aardvark, 105

adaptation

by competitive interactions, 139, 223–25

by ecological divergence, 76, 109

by genetic recombination, 63–64

by natural selection (see natural selection)

Africa

Cape region, 135–36

endemic species, 105, 135

rift system, 83, 104–106, 132

south of the Sahara, 104–107, 311

agriculture, 69, 87, 127, 261, 265, 286, 288, 292–94, 296, 305, 312

symbiotic, 160, 162, 163

algae, 10–11, 20–21, 60–61, 63, 161–62, 172, 175, 178, 182–83, 207, 214, 280, 281

Amazon basin, 22, 78–79, 100, 266

amphibians

early evolution, 192–93

reproduction, 184

Andes. See under mountains

Angiosperms. See flowering plants

Animalia (kingdom), 9

animals

body plans, 38, 174, 193

complexity of, 67, 174, 281

development of, 39–40, 208, 210

marine (see marine life)

sizes, 143–44

Antarctica, 26, 45, 55, 89, 162, 264

Anthropocene, 288–89

anthropomorphism, 233

antibiotics, 29, 51, 226, 305

ants, 31, 135, 148–49, 159, 160, 191, 198, 229–231, 254–55, 287

aphids, 27, 30, 113, 148–49

Appalachian (mountains). See under mountains

Archaea (Archaebacteria), 54–57, 224, 234, 278

Arctic

animal life, 92

Ocean, 311

vegetation, 89, 91–92, 112, 117, 135

arthropods, 41

Arthur, W. Brian, 234, 293, 299

asteroid bombardment, 13, 171, 195–96, 283

astrobiology, 225, 312–13

astronomy, 12, 16, 171

atmosphere, 15, 49, 178, 280, 299

ATP (adenosine triphosphate), 204

Australia, 30, 91, 98, 99, 103–104, 108, 120, 122, 123–24, 138, 139, 157, 195, 217, 227, 259, 260, 270

Australopithecus afarensis, 236, 244, 248

autotrophs, 162, 173

Bacteria, 9, 21, 29, 44, 68, 148, 163–64, 167, 172–73, 178, 204–208, 214, 226, 278–80

commensal (symbiotic), 52, 160, 233

Eubacteria, 54

extremophiles, 55–57, 225, 234

reproduction of, 30–32, 50–53

size limitation, 57–58, 242

species designation, 53–54

Bauplan, 37, 39, 212

bees, 31, 157, 229

beetles, 52, 78–79, 149, 152, 154, 156, 181, 191, 304. See also chapter 1

biocides. See pesticides

biodiversity, 7–11, 111, 119

altitude effects, 81–82, 118, 128–30

area effects, 116–17, 168

and climate variability, 114–15

in Costa Rica, 127–30

decline of, 304–308

and disruption, 145, 149, 152

and epiphytes, 118, 130

and flowering plants, 189–92

geography of (see chapters 4 and 5)

gradients, 112, 118

grazing effects, 153

higher plants (see floristics)

history of (see paleontology)

hotspots (see hotspots)

maintenance of (see chapter 6)

marine versus terrestrial, 20–22

biogeography

Africa, south of the Sahara, 104–107, 135–36

Arctic, 91–92

Australian, 103–104

disjunctions, 122–25

endemism patterns, 111, 137–38

vicariance, 122

See also islands; plate tectonics; Wallace's line; zoogeographic realms

biomes, 11, 22, 90

Africa south of the Sahara, 104–107

Australia, 103–104

Madagascar, 107–108

Mediterranean floras, 98–99

Neotropics, 99–100

New Zealand, 108, 108–109

Northern boreal forests, 93-94

Northern Eurasian biomes, 96–97

Northern temperate zone, 94–96

Paleotropics, 101–103

South America, 100–101

bipedality, 193, 248–50, 286, 292

birds, 10–11, 166, 199

numbers, 25

ratite, 122

species concepts, 78–79

Borneo, 102

brains

body mass ratios, 243

energy demands, 244

expansion in humans, 242

in primates, 246–48

Brazil, 101

brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea), 149

burying beetles, 29–30

butterflies. See Lepidoptera

California, 95–96, 98, 112, 133–34

cambium, 180, 183, 198, 282

Cambrian explosion, 174–76, 194, 197, 207, 215, 217, 281–82

cancer, 67, 209

capitalism, 274, 300, 308

carbon dioxide, 15–16, 175, 205, 232

in global warming, 264, 297, 310–11

in photosynthesis, 49, 179, 190, 279–80

Cavalier-Smith, Thomas, 56–58

cells

bacterial, 45–56

eukaryotic (see Eukaryota)

