Preface
1. I am thinking here especially of Richard Rhodes’s two magisterial works, The Making of the Atomic Bomb and Dark Sun.
2. I have used primary sources wherever feasible, but I have also relied on a large body of work by other writers for historical and biographical information, general guidance, and many insights and references. In addition to the two books by Richard Rhodes, the following works were indispensable throughout:
On Bethe: Bernstein, Hans Bethe, Prophet of Energy, and Schweber, In the Shadow of the Bomb.
On Bohr: Moore, Niels Bohr, and Pais, Niels Bohr’s Times in Physics, Philosophy, and Polity.
On Compton: Blackwood, The House on College Avenue, and Johnston, The Cosmos of Arthur Holly Compton.
On Fermi: Fermi, Atoms in the Family, and Segrè, Enrico Fermi, Physicist.
On Lawrence: Childs, An American Genius; Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer; and Heilbron and Seidel, Lawrence and His Laboratory.
On Oppenheimer: Goodchild, J. Robert Oppenheimer; Kunetka, Oppenheimer; and Michelmore, The Swift Years.
On Rabi: Bernstein, “Profiles: Physicist,” and Rigden, Rabi.
On Szilard: Grandy, Leo Szilard, and Lanouette with Silard, Genius in the Shadows.
On Teller: Blumberg and Owens, Energy and Conflict, and Blumberg and Panos, Edward Teller.
Four general works—one of scientific history and three of political history—were particularly germane: Kevles, The Physicists; Bundy, Danger and Survival; Herken, Brotherhood of the Bomb; and Sherwin, A World Destroyed.
Prologue: Nine Physicists and the Discovery of Fission
1. Quoted in Kevles, The Physicists, p. 324.
2. Ernest O. Lawrence to Enrico Fermi, February 7, 1939, Ernest O. Lawrence Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter cited as EOLP, BL, UCB).
3. Quoted in Smith and Weiner, Robert Oppenheimer, pp. 208–209.
Chapter 1: Exodus
1. Weisskopf, The Joy of Insight, p. vii.
2. Quoted in Bernstein, “Profiles: Physicist—I,” p. 70.
3. Paul Ewald interview with Charles Weiner, May 17–24, 1968, Oral History Collection, Niels Bohr Library, American Institute of Physics (hereafter cited as OHC, NBL, AIP), College Park, Md.
4. Quotes are in William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany (Simon and Schuster, 1960; reprint, Fawcett Crest Books), pp. 345–346.
5. John von Neumann to Oswald Veblen, June 19, 1933, Oswald Veblen Papers (hereafter cited as OVP), Manuscript Division, Library of Congress (hereafter cited as MDLOC), Washington, D.C. Hitler quote is in Edward Y. Hartshorne, Jr., The German Universities and National Socialism (Allen and Unwin, 1937), p.112.
6. Quoted in Weart and Szilard, Leo Szilard, p. 5.
7. Ibid., p. 4.
8. “Outline,” Leo Szilard Papers, Mandeville Special Collections Department, Geisel Library, University of California, San Diego (hereafter cited as LSP, MSCD, GL, UCSD).
9. Lanouette with Silard, Genius in the Shadows, p. 49.
10. Leo Szilard to I. I. Rabi, July 1, 1932, I. I. Rabi Papers (hereafter cited as IIRP), Box 7, MDLOC.
11. Lanouette with Silard, Genius in the Shadows, p. 116.
12. Quoted in Weart and Szilard, Leo Szilard, p. 17.
13. Lanouette with Silard, Genius in the Shadows, pp. 134–135.
14. Leo Szilard to Hugo Hirst, March 17, 1934, quoted in ibid., p. 38.
15. “Atom Energy Hope Is Spiked by Einstein,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, December 29, 1934.
16. Quoted in the New York Times (hereafter cited as NYT), April 13, 1935.
17. Lord Rutherford, The Newer Alchemy (Cambridge University Press, 1937), p. 65.
18. Maurice Goldhaber interview with Gloria Lubkin and Charles Weiner, January 10, 1966, OHC, NBL, AIP.
19. Leo Szilard to Gertrud Weiss, March 26, 1936, quoted in Weart and Szilard, Leo Szilard, p. 38.
20. Author’s interview with Rose Bethe and Jane Wilson, Ithaca, N.Y., June 8, 1997.
21. Quoted in Segrè, Enrico Fermi, Physicist, p. 98.
22. Lanouette with Silard, Genius in the Shadows, p. 175.
23. Quoted in ibid., p. 167.
24. Quoted in NYT, January 12, 1988, p. Al.
25. Quoted in Howe, World of Our Fathers, p. 256.
26. Quoted in Rigden, Rabi, p. 23.
27. Quoted in ibid., p. 21; and Bernstein, “Profiles: Physicist—I,” p. 50.
28. Quoted in Bernstein, “Profiles: Physicist—I,” p. 53.
29. Quoted in NYT, January 12, 1988, p. A24.
30. Rigden, Rabi, pp. 79, 117.
31. “Reminiscences of Norman F. Ramsey (1962),” Oral History Research Office, Columbia University (hereafter cited as OHRO, CU).
32. Fermi, Atoms in the Family, p. 154.
33. Addendum D.9, Rudolf Peierls Papers, Bodleian Library, University of Oxford (hereafter cited as RPP, BL, UO).
34. Quoted in Weisskopf, Joy of Insight, p. 63.
35. Sherwin, A World Destroyed, p. 92.
36. See John Wheeler interview with Finn Aaserud, May 23, 1988, OHC, NBL, AIP.
37. Leo Szilard, Book Manuscript “Book—Apology (in lieu of a foreword),” LSP, Box 40, Folder 4, MSCD, GL, UCSD.
38. Lanouette, “The Odd Couple and the Bomb,” p. 106; and Lanouette with Silard, Genius in the Shadows, pp. 181–182.
39. Sherwin, A World Destroyed, p. 25.
40. Quoted in Laurence, Men and Atoms, p. 9.
41. Quoted in Weart and Szilard, Leo Szilard, p. 54.
42. Ibid; and Sherwin, A World Destroyed, p. 25.
43. Remarks at Nation banquet, December 3, 1945, reprinted in ibid., p. 55.
Chapter 2: The Gathering Storm
1. Teller with Brown, The Legacy of Hiroshima, p. 10.
2. Teller with Shoolery, Memoirs, p. 139.
3. Quoted in Sebastian Cody, “Edward Teller,” December 1985, RPP, BL, UO.
4. Author’s interview with Herbert York, La Jolla, Calif., March 12, 2001.
5. Quoted in Teller with Shoolery, Memoirs, p. 15.
6. Quoted in Coughlan, “Tangled Drama,” p. 89.
7. Ibid., p. 49.
8. Quoted in Cody, “Edward Teller.”
9. Quoted in Teller with Shoolery, Memoirs, p. 143.
10. Ibid.
11. Quoted in Moore, Niels Bohr, p. 267.
12. George Pegram to Admiral S. C. Hooper, March 16, 1939, Enrico Fermi Papers (hereafter cited as EFP), Box 9, Department of Special Collections, Joseph Regenstein Library, University of Chicago (hereafter cited as DSC, JRL,UC).
13. Quoted in Szilard, “Reminiscences,” p. 114.
14. Quoted in Szilard, “Book—Apology.”
15. Sherwin, A World Destroyed, p. 26.
16. Szilard notes for interview, April 18, 1955, Weart and Szilard, Leo Szilard, p. 83.
17. Transcript, A Is for Atom, B Is for Bomb (WGBH-TV, 1980), p. 2.
18. Albert Einstein to President Roosevelt, August 2, 1939, Roosevelt-PSF, Confidential File, Alexander Sachs Folder, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, New York (hereafter cited as FDRL).
19. Ulam, Adventures of a Mathematician, p. 116.
20. Leo Szilard to Albert Einstein, October 3, 1939, reprinted in Weart and Szilard, Leo Szilard, p. 101.
21. See Alexander Sachs’s testimony before the U.S. Senate Special Committee on Atomic Energy, 79th Congress, 1st Session, November 27, 1945, pp. 2–29; and Sherwin, A World Destroyed, p. 28.
22. Sherwin, A World Destroyed, pp. 28–29.
23. Quoted in Blumberg and Owens, Energy and Conflict, p. 98; and Edward Teller, Energy from Heaven and Earth (W. H. Freeman, 1979), p. 144.
24. Weart and Szilard, Leo Szilard, p. 85.
25. Quoted in Hewlett and Anderson, The New World, p. 20.
26. Sherwin, A World Destroyed, p. 19; and Wigner, “Are We Making the Transition Wisely?” p. 28.
27. Sherwin, A World Destroyed, p. 29.
28. Albert Einstein to Alexander Sachs, March 7, 1940, LSP, Box 17, Folder 4, MSCD, GL, UCSD.
29. Vannevar Bush to James B. Conant, February 24, 1942, Bush-Conant File Relating to the Development of the Atomic Bomb, 1940–1945, Records of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, Record Group 227, Manhattan Engineering District Records, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter cited as BCF, ROSRD, MEDR, NA).
