TEXT [Commentary]
II. God’s Judgment on Israel’s Neighbors: Damascus, Gaza, Tyre, Edom, Ammon, and Moab (1:3–2:3)
3 This is what the LORD says:
“The people of Damascus have sinned again and again,[*]
and I will not let them go unpunished!
They beat down my people in Gilead
as grain is threshed with iron sledges.
4 So I will send down fire on King Hazael’s palace,
and the fortresses of King Ben-hadad will be destroyed.
5 I will break down the gates of Damascus
and slaughter the people in the valley of Aven.
I will destroy the ruler in Beth-eden,
and the people of Aram will go as captives to Kir,”
says the LORD.
6 This is what the LORD says:
“The people of Gaza have sinned again and again,
and I will not let them go unpunished!
They sent whole villages into exile,
selling them as slaves to Edom.
7 So I will send down fire on the walls of Gaza,
and all its fortresses will be destroyed.
8 I will slaughter the people of Ashdod
and destroy the king of Ashkelon.
Then I will turn to attack Ekron,
and the few Philistines still left will be killed,”
says the Sovereign LORD.
9 This is what the LORD says:
“The people of Tyre have sinned again and again,
and I will not let them go unpunished!
They broke their treaty of brotherhood with Israel,
selling whole villages as slaves to Edom.
10 So I will send down fire on the walls of Tyre,
and all its fortresses will be destroyed.”
11 This is what the LORD says:
“The people of Edom have sinned again and again,
and I will not let them go unpunished!
They chased down their relatives, the Israelites, with swords,
showing them no mercy.
In their rage, they slashed them continually
and were unrelenting in their anger.
12 So I will send down fire on Teman,
and the fortresses of Bozrah will be destroyed.”
13 This is what the LORD says:
“The people of Ammon have sinned again and again,
and I will not let them go unpunished!
When they attacked Gilead to extend their borders,
they ripped open pregnant women with their swords.
14 So I will send down fire on the walls of Rabbah,
and all its fortresses will be destroyed.
The battle will come upon them with shouts,
like a whirlwind in a mighty storm.
15 And their king[*] and his princes will go into exile together,”
says the LORD.
CHAPTER 2
1 This is what the LORD says:
“The people of Moab have sinned again and again,[*]
and I will not let them go unpunished!
They desecrated the bones of Edom’s king,
burning them to ashes.
2 So I will send down fire on the land of Moab,
and all the fortresses in Kerioth will be destroyed.
The people will fall in the noise of battle,
as the warriors shout and the ram’s horn sounds.
3 And I will destroy their king
and slaughter all their princes,”
says the LORD.
NOTES
1:3 Damascus. The capital of modern Syria and one of the oldest continuously occupied cities in the world. The city is situated some 50 miles inland from the Mediterranean Sea in an oasis at the base of Mount Qasyun. Damascus was the capital city of the kingdom of Aram in OT times. The Arameans were historically one of the enemy nations on Israel’s northern border. The Hebrews controlled the region of Aram briefly during the reigns of David and Solomon (2 Sam 8:5-6) and again during the divided Hebrew monarchies at the time of Jeroboam II (2 Kgs 14:28). By extension, Damascus can also refer to the whole kingdom of Aram (cf. 1:5).
sinned again and again. The expression (lit., “for three sins, even four”; cf. NLT mg) indicates that the city or nation indicted is guilty of “crime after crime” or repeated sin (Andersen and Freedman 1989:217). The number “four” is emphatic or climactic since Amos mentions only the last or worst crime committed, what Hubbard (1989:129) terms the “back-breaking transgression that triggered the divine judgment.”
Gilead. This is a region of the Transjordan situated between the Yarmuk and Arnon Rivers (Deut 3:8-10). The Hebrew tribes of Reuben, Gad, and (East) Manasseh settled in Gilead (Josh 22:9).
sledges. This term (kharuts [TH2742B, ZH3023]) refers to threshing equipment, either a wooden sled with iron prongs or a low-slung wagon on wheels with iron spikes or teeth mounted on the underside (cf. Andersen and Freedman 1989:237). The threshing sledge was dragged over harvested grain to separate the chaff from the kernels of grain. The expression is a metaphor for the cruelty and violence of warfare (and may be an allusion to decimation of Jehoahaz’s army by the Arameans (2 Kgs 13:7).
1:4 Hazael. Probably a reference to the Aramean king Hazael who ruled from c. 843–796 BC and “caused mayhem for Israel’s [kings] Jerhoram . . . Jehu . . . and Jehoahaz” (Hubbard 1989:131; cf. 2 Kgs 8:7-15, 28-29; 9:14-15; 10:32-33; 13:3, 22-23).
fortresses. The term ’armon [TH759, ZH810] may refer to fortified palaces or citadels on the acropolis of walled cities (see the discussion in Andersen and Freedman 1989:242, especially concerning the chiasmus formed by the repetition of the word in 1:4, 7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5).
Ben-hadad. Probably a reference to the Aramean king Ben-hadad III, Hazael’s son (c. 796–770 BC). King Jehoahaz of Israel defeated King Ben-Hadad of Aram and recaptured Israelite towns previously taken by his father King Hazael (2 Kgs 13:24-25; see Hubbard 1989:131).
1:5 valley of Aven. An unknown valley in Lebanon, perhaps the region around Baalbek northwest of Damascus (so Hubbard 1989:132).
Beth-eden. An Aramean city-state identified with Bit-Adini on the Euphrates River south of Carchemish (cf. 2 Kgs 19:12).
Kir. A city or region of Mesopotamia, perhaps the city of Der located on the main route between Elam and Babylon east of the Tigris River. The Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III deported the populace of Damascus to Kir after conquering the Aramean capital in 733 BC (cf. 2 Kgs 16:9).