division of, 61–62

dynamics, 59

replication, 278

wall structure, 54–60

Cenozoic, 197

cereal grains, 85, 186, 191, 266, 269

cerrado, 101, 134

chimpanzees, 18, 74, 104, 212–13, 248, 254–55

China, 97, 124–25, 133, 270–72, 288, 297, 302, 304, 307

chloroplasts, 60, 207, 234, 280

chromosomes, 50–51, 59–66, 77, 187, 207, 213, 214, 219, 278, 280

change and speciation, 84

doubling, 85, 189

cicadas, periodical, 32

cichlids. See fish

class (taxonomic), 8–9, 74–75

climate change, 253, 260, 289, 311, 313

and extinction, 107, 313

comets, 13, 171

competition

accelerating over time, 202, 223–25, 227, 234

animals (versus plants), 198

in human evolution, 254–57, 268

in natural selection, 87, 223–25, 235

in speciation, 83, 87

See also niche; predation

complexity

advances over time, 58, 189, 197, 200, 201, 202–203, 206, 210, 213, 228–31, 234–35, 238, 239, 243, 275, 282, 286, 305

concept and definition, 7, 202–203, 234

and cooperation, 162–64, 229–30, 286–87

in human brain expansion, 246

and multicellularity, 67

and new platforms, 58, 59, 206, 234, 268–69, 277, 294

in technology, 292

See also predation

conifers, 43, 133

continental drift. See plate tectonics

Costa Rica, 114, 127–30, 137

endemic species, 118

species-richness, 105, 118

Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), 10–11, 20–21, 48–49, 173, 175, 178, 205, 207, 279–80

Darwin, Charles, 69–70, 86, 166, 169, 203–204, 233, 237

Darwin's finches, 72

DDT (pesticide). See pesticides

death (in complex organisms), 208–209

deserts, 10, 106, 112, 144, 217

global patterns, 89–90

development

in animals, 59, 210–11

in humans, 250–52

as self-organization, 211

dinosaurs, 19, 193–97, 199, 226, 231, 283–84

diploid cells and organisms, 63–64, 66, 84, 183, 185, 214–15, 218

Diptera, 30, 31, 36

Dipterocarpaceae, 102

diseases. See pathogens

disjunction. See under biogeography

dispersal

by ants, 135

by humans, 166

and species survival, 164–67

disruption and biodiversity, 149–50

disseminules, plant, 123, 137, 145, 165, 177

diversity. See biodiversity

division (taxonomic), 9, 40, 74

division of labor, 208, 229–30, 253, 257, 269

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

as genetic information, 18, 39, 45–46, 48, 50–52, 54, 71–73, 83, 115, 122, 136, 160, 162, 176, 182, 206, 219, 237–38, 258–59, 278

“junk,” 213

in replication, 46, 48, 62, 220

See also RNA

donkeys, 76–77

dormancy, 167

double fertilization, 187–88

dung, 29–30, 260

Earth

axial tilt, 12, 14, 92, 171, 201

history (see paleontology)

orbit, 12, 14, 204

planetary features, 12–16

ecology

boom and bust, 306–307

environmental gradients, 81–82, 112–16, 118, 136

food webs, 148

keystone species, 159

speciation patterns, 76–81

trophic levels, 147–48, 238

economic development, 300–301

ecoregions (see chapter 4)

Ediacaran biota, 173

endemism, 77, 111

and lineage history, 137

endosymbiosis, 59–60, 164, 202, 206, 207, 234

energy

competition for, 223

consumption, human, 296–97

harvesting (see photosynthesis)