30. Lieutenant Colonel S. V. Constant, Acting Chief of Staff, G-2, War Department, August 13, 1940, U.S. Intelligence and Security Command, Freedom of Information/Privacy Office, Fort George G. Meade, Md.
31. Sherwin, A World Destroyed, p. 30.
Chapter 3: The Manhattan Project
1. Quoted in Jungk, Brighter than a Thousand Suns, p. 114.
2. Quoted in Rudolf Peierls interview with Charles Weiner, August 11–13, 1969, OHC, NBL, AIP.
3. Rudolf Peierls to Mr. Murphy, May 2, 1993, Addendum D. 110, RPP, BL, UO.
4. “On the Construction of a ‘Super-bomb; Based on a Nuclear Chain Reaction in Uranium,’“ reprinted in Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy, pp. 389–393.
5. Frisch, What Little I Remember, p. 126.
6. Bundy, Danger and Survival, pp. 24–25.
7. Ibid., p. 26; and MAUD Committee Report, reprinted in Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy, pp. 394–436.
8. Quoted in Weart and Szilard, Leo Szilard, p. 146.
9. Seaborg with Seaborg, Adventures in the Atomic Age, p. 28.
10. Ibid., pp. 50–51.
11. Herken, Brotherhood of the Bomb, p. 7.
12. Author’s interview with Philip Abelson, Washington, D.C., March 23, 1999.
13. Robert Wilson interview with Spencer Weart, May 19, 1977, OHC, NBL, AIP.
14. Cited in Herken, Brotherhood of the Bomb, p. 7.
15. Author’s interview with Herbert York, La Jolla, Calif., March 12, 2001.
16. Edwin McMillan interview with Charles Weiner, June 1, 1972, OHC, NBL, AIP.
17. Quoted in Childs, An American Genius, p. 251; and Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer, p. 48.
18. Quoted in Childs, American Genius, p. 281.
19. Quoted in Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer, p. 87.
20. Ernest O. Lawrence to Carl and Gunda Lawrence, August 29, 1939, EOLP, BL, UCB.
21. Quoted in Groueff, The Manhattan Project, p. 40.
22. Martin Kamen to Edwin McMillan, EOLP, BL, UCB.
23. See Vannevar Bush to James B. Conant, October 9, 1941, BCF, ROSRD, MEDR, NA.
24. Quoted in Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer, p. 131.
25. Quoted in Johnston, The Cosmos of Arthur Holly Compton, p. 11.
26. Quoted in Compton, Atomic Quest, p. 6.
27. Ibid., p. 8.
28. National Academy of Sciences Committee on Uranium Report to the President, November 6, 1941, BCF, Folder 18, ROSRD, MEDR, NA.
29. Quoted in Compton, Atomic Quest, p. 62.
30. Bundy, Danger and Survival, pp. 45–53; see also December 6, 1941, entry, Diary, Harold Urey Papers (hereafter cited as HUP), Box 145, Folder 19, MSCD, GL, UCSD.
31. Norris, Racing for the Bomb, p. 168.
32. Sherwin, A World Destroyed, p. 34.
33. Vannevar Bush to Frank Jewett, November 4, 1941, BCF, ROSRD, MEDR, NA.
34. Vannevar Bush to James B. Conant, February 24, 1942, in ibid.
35. Quoted in Frank Oppenheimer interview with Charles Weiner, February 9, 1973, OHC, NBL, AIP.
36. Quoted in Childs, An American Genius, pp. 343–344.
37. Seaborg with Seaborg, Adventures in the Atomic Age, p. 115; and Norris, Racing for the Bomb, p. 216.
38. Norris, Racing for the Bomb, pp. 221–222.
39. Seaborg with Seaborg, Adventures in the Atomic Age, p. 116.
Chapter 4: The Met Lab
1. Quoted in Arthur H. Compton, “Operation of the Metallurgical Project by the University of Chicago,” July 28, 1944, BCF, ROSRD, MEDR, NA.
2. Seaborg with Seaborg, Adventures in the Atomic Age, p. 82.
3. Quoted in Hewlett and Anderson, The New World, pp. 54–55.
4. Grandy, Leo Szilard, p. 83; and Leo Szilard, “Memorandum on My Visit to Chicago, January 23–24,” January 26, 1942, LSP, Box 41, Folder 6, MSCD, GL, UCSD.
5. Leo Szilard to Enrico Fermi, December 31, 1941, LSP, Box 8, Folder 6, in ibid.
6. See Leo Szilard to Arthur Compton, January 27, 1942, LSP, Box 6, Folder 30, in ibid.
7. Author’s interview with Philip Morrison, Cambridge, Mass., May 18, 1998.
8. Quoted in Hewlett and Anderson, The New World, pp. 54–55.
9. Author’s interview with Philip Morrison, Cambridge, Mass., May 18, 1998.
10. Arthur Compton to Members of the Metallurgical Project, February 11, 1942, Courtesy of Harold Agnew.
11. Quoted in Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer, p. 125.
12. Author’s interview with Philip Morrison, Cambridge, Mass., May 18, 1998.
13. Diary entries, January 3, 1943, and February 3, 1943, Crawford Greenewalt Manhattan Project Diary, Crawford Greenewalt Papers, Hagley Museum Library (hereafter cited as CGMPD, CGP, HML), Wilmington, Del.
14. Quoted in Groueff, The Manhattan Project, p. 29.
15. Kenneth Nichols, quoted in Goodchild, J. Robert Oppenheimer, pp. 56–57.
16. Groves, Now It Can Be Told.
17. Vannevar Bush to Harvey Bundy, September 17, 1942, Folder 7, Harrison-Bundy Files Relating to the Development of the Atomic Bomb, 1942–1946, Record Group 77, Manhattan Engineer District Records, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter cited as HBF, MEDR, NA).
18. Minutes of Coordination Meeting, April 16, 1943, Box 19, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Archives, Berkeley, California.
19. “What Is Wrong with Us?” September 21, 1942, reprinted in Weart and Szilard, Leo Szilard, pp. 153–160.
20. Transcript, Lansing Lamont Oral History Interview, Harry S Truman Library, Independence, Missouri, p. 258.
21. Quoted in Jungk, Brighter than a Thousand Suns, p. 120.
22. L. R. Groves to the Attorney General, October 28, 1942, 201 File (Leo Szilard), MEDR, NA.
23. Ibid.
24. Quoted in Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer, pp. 243–244.
25. Brigadier General Groves to Major Calvert, June 12, 1943, MEDR, NA.
26. Lanouette with Silard, Genius in the Shadows, p. 242; Arthur Compton to Vannevar Bush, June 1, 1942; and Arthur Compton to Leslie R. Groves, November 13, 1942, BCF, ROSRD, MEDR, NA.
27. Quoted in Bernstein, “Profiles: Physicist—I,” p. 84.
28. Herken, Brotherhood of the Bomb, p. 15.
29. Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, pp. 120–121.
30. Quoted in Smith and Weiner, Robert Oppenheimer, pp. 71–72; and NYT, February 19, 1967, p. 66.
31. Quoted in Goodchild, J. Robert Oppenheimer, p. 15.
32. See Herbert Smith interview with Charles Weiner, August 1, 1974, OHC, NBL, AIP.
33. Quoted in Goodchild, J. Robert Oppenheimer, p. 77.
34. Quoted in NYT, February 19, 1967, p. 66.
35. Quoted in Smith and Weiner, Robert Oppenheimer, p. 195.
36. Robert Oppenheimer to Frank Oppenheimer, Box 294, J. Robert Oppenheimer Papers (hereafter cited as JROP), MDLOC.
37. Quoted in Smith and Weiner, Robert Oppenheimer, p. 143.
38. Ibid., p. 135.
39. Author’s interview with Robert Christy, Pasadena, Calif., July 29, 1998.
40. Quoted in Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer, p. 103.
41. Quoted in Smith and Weiner, Robert Oppenheimer, p. 135.
42. Emilio Segrè interview with Charles Weiner and Barry Richman, February 13, 1967, OHC, NBL, AIP.
43. Author’s interview with Herbert York, La Jolla, Calif., March 12, 2001.
44. Powers, Heisenberg’s War, p. 171.
45. Libby, The Uranium People, pp. 98–99.
46. Author’s interview with Robert Christy, Pasadena, Calif., July 29, 1998.
47. Frank Oppenheimer interview with Charles Weiner, February 9, 1973, OHC, NBL, AIP.
48. Quoted in Goodchild, J Robert Oppenheimer, p. 25.
49. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, p. 8.
