, 322
unintentional  291–293, 296, 298
sin offerings  229–231, 291, 296–297, 479
slavery  477
Smith, Jonathan Z.  127
Smith, Robertson  130, 131–132
Smith, William Robertson  126
social anthropology  125
social body  394, 395
sociomorphism  151
socio-religious functions of worship
constructive effects, examples of  459–460
hermeneutical challenges in study of  462–464
misguided uses and effects of ritual  460–461
prophecy  464–466
variety, theological traditions illustrating  468–471
virtue, inculcation of  466–468
speech, ritual  234
spells  83
Sperber, Dan  134
sphagia  74–75
Aššur  10–11
Staal, Frits  134
standing stones  165–167, 218–219, 349–350
Stewart, Pamela J.  126–127
Strathern, Andrew  126–127
Sufism  547–548, 551
Suit, Natalia K.  279
supplication  14–15, 165–167, 260f, 418, 437, 531
symbolic anthropology  128
symbols  129–130, 135–136
synagogue
development and expansion  103, 413, 419–420
diaspora  401
sacred spaces  401
Second Temple period  174–175, 359
Syrian (Ugarit) gods  147
Syria-Palestine  53–67. See also Ugarit (Ras Shamra)
tabernacle
bread of the Presence in the  209
construction and anointment  236, 295, 497
defilement of the  296–297
dwelling place of God  356
lampstand in the  215–216
purgation of the  202
sacred space of the  167–168, 170–171
wash basin in the  217
tabernacle ark  244, 352
tabernacle cult  291–292, 298
Tablet of Destinies  258–259
Tambiah, Stanley J.  127–128
tax collection  481–482
Taylor, Edward B.  126
technology of the early Christian book  260–261
temple alternatives  400–402
temple entry  32–33
temple foundry  482
temple of Baal  56–59
temple of Dagan  59
temples
architecture  26, 59–60, 151–152, 162–163, 170–171
community and  400–402
conditions of entry  449–450
divine presence in  163–164, 350
function of  7, 171
furnishings  168, 170–171
gods residence in  6, 8, 25–26, 163–164
high place  103
housing the high priests  59
purgation of the  202
purification rituals  232–233
purposes of  6, 162
Qumran  367–370
rabbinic Judaism, influence on  411
as sacred spaces  162–164, 170–171
Second Temple period  174–175
synagogue usurpation of  420
Syria-Palestine  53
Ugarit (Ras Shamra)  59–60
temples, economics of
Achaemenid state taxes, collection of  481–482
economic importance  474–478
materiality of the sacrificial cult  478–479
payments, standardization of  480
tithes, collection of  479, 481
temple services, daily  7, 152–153
texts
legends or epics  62–63
mythical  60–62
reciting/reading of sacred  234
ritualization of  402–405
texts, cultic and ritual
atonement ritual  65
divination  65
magic  65–66
oaths, incantations, prayers  65–66
palace rituals, funerary and non-funerary  65–66
Pantheon lists  58–59, 64–65
sacrifice lists  64
types of  63
Ugarit (Ras Shamra)  60–66
Thompson, Thompson L.  97
Thomson, George  480
thresholds, symbolism of  151–152
thrones  209–210, 210f, 350–351, 354, 531
thysia  74
tithes, collection of  475, 479, 481
tombs  26, 60
Torah
ritualization of the  402–403
as sanctuary  359
Torah scrolls  242, 244–252, 247f, 251f, 359
Tribes of Yahweh (Gottwald)  97
Turner, Mark  274–275, 278
Turner, Victor  70, 129–130, 134
Tzur, Muki  508
Ugarit (Ras Shamra)
biblical study, perceived importance for  54
Canaanites  54–56
conclusions  66–67
discovery  53–54
personal piety, evidence of  60
sanctuaries  59–60
temples of  59–60
tombs  60
Ugarit (Ras Shamra), texts
cultic and ritual
atonement ritual  65
divination  65
magic  65–66
oaths, incantations, prayers  65–66
palace rituals, funerary and non-funerary  65–66
Pantheon lists  58–59, 64–65
sacrifice lists  64
types of  63
legends or epics  62–63
mythical  60–62
use in worship  61
Van Seters, John  97
Vatican II  525
Vatke, Wilhelm  95
Vernant, Jean-Pierre  73, 74
virtue, inculcation of  466–468
votive payment  229
votives  80–82
wash basins and the molten sea  216–217
washing of the mouth ritual  6, 208
washing ritual  111–112, 119–122, 304–307, 373, 498, 542
Watts, James W.  257, 268, 273–274, 496
Weber, Max  128
Wellhausen, Julius  95
Westermarck, Edward A.  471
Wette, Wilhelm de  95
Whitley, C. F.  464
wicked, the  446
Wilson, Gerald H.,  435
wind imagery  12–13
witches  13–14
women. See also marriage
adulterers  323–324
bathing rituals  306–307
cult participants  187–188
Greek ritual and  78–80
maiden choruses (partheneia)  76
menstrual impurity  99, 276, 301–302, 304–305, 308, 542, 551
Muslim
segregation of  542
sidelining of  550–551
pregnancy  323–324
priestesses  180, 183
rites of passage  76, 104
ritual times  203–204
role in religious life  432
seeking justice  83
witches  13–14
women’s diseases  322–324
worship
an alternative to sacrifice  400
objects of, Israelite  99–101
places of  103, 151–152
sacrificial, social meaning of  470
social impact of  31–32
spiritual  381
symbolism of thresholds  151–152
Wyatt, N.  57, 58, 61, 64–65, 66
Wycliffe, John  528
Xella, P.  64
yahad  368–370, 373, 395–396, 400, 402–403
Yahad movement  398
Yahwistic ritual  337
YHWH. See also divine, the
characteristics of  149–150, 231, 347
covenant with Israel  231, 243–244, 316, 466, 494, 498
development of  99–102, 150
dwelling place of  168–169. see also divine, the
dwelling places of  58–59, 357–358, 360
the face of  154, 347, 347–349
forms of  168
the glory of  355–357
holy spirit of  357–358
manifestations of the presence of  349–353
modes of revelation  234–235
monotheistic  102, 150
the name of  354–355
offerings to  155, 167, 170, 172, 226–229, 465
a personal god  224
Saul and  335, 337–339
of sickness and disease  314–319, 321
spaces of worship  172–174, 224
Yom Kippur  202–203, 374
Zenger, E.  455
Zevit, Ziony  97, 427
Zionist pioneering movement  507
Zohar, Zvi  507
Zucconi, Laura M.  321
Zuria, Anat  308