from hydrogen fusion, 299–300, 315

and increasing complexity, 223, 244

in metabolism, 20, 59, 244, 279

and technology, 273–75, 293–94

epiphytes, 42, 117–18, 129–31, 137, 144

Erwin, Terry, 36

Ethiopia, 31, 82, 105–107, 134, 244, 302

Eubacteria. See Bacteria

Eukaryota, 55, 56–63, 67–68, 175, 202, 206–207, 221, 278, 280, 281, 287, 293

eusocial insects, 229–31

evapotranspiration, plant, 91, 113, 128

evolution

and contingency/convergence, 217

epic of, 17

and escalation, 225

by pioneering effect, 224

as a tree/trellis, 52

See also intelligent design; natural selection

extinction, 27, 87, 105, 115, 165, 226–27, 240, 260, 276

and human agency, 306, 309

major extinction events, 194–96, 197–98, 283

extremophiles. See under Bacteria

family (taxonomic), 8, 74–75

faunal realms. See zoogeography

ferns, 43, 78, 107, 118, 123–24, 128, 129, 144, 184–85, 191, 198, 215

figs (Ficus), 157–59

fire

and flowering, 151–52

and human advance, 256–57, 275

and vegetation, 94, 103–104, 134, 191–92, 260, 284

fish, 22, 42, 83, 100, 122, 124, 148, 165, 166, 177, 182, 192–93, 222, 243

fitness, 223

flies. See Diptera

floristics (higher plants)

Africa, central tropical, 105

Africa, southern, 106, 135–36

Alaska, 93

Asia, southeast, 102

Borneo, 102

Brazil, 101

California, 96

China, 97

Costa Rica, 105, 118, 128

Ethiopia, 105

France, 96

Germany, 96

Greece, 98

Hawaii, 77, 109

Madagascar, 107

Mediterranean floras, 98–99, 134

Mesoamerica, 99

Mexico, 95, 99

New Zealand, 108

Nigeria, 105

Norway, 93

Panama, 36

South Africa, 99, 135

Turkey, 98

United States and Canada, 93, 95, 124

flowering plants (Angiosperms), 41–42, 186–90

advance in global biodiversity, 189, 216

and human evolution, 248

numbers (see floristics)

See also double fertilization; phenology

food

in animal nutrition, 143–44, 285

in ecological levels, 148

and human agriculture, 186–87, 265–68

forests

boreal, 93–94

canopy, 102, 117, 130

cloud (montane), 129, 132–33

conifer, 93–94, 133

Dipterocarp, 102

igapo, 100

needle-leaf, 93, 133, 188

taiga, 93, 133, 188

tropical dry, 133–34

tropical wet (rain forest), 22, 79, 102, 104, 117, 143, 149–50, 156, 189–90, 216

varzea, 100

fossil fuels, 273–75, 286, 288–89, 291, 294, 296–98, 303, 305, 307, 310

fossil record. See paleontology

frogs. See amphibians

fruit, 77, 102, 104, 165, 186, 191, 266. See also figs

fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster), 52, 77, 109, 137, 160, 211, 212

fungi, 47, 67, 148, 152, 160–62, 164–65, 178, 181, 207, 230, 260, 281

Gaia hypothesis, 263–64, 306

Galapagos Islands, 72, 77–78

gametes, 62–64, 84–85, 215

genes

duplication, 85, 214–15, 218

exchange in speciation, 72

“fossils” in genome, 219

horizontal gene transfer, 52

recombination in sex, 62–64

transposons (jumping), 221

genera. See genus

genetic

engineering, 52, 219

protocols in development, 40, 251–52

replication of information, 46

genomes, 60, 66–67, 189, 208, 212–14, 219, 252, 295

genotype, 213, 220–22

genus (taxonomic) 8, 74–75, 73–84

geology

continental stability, 15

extinctions, 194–96

local disruption, 150

time scale, 170

See also plate tectonics

Glossopteris fossil flora, 120–21

God. See intelligent design

Goldilocks orbit. See Earth: orbit

gorillas, 18, 104, 132, 247–49, 253, 255

grass, family, 30, 42, 186, 266, 284

grasshoppers, 31–32, 34, 37, 154

grasslands, 42, 76, 79, 90, 92–95, 97, 101, 130, 134, 191, 192, 231, 256, 265, 284, 313