50. Ibid., p. 10.
51. Quoted in Goodchild, J. Robert Oppenheimer, p. 36.
52. Author’s interview with Rose Bethe and Jane Wilson, Ithaca, N.Y., June 8, 1997.
53. Quoted in Schweber, In the Shadow of the Bomb, p. 108.
54. Quoted in Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer, p. 80.
55. Robert Oppenheimer to Ernest Lawrence, October 2, 1931, in Smith and Weiner, Robert Oppenheimer, p. 144.
56. Ernest O. Lawrence to Arthur Compton, October 17, 1941, EOLP, BL, UCB.
57. Carl Anderson interview with Harriett Lyle, 1981, California Institute of Technology Oral History Project.
58. Quoted Jungk, Brighter than a Thousand Suns, p. 127.
59. Hans Bethe interview with Charles Weiner, November 17, 1967, OHC, NBL, AIP.
60. See Powers, Heisenberg’s War, p. 37.
61. Author’s interview with Hans Bethe, Ithaca, N.Y., June 6, 1997.
62. Hans Bethe interview with Charles Weiner, November 17, 1967, OHC, NBL, AIP.
63. “A Conversation with Hans Bethe and Victor Weisskopf,” Cornell University, 1993, videotape copy in Audiovisual Archives (hereafter cited as AA), AIP.
64. Hans Bethe to Arnold Sommerfeld, May 20, 1947, Sommerfeld Papers, Deutsches Museum, Munich, Germany, cited in Schweber,In the Shadow of the Bomb.
65. Quoted in Blumberg and Owens, Energy and Conflict, p. 72.
66. Powers, Heisenberg’s War, p. 173.
67. “A Conversation with Hans Bethe and Robert Wilson,” Cornell University, 1993, videotape copy in AA, AIP.
68. Quoted in Bernstein, Hans Bethe, p. 73.
69. Robert Oppenheimer to John Manley, July 1, 1942, Accession #A-92–024/2–25, Los Alamos National Laboratory Archives (hereafter cited as LANLA), Los Alamos, N.Mex.
70. Edward Teller to Enrico Fermi, July 17, 1942, Accession #A-84–019/73–17, in ibid.
71. Author’s interview with Harold Agnew, Solana Beach, Calif., March 13, 2001.
72. Quoted in Groueff, The Manhattan Project, p. 77.
73. Ibid.
74. Quoted in Ackland, “Dawn of the Atomic Age,” p. 12.
75. Compton, Atomic Quest, p. 137.
76. Ibid., p. 138.
77. Fermi, Collected Papers, p. 270.
78. Lanouette with Silard, Genius in the Shadows, p. 243.
79. Author’s interview with Robert Christy, Pasadena, Calif., July 29, 1998.
80. Quoted in Groueff, The Manhattan Project, p. 96.
81. Ibid.
82. Herbert Anderson, quoted in Wilson, All in Our Time, p. 95.
83. Diary entry, December 2, 1942, CGMPD, CGP, HML.
84. Libby, The Uranium People, p. 126; and Wigner, Symmetries and Reflections, p. 240.
85. Compton, Atomic Quest, p. 144.
86. Anderson, “Fermi, Szilard and Trinity,” p. 45.
87. Wigner, Symmetries and Reflections, pp. 240–241.
88. Lanouette with Silard, Genius in the Shadows, p. 245.
89. Weart and Szilard, Leo Szilard, p. 146.
90. Author’s interview with Kathleen Manley, Los Alamos, N.Mex., July 21, 1997.
Chapter 5: Los Alamos
1. Jon Else, The Day After Trinity (KTEH-TV, 1980); and I. I. Rabi, “How Well We Meant,” Speech at Los Alamos National Laboratory, 1983, LANLA.
2. Groves, Now It Can Be Told, p. 63.
3. Quoted in Joseph J. Ermenc, ed., Atomic Bomb Scientists: Memoirs, 1939–1945 (Meckler, 1989), p. 257.
4. Enclosure to Frederick T. Hobbs to H. T. Wensel, June 10, 1942, BCF, ROSRD, MEDR, NA.
5. Leslie Groves to the District Engineer, United States Engineer Office, Manhattan District, Station F, July 20, 1943, in ibid.
6. Quoted in Herbert Smith interview with Charles Weiner, August 1, 1974, OHC, NBL, AIP.
7. Rabi, “How Well We Meant.”
8. See Robert Oppenheimer to John Manley, November 10, 1942, Accession #A-84–019/63–1, LANLA.
9. Quoted in Edwin M. McMillan, “Early Days at Los Alamos,” in Badash et al., Reminiscences of Los Alamos, p. 15.
10. Quoted in Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer, p. 161.
11. Quoted in “Julius Robert Oppenheimer” in Charles Montz, ed., Current Biography Yearbook, 1964 (H. W. Wilson, 1964), p. 331.
12. “Reminiscences of Norman E Ramsey,” OHRO, CU.
13. Franklin D. Roosevelt to J. Robert Oppenheimer, June 29, 1943, Box 62, JROP, MDLOC.
14. J. R. Oppenheimer to the President, July 9, 1943, Box 36, in ibid.
15. Author’s interview with Donald Hornig, Cambridge, Mass., May 14, 1998.
16. Quoted in Jungk, Brighter than a Thousand Suns, p. 118.
17. Quoted in Compton, Atomic Quest, p. 113.
18. Powers, Heisenberg’s War, p. 181; and “Reminiscences of Norman F. Ramsey,” OHRO, CU.
19. See Graph 1 in Hawkins, Toward Trinity, p. 483.
20. Robert Wilson to Henry Smyth, November 27, 1943, Accession #A-84–019/7–7, LANLA.
21. Major N. E. Davis to Occupants of Dormitory T-187, March 8, 1945, Accession #A-84–019, in ibid.
22. Elsie McMillan, “Outside the Inner Fence,” in Badash et al., Reminiscences of Los Alamos, p. 43.
23. Robert Wilson to Henry Smyth, November 27, 1943, Accession #A-84–019/7–7, LANLA.
24. Author’s interview with Donald Hornig, Cambridge, Mass., May 14, 1998.
25. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, pp. 12 ff.
26. Author’s interview with Louis Rosen, Los Alamos, N.Mex., July 16, 1997.
27. Ibid.
28. Smith and Weiner, Robert Oppenheimer, p. 226.
29. Quoted in Powers, Heisenberg’s War, p. 216.
30. Ibid.
31. “Reminiscences of Norman F. Ramsey,” OHRO, CU.
32. Author’s interview with Beverly Agnew, Solana Beach, Calif., March 13, 2001.
33. Norris Bradbury with Arthur Lawrence Norberg, February 11, 1976, History of Science and Technology Program, BL, UCB.
34. Author’s interview with Kathleen Manley, Los Alamos, N.Mex., July 21, 1997.
35. Quoted in Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer, p. 178.
36. Quotes are in Blumberg and Owens, Energy and Conflict, p. 124.
37. Author’s interview with Robert Christy, Pasadena, Calif., July 29, 1998.
38. J. R. Oppenheimer to General L. R. Groves, October 6, 1944, Box 36, JROP, MDLOC.
39. See I. I. Rabi to Robert Oppenheimer, “Suggestions for Interim Organization and Procedure,” February 10, 1943, Box 59, in ibid.
40. Quoted in Blumberg and Owens, Energy and Conflict, p. 129.
41. Teller with Shoolery, Memoirs, p. 177.
42. Ibid., pp. 177–178.
43. Quoted in Smith and Weiner, Robert Oppenheimer, p. 273.
44. Author’s interview with Philip Morrison, Cambridge, Mass., May 18, 1998.
45. Hans Bethe Personal Papers (hereafter cited as BPP), Ithaca, N.Y.
46. Author’s interview with Kathleen Manley, Los Alamos, N.Mex., July 21, 1997.
47. Author’s interview with Hans Bethe, Ithaca, N.Y., June 6, 1997.
48. Author’s interview with Kay Mark, Los Alamos, N.Mex., July 19, 1997.
49. Author’s interview with Rose Bethe and Jane Wilson, Ithaca, N.Y., June 8, 1997.
50. Bernstein, “Profiles: Physicist—II,” p. 53.
51. Quoted in Rigden, Rabi, p. 217.
52. Quoted by Hans Bethe in ibid., p. 149.
53. Quoted in Peierls, Bird of Passage, p. 192.
54. Quoted in J. Robert Oppenheimer to I. I. Rabi, February 26, 1943, JROP, MDLOC. Rabi had apparently suggested this to Oppenheimer in a prior letter or conversation.
55. Author’s interview with Hans Bethe, Ithaca, N.Y., June 6, 1997.
56. The physicist was John Wheeler, then at Hanford, Washington. His brother Joe, an army private with a Ph.D. in history, was killed on October 25, 1944. Wheeler with Ford, Geons, Black Holes, and Quantum Foam, pp. 18–19.
57. Darol Froman interview with Arthur Lawrence Norberg, HSTP, BL, UCB.
58. Blue Corn, quoted in Mason, Children of Los Alamos, p. 147.
59. Quoted in Peggy Pond Church, The House at Otowi Bridge (University of New Mexico Press, 1960), pp. 65–66.
60. Bohr handwritten notes, Document 10, Niels Bohr Archives Document Release, February 6, 2002, www.nba.nbi.dk/NBA/papers/docs/d10tra.htm.