African, 104–106, 142, 248, 292

Gray, Asa, 124–25

greenhouse gases, 14–16, 264, 307

Gymnosperms, 133, 188

Haldane, J. B. S, 25

haploid, 63, 84, 177, 185, 214–15

Hawaiian Islands, 77, 86, 108

endemic species, 77–78, 86, 109, 137

Hemiptera (true bugs), 34, 37

herbivores, 91, 116, 140–54, 167–68, 184, 191, 233, 238, 285

hierarchy, taxonomic, 8–9, 74, 202

Himalayan Mountains. See under mountains

history. See paleontology

Holocene, 288–89

homeostasis, 211, 221

Hominoids, 247–48, 285

Homo erectus, 236, 245, 249

Homo neanderthalensis, 74, 244, 258

Homo sapiens. See humans

horses, 76–77, 138, 153, 246, 259

hotspots (biodiversity), 97, 99, 101, 125–27, 130, 132–34

Hughes, Norman, 198

humans

cultural advance, 285–89

death in childbirth, 250–51

development (ontogeny) 40, 213, 250–52

evolution and origins of, 18, 73–74, 105, 244–48

exploratory voyages, 272

fire utilization, 256–57

genetics of, 73

intelligence, 235, 243, 250, 252–55, 285

knowledge, 293–96

language, 249, 256, 286, 294

metallurgy, 269

optimism, 298–99, 308, 312–13, 315

population explosion, 301–304, 313

unemployment, 303–304, 312

hybridization, 72, 75, 77, 79, 80, 81, 83

Hymenoptera. See ants; bees; wasps

ice ages, 19, 78, 97, 125, 173–74, 197, 227, 253, 256, 263, 265, 288

Industrial Revolution, 239, 273–75, 289, 293, 296, 300, 315

information (human), 202, 268, 291–96, 300, 305, 312

insects

body plan, 27, 32–34, 37

flight, 33–34

in forest canopy, 36

giant fossils, 38

holometabolous, 28, 32, 37, 38

life cycles, 28, 32, 34, 37

origin, 41

numbers, 25, 31, 229

smallest, 36

social, 229–31

intelligent design, 18, 69–70, 237, 240, 271, 273

intertropical convergence zone, 14

invasive species, 85, 109, 168

iridium anomaly, 195

islands, 21, 77–79, 84, 98, 110, 137, 139, 227. See also individual islands

journalism, 301, 303–304, 311

Jupiter, 12, 13, 171, 273

kingdom (taxonomic), 9

Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 219, 260

Lane, Nick, 60

languages (human), 249, 253, 255–56, 260, 286–87, 294

latitudinal species diversity, 112–16

legume family (Fabaceae), 42, 163–64, 187, 266

lemurs, 72, 107, 137–39, 227

Lepidoptera, 28, 31, 37–28, 40, 96, 101, 106, 113, 114, 118, 131, 153, 154, 224, 304

lichens, 91–93, 161–62, 281

life

history of (see chapter 7)

multicellular, 281

origin of, 48, 55, 278–79

life zones. See biomes

lignin, 179–81, 282

lions, 104, 142, 199, 304

liverworts, 63, 91–93, 117, 130, 144, 178–79, 182, 184–85

locust, 31–32

lung fish, 122, 182

Madagascar, 72, 107–108, 127, 137, 138–39, 227

endemic species, 107

malaria, 82

Malthus, Thomas, 303

Mammalia, 9, 166

mammals

in Africa, 105

biogeography of, 138–40

brain sizes, 147, 244, 248

in Costa Rica, 128

evolution of, 231–32

in Madagascar, 107

parental investment, 199

placental, 232

Margulis, Lynn, 59–60

marine life, 15, 20–21, 40–41, 48, 89, 92, 165, 176–77, 194, 196, 200–201, 240, 241, 243

Mars, 12, 16, 297

Mayr, Ernst, 8, 71, 76

meiosis, 62–64, 67, 77, 85, 177, 214–15, 280

Mesozoic, 197

metallurgy, 16, 269, 286

meteorites, 12, 171, 195

microbes, 45, 52, 55, 155–160, 164, 208, 226, 233

Milky Way (galaxy), 17, 312, 314

mimicry, 154, 224

mitochondria, 59–60, 62, 67, 202, 206–207, 220, 234, 278, 280–81

mitosis, 61–64

monkeys. See primates

Moon, 12–14, 171, 293, 305, 313

mosquitoes, 34–35, 41, 82, 92, 164

moths. See Lepidoptera

mountains, 11, 15–16, 22, 76, 81, 83, 96–99, 114, 201

Andes, 100–101, 130–32, 145, 150

Appalachians, 95

Caucasus, 96, 127, 133

Himalayas, 96–97, 122, 132–33

Rockies, 94, 188

and species richness, 118–20

mules, 77, 84

Murphy's Law, 46, 203, 218, 219

mutations, 51, 65, 76, 83, 203, 207, 218, 220–22, 287

mycorrhizae, 161

natural selection, 19, 51, 69–70, 147, 156, 165, 169, 182, 203, 207, 213, 218, 234, 239, 240, 287, 298