61. Quoted in James Glanz, “New Light on Physicist’s Role in Nazi Bomb,” NYT, February 7, 2002, pp. A1 and A8.
62. Quoted in Rudolf Peierls to Mr. Masters, February 20, 1988, Addendum D.9, RPP, BL, UO.
63. Moore, Niels Bohr, p. 324.
64. Quoted in Teller with Shoolery, Memoirs, p. 186.
65. Sherwin, A World Destroyed, p. 195; and Niels Bohr to President Roosevelt, July 3, 1944, JROP, Box 34, MDLOC.
66. Sherwin, A World Destroyed, pp. 94–95, 196.
67. Quoted in Powers, Heisenberg’s War, p. 255.
68. Author’s interview with Robert Christy, Pasadena, Calif., July 29, 1998.
69. Richard Feynman interview with Charles Weiner, June 28, 1966, OHC, NBL, AIP.
70. Felix Frankfurter to Lord Halifax, April 18, 1945, JROP, Box 34, MDLOC.
71. Quoted in Moore, Niels Bohr, p. 343.
72. See R. V. Jones, “Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill,” Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, 1966, p. 88; and Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy, p. 355.
73. Sherwin, A World Destroyed, pp. 106–108.
74. See Aage Bohr, “The War Years and the Prospects Raised by the Atomic Weapons,” in Rozental, Niels Bohr, pp. 206–207; and Sherwin, A World Destroyed, p. 109.
75. Hyde Park Aide-Memoire, September 18, 1944, President’s Map Room Papers, Naval Aide’s File, Box 172, FDRL.
Chapter 6: The Decision to Use the Bomb
1. Leo Szilard to Vannevar Bush, January 14, 1944, LSP, Box 5, Folder 21, MSCD, GL, UCSD.
2. Sherwin, A World Destroyed, pp. 118–119. Compton himself addressed the political implications of atomic bombs for the first time in a memorandum to James Conant in August 1944. See Arthur H. Compton to James B. Conant, August 15, 1944, BCF, ROSRD, MEDR, NA.
3. Sherwin, A World Destroyed, p. 120; see also Arthur H. Compton to Alice K. Smith, September 30, 1958, Series 3, Box 27, Arthur H. Compton Papers (hereafter cited as AHCP), Washington University Archives (hereafter cited as WUA), St. Louis, Mo.
4. Sherwin, A World Destroyed, p. 122; and Bohr Memorandum, May 8, 1945, summarizing his communications with Roosevelt, JROP, Box 34, MDLOC.
5. Lanouette with Silard, Genius in the Shadows, p. 260.
6. Sherwin, A World Destroyed, pp. 200–201; and Leo Szilard, “Atomic Bombs and the Postwar Position of the United States in the World,” March 12, 1945, reprinted in Weart and Szilard, Leo Szilard, pp. 196–204.
7. See Leo Szilard to Ernest Lawrence, April 3, 1945; and Ernest Lawrence to Leo Szilard, April 9, 1945, EOLP, BL, UCB.
8. Quoted in Wyden, Day One, p. 141; and Weart and Szilard, Leo Szilard, p. 182.
9. Quoted in Allan R. Millett and Peter Maslowski, For the Common Defense: A Military History of the United States of America (revised, Free Press, 1994), p. 482.
10. Quoted in John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (Pantheon Books, 1986), pp. 39–40.
11. Quoted in Steve Birdsall, Saga of the Superfortress (Doubleday, 1980), p. 195.
12. Sherwin, A World Destroyed, pp. 145–147.
13. Henry L. Stimson Diary, December 31, 1944, Sterling Library, Yale University.
14. Sherwin, A World Destroyed, pp. 134, 190.
15. Ibid., p. 150; and Harry S Truman, Memoirs, Vol. I: Year of Decisions (Double-day, 1955), p. 10.
16. Henry L. Stimson, “Memo Discussed with the President,” April 25, 1945, Box 151, Folder 60, HBF, MEDR, NA.
17. J. Robert Oppenheimer, “The Atomic Bomb as a Great Force for Peace,” New York Times Magazine, June 9, 1946, p. 60.
18. Leo Szilard to J. Robert Oppenheimer, May 16, 1945, LSP, Box 14, Folder 27, MSCD, GL, UCSD.
19. Author’s interview with Louis Rosen, Los Alamos, N.Mex., July 16, 1997.
20. Ibid.
21. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, pp. 32–33.
22. Bodanis, E = mc2, p. 161.
23. Lanouette with Silard, Genius in the Shadows, p. 265.
24. Quoted in Sherwin, A World Destroyed, p. 202.
25. James Byrnes to President Roosevelt, March 3, 1945, Box 147, HBF, MEDR, NA.
26. See Szilard, “Reminiscences,” pp. 122–128; Smith, A Peril and a Hope, pp. 28–30; and James F Byrnes, All in One Lifetime (Harper and Brothers, 1958), pp. 284–285.
27. Szilard, “Reminiscences,” p. 129.
28. Arthur H. Compton, Statement to Interim Committee, May 28, 1945, BCF, ROSRD, MEDR, NA.
29. Compton, Atomic Quest, p. 238.
30. Sherwin, A World Destroyed, pp. 203–204; and Stimson Diary, May 31, 1945, SL,YU.
31. Handwritten Notes “To the Four [Scientists],” May 31, 1945, HBF, MEDR, NA.
32. Diary entry for May 31, 1945, Series 4, Box 1, AHCP, WUA.
33. Quoted in Moore, Niels Bohr, p. 369.
34. Sherwin, A World Destroyed, pp. 206–207.
35. Quoted in Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer, p. 142.
36. Compton, Atomic Quest, pp. 238–239.
37. Quoted in Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer, p. 247.
38. Arthur H. Compton to Colonel Kenneth D. Nichols, June 4, 1945, MUC-AC-1306/7, MEDR, NA. See also Diary entry for June 3, 1945, Series 4, Box 1, AHCP, WUA.
39. Sherwin, A World Destroyed, p. 210.
40. Ibid.
41. Franck Report, June 11, 1945, reprinted as Appendix B in Smith, A Peril and a Hope, pp. 560–572.
42. See James Franck, “Washington Trip Memo,” April 21, 1945, James Franck Papers, Box 18, DSC, JRL, UC.
43. Compton, Atomic Quest, p. 236.
44. Ibid., p. 247.
45. Ibid., pp. 239–240.
46. See Leo Szilard to Arthur H. Compton, July 19, 1945, LSP, Box 6, Folder 29, MSCD, GL, UCSD; and Wyden, Day One, p. 171.
47. Compton, Atomic Quest, pp. 240–241.
48. Recommendations on the Immediate Use of Nuclear Weapons, June 16, 1945, HBF, MEDR, NA.
49. Oppenheimer, “Niels Bohr and His Times,” Part 3, p. 15, JROP, Box 247, MDLOC.
50. Quoted in Moore, Niels Bohr, p. 370.
51. HBF, MEDR, NA.
52. Leo Szilard, “The Story of a Petition,” July 28, 1946, LSP, Box 40, Folder 15, MSCD, GL, UCSD.
53. HBF, MEDR, NA.
54. “A Petition to the President of the United States,” July 17, 1945, JROP, Box 70, MDLOC.
55. Quoted in Weart and Szilard, Leo Szilard, p. 167; and Compton, Atomic Quest, p. 262.
56. Leo Szilard to Frank Oppenheimer, July 10, 1945, JROP, Box 70, MDLOC.
57. Quoted in Teller with Shoolery, Memoirs, p. 206; and author’s interview with Edward Teller, Stanford, Calif., July 27, 1998.
58. Edward Teller to Leo Szilard, July 2, 1945, LSP, Box 18, Folder 36, MSCD, GL, UCSD.
59. Edward Teller to Gregg Herken, February 26, 1999, cited in Herken, Brotherhood of the Bomb, p. 365.
60. Teller with Brown, The Legacy of Hiroshima, p. 14.
61. Teller, Better a Shield than a Sword, p. 60.
62. Teller with Brown, The Legacy of Hiroshima, p. 19.
63. Author’s interview with Edward Teller, Stanford, Calif., July 27, 1998.
64. Quotes are in Wyden, Day One, p. 150.
65. Quoted in Jungk, Brighter than a Thousand Suns, p. 171.
66. See Farrington Daniels and Arthur H. Compton, “A Poll of Scientists at Chicago,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (hereafter cited as BAS), February 1948, p. 44.
67. Arthur Compton to Kenneth Nichols, July 24, 1945, MUC-AC-1306/7, MEDR, NA.
68. Quoted in Knebel and Bailey, “The Fight over the A-Bomb,” p. 20.
69. Ibid.
70. Sherwin, A World Destroyed, pp. 194–196, 212.
71. Jette, Inside Box 1663, p. 99.
72. Quoted in Groueff, The Manhattan Project, p. 44.
73. Quoted in Los Alamos: Beginning of an Era, 1943–1945 (Los Alamos National Laboratory Public Relations Office), p. 44.
74. Norris, Racing for the Bomb, p. 400, n. 13.
75. Quoted in Los Alamos: Beginning of an Era, p. 46.
76. Author’s interview with Donald Hornig, Cambridge, Mass., May 14, 1998.
77. Quoted in Bush, Pieces of the Action, p. 148; and Lamont, Day of Trinity, p. 226.
78. Quoted in Glenn T. Seaborg, Journals: Volumes 1–4, April 19, 1942–May 19, 1946 (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1992), vol. 4, p. 4.