and competition, 83, 223–25

and ecological divergence, 80–84

and group selection, 230, 286–87

and sexual choice, 86

Nearctic realm, 93

Neolithic demographic transition, 267

Neotropics. See biomes: American tropics

nervous systems, 211, 222, 242

Newton, Isaac, 237, 273

New Zealand, 108, 126, 154

niche, 58, 83, 115, 139, 165, 168, 199, 216, 228, 234, 240

concept, 141–43

division, 144–50

nitrogen

fixation, 49, 163–64, 264, 305

molecular, 49

nomenclature, biological, 74

nucleus, cellular, 56, 59, 61–63, 67, 185, 187, 206, 219–20, 280

nutrition. See food

oaks (Quercus), 72, 75, 129

Odonata. See grasshoppers

orchids, 42, 105, 109, 132, 144, 186, 191, 216

order (taxonomic), 8–9, 74–75

origin

of life, 48, 278–79

of species (see chapter 3)

ovules (plant), 185–87, 282

ozone, 178, 264

Palearctic realm, 93

Paleontology

asteroid impact, 195–96

biodiversity over time, 20, 197–99, 238

eons, 172

first forests, 180–81

oxidation event, 176, 205

Pangaea, 121

plant species increase, 198

Snowball Earth, 173, 174

See also Cambrian explosion; Ediacaran biota; extinction: major events

Paleozoic, 197

Paley, William, 69

palms

in Africa, 105, 107

in Costa Rica, 150

distribution, 113

in Singapore, 105

Panama, 36, 96, 106, 115, 129, 143, 151

Pangaea, 121

parasites, 47, 65, 67, 148–50, 152, 155, 167

in the tropics, 35, 115–16

wasps, parasitic, 36, 149

pathogens, 65, 67, 148, 161, 167–68, 254, 265, 280, 312

and biodiversity, 152–53, 155, 224

and disease, 30, 45, 51, 54, 87, 109, 115–16, 155, 160, 227–28, 267, 271–72

and ecological niche, 82

Peru, 100, 131, 145, 159

pesticides, 148, 303, 304

Phanerozoic, 170, 197

phenology, 143–44

phenotype, 213, 221–22

photosynthesis, 10–11, 20–21, 48–49, 102, 113, 161–62, 175, 179, 190–91, 196, 202, 205–207, 268, 275, 279–80, 287, 299

phyla (taxonomic), 9, 40, 74

phytomass, 21

phytoplankton, 11, 45, 196

Piper, 81, 119, 159

Plantae (kingdom), 9

plants

alternation of generations, 215

cultivation (see agriculture)

defense against herbivores, 153, 155

dormancy, 167

as energy source, 10–11, 43

increasing numbers over time, 198

leaves in evolutionary history, 190, 216

numbers (see floristics)