79. Quoted in Jungk, Brighter than a Thousand Suns, p. 199.
80. “E. O. Lawrence’s Thoughts,” July 16, 1945, Correspondence (“Top Secret”) of the Manhattan Engineer District, 1942–1946 (hereafter cited as CTS, MED), Record Group 77, NA.
81. Quoted in Sid Moody, “Proving Ground,” Albuquerque Journal Special Reprint, Julyl995, p. 3.
82. Rabi, Science, p. 138.
Chapter 7: Three Fires
1. Author’s interview with Donald Hornig, Cambridge, Mass., May 14, 1998.
2. Quoted in Laurence, The Story of the Atomic Bomb, p. 17.
3. Hans Bethe to Anne Longley, June 7, 1995, BPP; and Else, The Day After Trinity (KTEH-TV, 1980).
4. “E. O. Lawrence’s Thoughts,” July 16, 1945, CTS, MED, Record Group 77, NA.
5. Ernest O. Lawrence to George L. Harrison, July 18, 1945, EOLP, BL, UCB.
6. Enrico Fermi, “My Observations During the Explosion at Trinity on July 16, 1945,”A-84–019,LANLA.
7. Laura Fermi, “Bombs or Reactors,” BAS, June 1970, p. 27.
8. Rabi, Science, p. 138; and Bernstein, “Physicist: Profile—II,” p. 58.
9. Author’s interview with Raemer Schreiber, Los Alamos, N.Mex., July 17, 1997.
10. Quoted in Albuquerque Journal, July 12, 1970.
11. Robert Oppenheimer to Thomas Farrell and William Parsons, July 23, 1945, CTS, MED, NA.
12. Michihiko Hachiya, M.D., Hiroshima Diary: The Journal of a Japanese Physician, August 6–September 30, 1945 (University of North Carolina Press, 1955), p.1.
13. The following account of Hiroshima and Nagasaki is based on the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, Effects of Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Summary Report (Pacific War) (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1946), and Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb.
14. Bodanis, E=mc2, pp. 163–164.
15. Hachiya, Hiroshima Diary, p. 31.
16. Captain William C. Bryson, U.S. Navy, September 14, 1945, reprinted in BAS, December 1982, p. 35.
17. August 6, 1945, Transcript, L. R. Groves Telephone Conversations, MEDR, NA.
18. See Teller with Brown, The Legacy of Hiroshima, p. 41.
19. Lanouette with Silard, Genius in the Shadows, p. 277.
20. Leo Szilard to Gertrud Weiss, August 6, 1945, quoted in Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, p. 735.
21. Quoted in Leigh Fenly, “The Agony of the Bomb, and Ecstasy of Life with Leo Szilard,” San Diego Union, November 19, 1978, pp. Dl, D8.
22. Arthur Compton to A. J. McCartney, March 18, 1946, Series 3, Box 5, AHCP, WUA; and Arthur Compton in St. Louis Post-Dispatch, October 7, 1945, p. 4D.
23. Powers, Heisenberg’s War, p. 461; and Sam Cohen, The Truth About the Neutron Bomb (Morrow, 1983), pp. 21–22.
24. Cited in Field Report, April 18, 1952, Robert Oppenheimer File, FBI, Washington, D.C.
25. J. R. Oppenheimer to All Division Leaders, August 9, 1945, LANLA.
26. Lanouette with Silard, Genius in the Shadows, p. 277.
27. Author’s interview with Hans Bethe, Ithaca, N.Y., June 6, 1997.
28. Quoted in Herken, Brotherhood of the Bomb, p. 139.
29. Karl K. Darrow to Ernest O. Lawrence, August 9, 1945, EOLP, BL, UCB.
30. Ernest O. Lawrence to Karl K. Darrow, August 17, 1945, in ibid.
31. Ernest O. Lawrence to Citizens of Berkeley, August 22, 1945, in ibid.
32. Quoted in Fermi, Atoms in the Family, p. 245.
33. Rabi, Science, p. 70.
34. Winston Churchill, Triumph and Tragedy (Houghton Mifflin, 1953), p. 639.
35. Quoted in Alice Kimball Smith, “Los Alamos: Focus of an Age,” in Lewis, Wilson, and Rabinowitch, Alamogordo Plus Twenty-Five Years, p. 40.
Chapter 8: An End, a Beginning
1. I. I. Rabi, “The Physicist Returns from the War,” p. 107.
2. Talk to FAS Members, Los Alamos, N.Mex., July 9, 1953, #14/22/976, Hans A. Bethe Papers (hereafter cited as HABP), Carl A. Kroch Library, Cornell University (hereafter cited as CAKL, CU).
3. Philip Morrison, “The Laboratory Demobilizes,” BAS, November 1946, pp. 5–6.
4. Quoted in Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, p. 754.
5. Time, November 5, 1945, p. 27.
6. Robert Oppenheimer, “Physics in the Contemporary World,” BAS 4, no. 3 (March 1948): 66.
7. Francis Sill Wickware, “Manhattan Project,” Life, August 20, 1945, p. 100.
8. I. I. Rabi to the Research Board for National Security, April 3, 1945, OVP, Box33, MDLOC.
9. J. Robert Oppenheimer, “Atomic Weapons,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, January 1946, pp. 7–10.
10. Author’s interview with Hans Bethe, Ithaca, N.Y., June 6, 1997.
11. Telegram, Ernest Lawrence to J. R. Oppenheimer, August 16, 1945, Box 45, JROP, MDLOC.
12. J. R. Oppenheimer, “For the [Scientific Advisory] Panel,” to Secretary of War Henry Stimson, August 17, 1945, Box 291, in ibid.
13. Oppenheimer to Lawrence, August 30, 1945, EOLP, BL, UCB.
14. Quoted in Time, October 29, 1945, p. 30.
15. Arthur Compton to Henry A. Wallace, September 27, 1945, Box 73, JROP, MDLOC.
16. Scientific Advisory Panel, “Proposal for Research and Development in the Field of Atomic Energy,” September 28, 1945, Accession #A-92–024, 1–18, LANLA.
17. Bernstein, “Four Physicists and the Bomb,” pp. 243–244.
18. Robert Oppenheimer to Herbert W. Smith, August 26, 1945, Box 294, JROP, MDLOC; to Haakon Chevalier, August 27, 1945, Supplemental Files, Jon Else, The Day After Trinity: J. Robert Oppenheimer and the Atomic Bomb (Voyager CD-ROM, 1999); and to Frederick Bernheim, August 27, 1945, reprinted in Smith and Weiner, Robert Oppenheimer, pp. 297–298.
19. Robert Oppenheimer to General Leslie Groves, May 7, 1945, MEDR, NA.
20. George Harrison, Memorandum for the Files, September 25, 1945, HBF, MEDR, NA.
21. Quoted in Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer, p. 251.
22. Quoted in Hawkins, Toward Trinity.
23. Speech to the Association of Los Alamos Scientists, November 2, 1945, reprinted in Smith and Weiner, Robert Oppenheimer, pp. 315–325.
24. Edith Warner to J. Robert Oppenheimer, November 25, 1945, reprinted in ibid., pp. 325–326.
25. Niels Bohr, “A Challenge to Civilization,” Science, October 12, 1945, pp. 363–364.
26. Niels Bohr to Robert Oppenheimer, November 9, 1945, JROP, MDLOC.
27. Robert Oppenheimer to W. A. Higinbotham, March 1946, quoted in Smith, A Peril and a Hope, p. 350; and Oppenheimer, “Atomic Weapons,” p. 9.
28. Enrico Fermi and Samuel K. Allison to Senator Warren G. Magnusson, September 13, 1945, EFP, DSC, JRL, UC.
29. Arthur Compton to Leslie Groves, November 28, 1945, Series 2, Box 6, AHCP, WUA.
30. Rigden, Rabi, pp. 196–197; quote is in Goodchild, J. Robert Oppenheimer, pp. 180–181.
31. Report on the International Control of Atomic Energy, Department of State Publication No. 2498 (U.S. Government Printing Office, March 16, 1946), p. viii.
32. Edward Teller and James Franck, Proposed Statement of the Atomic Scientists of Chicago on the Acheson Report, April 10, 1946, Box 9, James Franck Papers, DSC, JRL, UC.
33. Arthur Compton, Statement with Regard to State Department’s Proposal for Development and Control of Atomic Energy, April 3, 1946; and Richard Baumhoff to Arthur Compton, April 2, 1946, Series 3, Box 4, AHCP, WUA.
34. Hans A. Bethe to J. M. Burgers, May 16, 1946, Federation of American Scientists Papers (hereafter cited as FASP), Box 12, DSC, JRL, UC.
35. Bundy, Danger and Survival, pp. 166–192.
36. David Lilienthal, The Journals of David E. Lilienthal, pp. 69–70.
37. Robert Oppenheimer to W. A. Higinbotham, May 20, 1947, FASP, DSC, JRL, UC; and Robert Oppenheimer to Niels Bohr, September 3, 1947, JROP, Box21,MDLOC.