pioneers, 145

succession, 145–46

terrestrial, 177–180, 183, 214–15, 282

vascular system, 179, 198

See also flowering plants; pollination

Platanus, 79

plate tectonics

and atmosphere stability, 15–16, 173

and biodiversity, 120–23, 150, 201

and metallurgy, 269, 286

platypus, 103, 137, 241

Pleistocene, 97, 288

ploidy, 63, 84, 135

polar regions, 21, 89, 91

pollen, 79, 85, 158, 185, 186, 187, 190, 198, 224, 282

pollination

by animals, 37, 156–57, 189, 190, 216, 284

in figs, 157–59

by wind, 72, 144, 156, 185, 188

population explosion, human, 301–304, 313

prairie, 21, 145

flowering, 144–45, 151

predation

and arms races, 153, 167, 224–26

and local biodiversity, 142, 148, 152, 155

of plant seeds, 153

primary producers, 147–48

primates

apes (Anthropoids), 247–48

biogeography, 138

brain size, 246

evolution of, 138, 243, 247

life span, 146–47

printing, by metal type, 272, 288, 294

progress (as a concept), 204, 239–42, 308, 313

prokaryotes, 56

Quercus. See oaks

rain forests. See forests

ranks, taxonomic, 9

Rapoport's rule, 115

Red Queen Hypothesis, 223–24, 226, 267

religious traditions, 18, 235, 270, 299, 311

reproduction, 50–51, 61–65, 155, 164–68, 184, 203, 218, 220, 279, 287

respiration, 38, 176, 206–207, 280, 282

rhinoceros, 26, 304

RNA (ribonucleic acid), 46, 54–56, 163, 212–13, 219–20, 278. See also DNA

Sahara (desert), 90, 104–106

scarab beetles, 29–30

science

development of, 270–71, 288

as explanatory strategy, 7, 17–19, 69

revolutions in, 69, 121, 238, 271

seasonality, 114, 190

seed bank, 167

seed plants, 95, 184–85, 188, 198, 215, 224

selection. See natural selection

SETI (astrobiology), 17, 313

sex

evolutionary advantage, 63–66, 220

gender roles in humans, 255–57, 268

mechanism of, 62–65, 210

sexual selection, 86

soil, 21, 30, 45, 82, 91, 103, 105, 135, 143, 152, 160–61, 163, 183–84, 226, 231, 299–300, 308

and human success, 267, 292, 307

solar system, 12–14, 16, 19, 171–72, 225, 314

Spartina (cord grass), 85

speciation

chromosome doubling, 84–86

in cold climates, 115

in East African lake fishes, 83

by ecological differentiation, 80–84

by geographic isolation, 76–80

in the Hawaiian islands, 78, 109, 137

by hybrid inferiority, 80

over time, 136

in peripheral populations, 80–81

by sexual selection, 86

species

concepts (definitions), 8–9, 53, 71–72, 76

diversity gradients, 112, 118

endemics (see endemism)

enumeration, 9–10, 20, 111

new names (nomenclature), 10

new species (see speciation)

recognition, 73

richness (see chapters 4 and 5)

speciation (see chapter 3)

subspecies, 71–72

species numbers, 8, 11, 20, 42, 76, 89

and climate, 112–14

over geological time, 20, 197–98, 238

maintenance (see chapter 5)

spore-tetrads, 177, 179, 183

stasis, evolutionary, 58, 203, 241

stomates (plant), 179–80, 215

stromatolites, 172

Sun, 12–14, 16, 92, 204

age of, 16–17

energy from (see photosynthesis)

sunflower family, 42

survival

by chance, 151, 217

by dispersal and dormancy, 164–68

by reproduction, 61–63, 164–66

symbioses

agriculture, human, 265–67

in animal digestion, 160, 231, 233

ants and plants, 159–60, 230

bacterial commensals, 52, 164, 237

endosymbiosis (within cell), 59–61

photosynthetic, 60, 207

systematics, cladistics, 221

taiga (northern forest), 93, 133, 188

taxonomy

folk, 8

importance of, 25, 74–75

synonymous names, 75

systems and ranks, 9, 74

technology, human, 138, 227, 239, 269–70, 272, 273–74, 288, 293–98, 305

temperate regions, 14, 94–96, 113–14

terrestrial

early flora, 282

environments (see chapter 4)

species richness, 198

vertebrates (see tetrapods)

termites, 160, 164, 181, 229, 231

tetrapods (land vertebrates), 37, 183, 192–93, 222, 283

thermodynamics, second law of, 204, 279, 296

transistors, 294–95

trees

and epiphytes, 130–31, 137

in forests (see forests)

numbers and area, 117

numbers and latitude, 116

tribalism, human, 254–57, 285–86, 292

trilobites, 174

trophic levels. See under ecology

tundra, 91–92, 117

type specimen (nomenclature), 25, 75

unemployment (human), 303–304, 312

Venus, 12, 16, 273

Vertebrata (phylum), 9

viruses, 46–47, 278

vision, 138–39, 211–12, 219, 222, 246–47, 249, 252, 284

Wallace, Alfred Russel, 80, 82, 83, 122, 260

Wallace's Line (zoogeography) 103, 122–23

wasps, 31, 36–37, 149, 158

water, 13–16

fresh, 22, 41

stress (drought), 113, 136, 152, 254, 265, 310

weeds, 188

Wegener, Alfred, 120–22

wheat, 82, 85, 266, 306, 308

Wilson, Edward O, 130, 168, 254, 292

Woese, Carl, 54

wolves, 9, 93, 154–55, 229

Yellowstone National Park, 127, 154–55

Zero Force Evolutionary Law, 203

zoogeographic realms

African (Ethiopian) 104–107

Australian, 103–104

Madagascan, 107–108

Neotropical, 99–101

Northern (boreal), 93–97

Oceania, 108–109

Oriental, 101–103