38. Leo Szilard, “The Physicist Invades Politics,” pp. 33–34.
39. Quoted in Time, October 29, 1945, p. 30.
40. Quoted in Jungk, Brighter than a Thousand Suns, p. 241.
41. Dyson, Disturbing the Universe, p. 73.
42. Quotes are in Merle Miller, Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S Truman (G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1974), p. 248; and Goodchild, J. Robert Oppenheimer, p. 180.
43. Quoted in Bernstein, “Four Physicists and the Bomb,” p. 251.
44. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, p. 23.
45. See Libby, The Uranium People, p. 247.
46. Teller, “The State Department Report,” p. 13.
47. Teller, “Comments on the ‘Draft of a World Constitution,” p. 204.
48. Hans Bethe, BAS, December 1958, p. 428.
49. Author’s interview with Hans Bethe, Ithaca, N.Y., June 6, 1997.
50. Author’s interview with Herbert York, La Jolla, Calif., March 12, 2001.
51. Ibid.
52. Ibid.
53. Quoted in Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer, p. 254.
54. Segrè, Enrico Fermi, pp. 167, 169, 172.
55. Ibid, pp. 170–171.
56. Author’s interview with Harold Agnew, Solana Beach, Calif., March 13, 2001.
57. Quoted in Segrè, Enrico Fermi, p. 176.
58. Paul Boyer, By the Bomb’s Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age (Pantheon Books, 1985), p. 102. Stockpile figures are in David Alan Rosenberg, “U.S. Nuclear Stockpile, 1945–1950,” BAS, May 1982, pp. 25–30.
Chapter 9: The Superbomb Debate
1. Teller with Brown, Legacy of Hiroshima, p. 33.
2. Herken, Brotherhood of the Bomb, pp. 201–202.
3. Edward Teller to Enrico Fermi, October 31, 1945, LANLA.
4. Quoted in Ulam, Adventures of a Mathematician, p. 151.
5. Quoted in Moss, Men Who Play God, p. 68.
6. Quoted in Coughlan, “Dr. Edward Teller’s Magnificent Obsession,” p. 61.
7. See George Harrison and Harvey Bundy Files, Folder 76, MEDR, NA.
8. Arthur Compton to Gordon Gray, April 21, 1954, AHCP, Series 3, Box 18, WUA.
9. Robert Oppenheimer to James Conant, October 21, 1949, reprinted in U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, pp. 242–243; and transcript of interview with Warner Schilling, JROP, MDLOC.
10. Author’s interview with Hans Bethe, June 6, 1997, Ithaca, N.Y.
11. Herbert York, quoted in Lifton and Markusen, The Genocidal Mentality, p. 116.
12. Quoted in Herken, Brotherhood of the Bomb, pp. 204–205.
13. Author’s interview with Herbert York, La Jolla, Calif., March 12, 2001.
14. Quoted in Teller with Shoolery, Memoirs, p. 281.
15. See “National Defense and the Scientists: An Open Letter to Hans Bethe from Edward Teller,” HABP, Box 33, CAKL, CU; and Palevsky, Atomic Fragments, p. 53.
16. Author’s interview with Edward Teller, Stanford, Calif., July 27, 1998.
17. Edward Teller to Maria Mayer (undated), Maria Mayer Papers (hereafter cited as MMP), MSCD, GL, UCSD.
18. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, p. 328.
19. Quoted in Bernstein, Hans Bethe, pp. 92–93.
20. U.S. Atomic energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, p. 328.
21. Ibid., p. 715.
22. Hans Bethe interview with Charles Weiner, May 8, 1972, OHC, NBL, AIP.
23. Hans Bethe to Victor Weisskopf, October 31, 1949, HABP, Box 9, CAKL, CU.
24. Quotes are in Bernstein, Hans Bethe, pp. 93–94; U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, p. 328; and Jungk, Brighter than a Thousand Suns, p. 281.
25. Quoted in Hans Bethe interview with Charles Weiner, May 8, 1972, OHC, NBL, AIP.
26. Quoted in Blumberg and Owens, Energy and Conflict, p. 209.
27. Quoted in Shepley and Blair, The Hydrogen Bomb, p. 64.
28. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, pp. 460–461.
29. Quoted in Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer, p. 266.
30. Lee DuBridge, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, pp. 518–519.
31. Quoted in Goodchild, J. Robert Oppenheimer, p. 200.
32. Manuscript Journal, David E. Lilienthal Papers, Seeley G. Mudd Library, Princeton University.
33. Quoted in Lilienthal, The Atomic Energy Years, p. 581.
34. GAC Report, October 30, 1949, reprinted in York, The Advisors, pp. 152–160.
35. Enrico Fermi and I. I. Rabi, “An Opinion on the Development of the ‘Super,’” October 30, 1949, reprinted in York, The Advisors, pp. 161–162.
36. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, p. 395.
37. Quoted in Bernstein, “Profiles: Physicist—II,” p. 77.
38. Quoted in Rigden, Rabi, p. 208.
39. Herbert Childs interview with Robert Oppenheimer, EOLP, BL, UCB.
40. Quoted in Foreign Relations of the United States: 1950, vol. 1, pp. 200–201.
41. See note 9.
42. Ibid.; and Bundy, Danger and Survival, pp. 219–221.
43. Teller with Brown, Legacy of Hiroshima, p. 44.
44. Quoted in Bernstein, “Four Physicists and the Bomb,” p. 260.
45. Edward Teller to Maria Mayer (undated), Box 3, MMP, MSCD, GL, UCSD.
46. John H. Manley, “Recollections and Memories,” unpublished manuscript, LANLA.
47. Edward Teller to John von Neumann, November 9, 1949, John von Neumann Papers, Box 7, MDLOC.
48. Edward Teller to Maria Mayer (undated), Box 3, MMP, MSCD, GL, UCSD.
49. J. H. Manley Diary, November 15, 1949, p. 14, Accession #A-92–024, 1–1, LANLA.
50. Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department (W.W. Norton, 1969), p. 346.
51. Quoted in R. Gordon Arneson, “The H-Bomb Decision,” Foreign Service Journal, May 1969, p. 29; and Acheson, Present at the Creation, p. 346.
52. Transcript of Warner Schilling interview, Box 65, JROP, MDLOC.
53. Quoted in ibid., p. 27.
54. See The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion, 1935–1971, vol. 2, p. 888.
55. Quoted in NYT, February 1, 1950, p. 3.
56. Andrei Sakharov, Memoirs (Alfred A. Knopf, 1990), pp. 94, 98–101.
57. Quoted in Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer, pp. 330–331.
58. Transcript, “Mrs. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Simulcast on Sunday, February 12, 1950, NBC Network,” JROP, MDLOC.
59. “We Got to Go On,” unpublished letter, March 6, 1950, LSP, MSCD, GL, UCSD; and Leo Szilard at University of Chicago Roundtable Discussion, February 26, 1950, reprinted in “The Facts About the Hydrogen Bomb,” BAS, April 1950, pp. 107–109.
60. Arthur Compton to George Gallup, January 21, 1950, AHCP, Series 3, Box 12,WUA.
61. Quoted in Moss, Men Who Play God, p. 40.
62. Statement by S. K. Allison et al., Samuel Allison Papers, Box 2, DSC, JRL, UC.
63. Hans Bethe, “The Hydrogen Bomb,” Scientific American, April 1950, pp. 102–103.
64. Hans Bethe to Norris Bradbury, February 14, 1950, LANLA.
65. Quoted in Lifton and Markusen, The Genocidal Mentality, p. 117.
66. Ibid., p. 139.
67. “Talk to FAS Members and Others at Los Alamos, July 9, 1953,” HABP, CAKL, CU.
68. Notes on “The Social Responsibilities of Scientists and Engineers,” November 6, 1963, HABP, Box 4, CAKL, CU.
69. Quoted in Jungk, Brighter than a Thousand Suns, p. 291.
70. AEC chairman Gordon Dean, quoted in ibid., p. 295.
71. See Hans Bethe to John Strauss, February 28, 1950, HABP, CAKL, CU.
72. Notes, “TV 1995—Anniversary,” BPP.
73. Quoted in Jungk, Brighter than a Thousand Suns, p. 296.
74. Quoted in Teller with Shoolery, Memoirs, p. 289.
75. Quoted in Blumberg and Owens, Energy and Conflict, p. 251.
76. Quoted in Blumberg and Panos, Edward Teller, p. 141.
77. Teller, “The Work of Many People,” Science, February 25, 1955, p. 274.
78. Quoted in Chuck Hansen, The Swords of Armageddon: U.S. Nuclear Weapons Development Since 1945. CD-ROM. (Chukelea Publications, 1995).
79. Raemer Schreiber, quoted in Rhodes, Dark Sun, p. 509.
80. Author’s interview with Edward Teller, Stanford, Calif., July 27, 1998.
81. Quoted in Relman Morin, “Dr. Cloyd Marvin Discusses Teller’s Tear in His Heart,’” Washington Post, June 23, 1954.
82. Quoted in Coughlan, “Dr. Edward Teller’s Magnificent Obsession,” p. 74.
Chapter 10: The Oppenheimer Affair
1. Rigden, Rabi, p. 221.
2. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, pp. 837–838.
3. Quoted in Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer, p. 278.
4. Quoted in Alsop, We Accuse!, p. 19.
5. Ibid.
6. Joint Congressional Committee on Atomic Energy, Investigation into the United States Atomic Energy Project (U.S Government Printing Office, 1949), pp. 277–315; and NYT, June 16, 1949, p. 20.
7. Quoted in Stern with Green, The Oppenheimer Case, p. 131; and Lilienthal, The Atomic Energy Years, p. 522.
8. Herken, Brotherhood of the Bomb, p. 266.
9. “Record of Telephone Conversation (Robert Oppenheimer and Lewis Strauss),” December 14, 1953, AEC Records, Historian’s Office, Department of Energy, Germantown, Md.
10. Quoted in Bernstein, “Profiles: Physicist—II.”
11. Stern with Green, The Oppenheimer Case, p. 234.
12. Quoted in ibid., p. 235.
13. Quoted in Coughlan, “Tangled Drama,” p. 88.
14. Bernstein, “In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer,” p. 213.
15. J. Robert Oppenheimer to Lewis Strauss, December 22, 1953, reprinted in NYT, April 13, 1954, p. 16.
16. Author’s interview with Ralph Lapp, Alexandria, Va., March 12, 1999.
17. Quoted in Blumberg and Owens, Energy and Conflict, p. 360.
18. Edward Teller, paraphrased in McCabe to FBI Director, May 14, 1952; and SAC, Albuquerque, to Director, FBI, “Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer,” May 27, 1952, J. Robert Oppenheimer FBI/Freedom of Information Act File.
19. Jon Else interview with I. I. Rabi, quoted in Bernstein, “In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer,” p. 222.
20. Harold Green, “The Oppenheimer Case: A Study in the Abuse of the Law,” BAS, September 1977, pp. 59–60.
21. See Transcript of Gordon Gray Oral History, p. 187, Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kansas.
22. Hans Bethe and Victor Weisskopf to J. Robert Oppenheimer, Box 202, JROP, MDLOC.
23. Stern with Green, The Oppenheimer Case, pp. 260–261.
24. Bernstein, “In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer,” pp. 220–221.
25. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, p. 20.
26. Ibid., p. 56.
27. David Lilienthal, quoted in Stern with Green, The Oppenheimer Case, pp. 309–310.
28. Quoted in Goodchild, J Robert Oppenheimer, p. 248.
29. Eltenton FBI interview, June 26, 1946, cited in Herken, Brotherhood of the Bomb, p. 92.
30. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, p. 137.
31. Ibid.
32. Ibid., p. 149.
33. Ibid., p. 154.
34. Stern with Green, The Oppenheimer Case, p. 287.
35. Leslie Groves to Lewis Strauss, February 1, 1954, cited in Bernstein, “In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer,” pp. 216–217.
36. Goodchild, J. Robert Oppenheimer, p. 242.
37. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, p. 243.
38. Ibid., p. 229.
39. Quoted in Goodchild, J. Robert Oppenheimer, p. 244.
40. Quoted in Coughlan, “Tangled Drama,” p. 101.
41. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, p. 331.
42. Quoted in Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer, p. 346.
43. Rigden, Rabi, pp. 222–223.
44. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, p. 468.
45. Ibid., p. 469.
46. Ibid., p. 470.
47. “Familiarity, Rejection of Reds Favor Oppenheimer—Compton,” Washington Post, April 19, 1954, p. 10.
48. See Arthur H. Compton to Gordon Gray, April 21, 1954, AHCP, Series 3, Box 18, WUA.
49. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, pp. 565, 567.
50. Ibid., p. 517.
51. Ibid., p. 660.
52. See Herken, Brotherhood of the Bomb, pp. 248, 258.
53. Author’s interview with Harold Agnew, Solana Beach, Calif., March 13, 2001.
54. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, p. 754.
55. Charter Heslep to Lewis Strauss, “Conversation with Edward Teller at Liver-more on April 22, 1954,” May 3, 1954, Lewis Strauss Papers, Herbert Hoover Library, West Branch, Iowa.
56. Author’s interview with Herbert York, La Jolla, Calif., March 12, 2001.
57. Ibid.
58. Draft of a Statement, 1954, in Helen Hawkins, G. Allen Greb, and Gertrud Weiss Szilard, eds., Toward a Livable World (MIT Press, 1987), p. 129.
59. See ibid., p. xliii.
60. Hans Bethe interview with Charles Weiner, May 9, 1972, OHC, NBL, AIP; and Bernstein, Hans Bethe, p. 99.
61. Quoted in Dyson, Disturbing the Universe, p. 90.
62. Coughlan, “Tangled Drama”; and Stern with Green, The Oppenheimer Case, p. 343.
63. Quoted in Jonathan Weisman, “Teller Recants Oppenheimer Denunciation,” Tri-Valley Herald, December 16, 1992.
64. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, pp. 709–710.
65. Ibid., p. 726.
66. Handwritten Notes, Box 205, JROP, MDLOC.
67. Quoted in Stern with Green, The Oppenheimer Case, p. 345.
68. Quoted in York, The Advisors, p. 64.
69. Quoted in Herken, Brotherhood of the Bomb, p. 283.
70. Author’s interview with Herbert York, La Jolla, Calif., March 12, 2001.
71. Ernest O. Lawrence for C. A. Rolander, AEC, picked up by courier on May 4, 1954, LWA-1234, EOLP, BL, UCB.
72. Quoted in Hans Bethe interview with Charles Weiner, May 9, 1972, OHC, NBL, AIP.
73. Quoted in Coughlan, “Tangled Drama,” p. 98.
74. Stern with Green, The Oppenheimer Case, p. 390.
75. Notes of Phone Conversation with Joseph Alsop, June 8, 1954, Box 200, JROP, MDLOC.
76. Decision and Opinions of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in the Matter of Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer, reprinted in U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer (MIT Press edition), pp. 1047–1066.
77. Quoted in NYT, July 4, 1954, p. 15.
78. Quoted in Alsop, We Accuse!, p. 21.
79. Quoted in Lifton and Markusen, The Genocidal Mentality, p. 136.
80. Quoted in Bernstein, Hans Bethe, p. 101.
81. Hans Bethe to Edward Teller, November 30, 1954, Edward Teller Papers, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University.
82. Quoted in Herken, Brotherhood of the Bomb, p. 299.
83. Crawford Greenewalt to Herbert Anderson, August 22, 1960, Personal Papers of Crawford Greenewalt, Accession 2016, HML.
84. Quoted in Segrè, Enrico Fermi, p. 182.
85. Segrè, A Mind Always in Motion, pp. 251–252.
86. Quoted in Blumberg and Owens, Energy and Conflict, p. 374.
87. Quoted in Jungk, Brighter than a Thousand Suns, p. 331.
88. Jon Else interview with I. I. Rabi, quoted in Bernstein, “In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer,” p. 222.
89. Felix Bloch, quoted in Rigden, Rabi, pp. 218–219.
90. Quoted in ibid., pp. 230–231.
91. Quoted in Bernstein, Hans Bethe, p. 99.
92. Robert Serber quoted in Rhodes, Dark Sun, p. 558.
93. Quoted in Else, The Day After Trinity (KTEH-TV, 1980).
94. Quoted in Moyers, “Meet I.I. Rabi.”
95. Quoted in John Mason Brown, Through These Men (Harper and Brothers, 1956), p. 288.
96. Coughlan, “Tangled Drama,” p. 103.
97. Quoted in ibid., p. 104; and Brown, Through These Men, pp. 228–229.
98. Quoted in Coughlan, “Tangled Drama,” p. 104.
99. Edward Teller to William L. Borden, July 9, 1954, excerpted in Teller with Shoolery, Memoirs, p. 390.
100. Edward Teller to Maria Mayer (undated), MMP, MSCD, GL, UCSD.
101. Quoted in Blumberg and Owens, Energy and Conflict, p. 378.
102. Quoted in Moss, Men Who Play God, p. 78.
103. Excerpted in Blumberg and Owens, Energy and Conflict, p. 368.
104. Teller-Strauss Correspondence File, Lewis Strauss Papers, Herbert Hoover Library.
105. Quoted in Blumberg and Owens, Energy and Conflict, p. 364.
106. Teller with Shoolery, Memoirs, pp. 371, 383.
107. Quoted in Blumberg and Owens, Energy and Conflict, p. 365.
108. See NYT, September 11, 2003, p. A22.
109. See NYT, April 5, 1963, p. 1.
110. Quoted in Michelmore, The Swift Years, p. 232.
111. Quoted in Jungk, Brighter than a Thousand Suns, p. 333.
Chapter 11: Twilight Years
1. Niels Bohr to George C. Marshall, June 10, 1948, JROP, MDLOC.
2. Niels Bohr, “Open Letter to the United Nations,” June 9, 1950, reprinted in Rozental, Niels Bohr, pp. 340–352.
3. Arthur Compton, “The Moral Meaning of the Atomic Bomb” (1946), quoted in Johnston, The Cosmos of Arthur Holly Compton, pp. 304–305.
4. Arthur Compton, “How Peace with the Hydrogen Bomb?” (1954), reprinted in ibid., p. 325.
5. Arthur Compton to Senator Stuart Symington, May 8, 1958, AHCP, Series 3, Box28,WUA.
6. Quoted in York, Making Weapons, Talking Peace, p. 39.
7. See Ernest O. Lawrence to Mrs. Martin Johnson, January 31, 1955, EOLP, BL, UCB.
8. Quoted in Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer, p. 351.
9. Quoted in Herken, Brotherhood of the Bomb, p. 320.
10. Ernest O. Lawrence to Mrs. Edwin S. Spencer, February 17, 1955, EOLP, BL, UCB.
11. Quoted in Coffin, “Leo Szilard.”
12. Leo Szilard to Niels Bohr, November 7, 1950, LSP, Box 4, Folder 34, MSCD, GL, UCSD.
13. See Szilard, The Voice of the Dolphins.
14. Libby, The Uranium People, pp. 60–64; and Coffin, “Leo Szilard.”
15. Smith, “The Elusive Dr. Szilard”; and Coffin, “Leo Szilard.”
16. Herken, Brotherhood of the Bomb, p. 321.
17. Quoted in Childs, An American Genius, p. 531.
18. Quoted in Herken, Brotherhood of the Bomb, p. 328.
19. Author’s interview with Hans Bethe, Ithaca, N.Y., June 6, 1997.
20. Frank Oppenheimer interview with Charles Weiner, May 21, 1973, OHC, NBL, AIP.
21. “Dr. Oppenheimer Discusses Future,” NYT, July 4, 1954.
22. Victor Cohn, “Can a Security Risk Survive?” Minneapolis Tribune, June 16, 1957.
23. See Leo Szilard, “Memorandum Based on a Meeting Held on the Initiative of Bertrand Russell at Pugwash, Nova Scotia, in July 1957,” July 29, 1957; and “Has the Time Come to Abrogate War?” May 25, 1960, Eugene Rabinowitch Papers, Box 9, DSC, JRL, UC.
24. Quoted in Lanouette, Genius in the Shadows, p. 371.
25. Szilard-Teller Debate, reprinted in Hawkins, Greb, and Szilard, Toward a Livable World, pp. 238–250.
26. Arthur Compton to Leo Szilard, March 3, 1960, LSP, MSCD, GL, UCSD.
27. I. I. Rabi to Robert Oppenheimer, April 5, 1963, IIRP, MDLOC.
28. Edward Teller to Robert Oppenheimer (undated); and Robert Oppenheimer to Edward Teller, April 23, 1963, Box 71, JROP, MDLOC.
29. Quoted in Coughlan, “Tangled Drama,” p. 110.
30. Quoted in Lanouette, Genius in the Shadows, p. xix.
31. “Address by Dr. Leo Szilard,” reprinted in The Nation, December 3, 1945.
32. Goodchild, J. Robert Oppenheimer, p. 278.
33. J. Robert Oppenheimer, “Niels Bohr and Atomic Weapons,” May 18, 1964, LANLA.
34. Quoted in Herbert Smith interview with Charles Weiner, August 1, 1974, OHC, NBL, AIP.
35. Thomas B. Morgan, “With Oppenheimer, on an Autumn Day,” Look, December 27, 1966, pp. 63, 67.
36. Robert Reid to the Editor, The [London] Times, August 26, 1975.
37. Quoted in Peierls, Bird of Passage, p. 315.
38. Hans Bethe to Robert Oppenheimer, JROP, MDLOC.
39. Quoted in Michelmore, The Swift Years, p. 254.
40. Quoted in Science, March 3, 1967, p. 1080.
41. Quoted in Rigden, Rabi, p. 211.
42. Stern with Green, The Oppenheimer Case, pp. 505–506.
43. Quoted in Royal, The Story of J. Robert Oppenheimer, p. 180.
44. Quoted in Rigden, Rabi, p. 231.
45. Quoted in Stern with Green, The Oppenheimer Case, p. 514.
46. Kempton, “The Ambivalence of J. Robert Oppenheimer,” p. 247.
47. Robert Oppenheimer, “The Power to Act: The Scientific Revolution and Its Effects on Democratic Institutions” (1963), in Metropolis, Rota, and Sharp, Uncommon Sense, p. 144.
48. Quoted in Rigden, Rabi, p. 178.
49. Quoted in Bernstein, “Profiles: Physicist—II,” p. 66.
50. Author’s interview with Herbert York, La Jolla, Calif., March 12, 2001.
51. Quoted in Rigden, Rabi, p. 220.
52. The physicist was Richard Garwin. Cited in author’s interview with Herbert York, La Jolla, Calif., March 12, 2001.
53. Edward Teller to Lewis Strauss, 1957, quoted in Blumberg and Owens, Energy and Conflict, p. 420.
54. Quoted in NYT, August 14, 1963, p. 6.
55. Quoted in ibid., August 24, 1963, p. 18.
56. Quoted in ibid., January 12, 1988, p. A24.
57. I. I. Rabi Lecture, Columbia University, May 13, 1966, Manuscript Biographies, AIP.
58. Quoted in Bernstein, “Profiles: Physicist—II,” p. 94.
59. Quoted in NYT, January 12, 1988, p. A24.
60. See John Noble Wilford, “Teller Deplores Secret Research,” in ibid., December 28, 1970, pp. 1, 25.
61. Quoted in “Edward Teller and His Critics,” Part 1, Bridges: A Liberal/Conservative Dialogue with Larry Josephson, National Public Radio, November 1995.
62. Transcript, Firing Line, Southern Educational Communications Association, June 15, 1982, p. 7.
63. Quoted in Douglas C. Waller, Congress and the Nuclear Freeze (University of Massachusetts Press, 1987), p. 191.
64. Quoted in “Our Times with Bill Movers,” CBS TV, June 27, 1983.
65. Quoted in Rigden, Rabi, p. 229.
66. Ibid., pp. 209–210.
67. Quoted in Charles Claffey, “A Father of the A-Bomb Looks Back in Torment,” Boston Globe, April 15, 1983, p. 1; and I. I. Rabi, “How Well We Meant.”
68. Author’s interview with Edward Teller, Stanford, Calif., July 27, 1998.
69. Broad, Teller’s War, pp. 270–271.
70. Quoted in Gary Stix, “Profile: Infamy and Honor at the Atomic Café,” Scientific American, October 1999, p. 44.
71. Teller with Shoolery, Memoirs, p. 396.
72. Ibid., p. 22 n.
73. Quoted in Blumberg and Panos, Edward Teller, p. 2.
74. Quoted in Lee Edson, “Scientific Man For All Seasons,” New York Times Magazine, March 10, 1968, p. 124.
75. Dyson, Disturbing the Universe, p. 47.
76. See Testimony before House Subcommittee on Arms Control, International Security, and Science, May 13, 1985; and Notes of Remarks at Los Alamos National Laboratory, April 13, 1983, BPP.
77. Quoted in Blumberg and Panos, Edward Teller, p. 198.
78. Edward Teller to Hans Bethe, February 28, 1984, in ibid., p. 264.
79. Edward Teller to Hans Bethe, May 23, 1985, in ibid., pp. 265–266.
80. Hans Bethe to Edward Teller, June 20, 1985, BPP.
81. Edward Teller to Hans Bethe, July 8, 1985; and Hans Bethe to Edward Teller, August 5, 1985, in ibid.
82. Author’s interview with Louis Rosen, Los Alamos, N.Mex., July 16, 1997.
83. Author’s interview with Herbert York, La Jolla, Calif., March 12, 2001.
84. Quoted in Palevsky, Atomic Fragments, p. 158.
85. Handwritten Notes, “28 Nov 72,” HABP, CAKL, CU.
86. “Talk to Members of Congress,” July 16, 1985, BPP.
87. Quoted in Chronicle of Higher Education, January 31, 1997, p. A14.
88. Hans Bethe, FAS Public Interest Report, September–October 1995.
89. Quotes are in John W. Finney, “Bethe Receives Atom Award,” NYT, December 2, 1961; and Edson, “Scientific Man for All Seasons,” p. 125.
90. Quoted in Judith Horstman, “Hans Bethe: A Reluctant Warrior,” Ithaca Journal, December 18, 1981, p. 5.
Epilogue: The Atomic Scientists and Today
1. James M. Clash, “Ground Zero,” American Heritage, April 1998, pp. 65–66.
2. Patricia Leigh Brown, “Preserving the Birthplaces of the Atom Bomb,” NYT, April 7, 2001, p. A10.
3. Rabi, My Life and Times as a Physicist, p. 3.
4. J. Robert Oppenheimer, “Atomic Physics in Civilization,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists Papers, Box 29, JRL, UC.