1:6 Gaza. The most important of the Philistine city-states and the southernmost of the five principal Philistine cities. It was located about four miles inland from the Mediterranean Sea. The city marked the southern limits of the territory of Judah during the Hebrew united monarchy and divided kingdoms. Zephaniah and Zechariah also condemn Gaza for its role in international slave trade (Zeph 2:4; Zech 9:5).
1:8 Ashdod . . . Ashkelon . . . Ekron. These Philistine cities were located on the coastal plain of Israel south of the port city of Joppa; along with Gaza and Gath they made up the five principal cities of the Philistines (cf. 1 Sam 6:17). The prophets Zephaniah (Zeph 2:4) and Zechariah (Zech 9:5-7) pronounce similar judgments against the same four Philistine cities Amos mentions.
1:9 Tyre. One of the twin Phoenician port cities, along with Sidon, located on the Mediterranean coast north of Israel (modern-day Lebanon). The cities were independent city-states and legendary for their wealth as a result of maritime trade. The OT prophets condemned the pride and social injustice practiced by the two cities and predicted their eventual destruction (cf. Isa 23; Ezek 26:3-14; Zech 9:2).
1:11 Edom. The name Edom is another name for Esau which means “ruddy” or “red,” and the nation of Edom was located in the highlands and red sandstone cliffs on the southeastern edge of the Dead Sea. The territory of Edom extended from the Brook Zered in the north to the Gulf of Aqaba in the south. The Edomites and the Israelites were kin according to the ancestral traditions of Genesis, as Edom traced its origins to Esau and Israel traced its origins to Jacob—both sons of Isaac (Gen 33–36). God had purposed to totally destroy the nation of Edom for their treacherous treatment of their relatives, the Israelites (Isa 34:5-6; Jer 49:7-22; Ezek 25:12-14; Obad 1:10-14; Mal 1:3-4). Despite their kinship, the Bible records a long history of animosity between the two nations of Israel and Edom (cf. Num 20:14-21; 2 Sam 8:13-14; 1 Kgs 11:14-15). Andersen and Freedman (1989:265) comment that there is no specific event recorded in the history of the eighth century BC that best accounts for Amos’s reference to Edomite atrocities against Judah, although both Amaziah (2 Kgs 14:7; 2 Chr 25:11-15) and Uzziah (2 Kgs 14:22) waged successful campaigns against the Edomites.
1:12 Teman. The chief southern stronghold of the Edomites, and like Bozrah, an important commercial center due to its location on the trade route.
Bozrah. The chief northern stronghold of the Edomites and the capital city of Edom. The city was an important commercial center since it was strategically located along the King’s Highway, the easternmost trade route connecting Egypt with Mesopotamia. The OT prophets condemned Bozrah’s pride in its invincibility and predicted its doom (Isa 34:6-10; Jer 49:13-16).
1:13 Ammon. The name Ammon means “son of my people.” Historically, the Ammonites traced their lineage to Ammon, the son Lot had by his younger daughter after their flight from Sodom (Gen 19:38). The territory of the Ammonite kingdom extended northeast of the Dead Sea between the Arnon and Jabbok Rivers (Num 21:24). Along with Moabites, the Ammonites were excluded from the assembly of the Lord because they conspired to oppose Israel after the Exodus by hiring Balaam to curse the Hebrews (Deut 23:3-6).
ripped open pregnant women. Amos asserts that “all is not fair in war.” Atrocities committed against the civilian population during warfare are an affront to any basic understanding of decency and the common dignity of humanity. Smith (1989:60) has noted the senselessness of the crime in that “a helpless and defenseless pregnant woman was of no military significance, and the heartless murder of unborn children had no purpose.”
1:14 Rabbah. The capital city of the Ammonite kingdom, located in the Transjordan near one of the major sources of the Jabbok River. Rabbah was renamed Philadelphia by the Ptolemy Philadelphus (285–246 BC) and became one of the important cities of the Decapolis during the Roman era. The ruins of Rabbah are in close proximity to Amman, the modern capital of Jordan. The city was conquered by David and Joab, but the Ammonites regained autonomy during the era of the Hebrew divided kingdoms (2 Sam 12:26-29; 1 Chr 20:1-3). The OT prophets targeted the city for divine judgment because of the Ammonite oppression of the Israelites living in the Transjordan (Jer 49:1-3; Ezek 25:1-7).
2:1 Moab. The name Moab means “from my father.” Historically, the Moabites traced their lineage to Moab, the son Lot had by his older daughter after their flight from Sodom (Gen 19:37). The territory of Moab was located in the Transjordan highlands along the southeastern coast of the Dead Sea ranging from the Arnon River in the north to the Brook Zered in the south. Along with the Ammonites, the Moabites were excluded from the assembly of the Lord because they conspired to oppose Israel after the Exodus by hiring Balaam to curse the Hebrews (Deut 23:3-6).
desecrated the bones. The crime of the Moabites was showing utter disrespect for the rights of the dead by burning the bones of a dead Edomite king. According to Smith (1989:62), “the desecration of a tomb or a dead body was a means by which a nation could show its total disrespect for its enemies (2 Kgs 23:16) or for criminals (Lev 20:14; 21:9).”
2:2 Kerioth. A fortress city in Moab (cf. Jer 48:24). The exact location of the city remains uncertain. The Moabite Stone (cf. ANET) indicates that the city was home to a temple for the god Chemosh, and in the OT the Moabites were known as the “people of Chemosh” (Num 21:29; Jer 48:46). The prophet Jeremiah condemned the Moabites for trusting in their wealth, and he predicted exile for the god Chemosh and the people of Moab (Jer 48:7).
COMMENTARY [Text]
The oracles of doom against the nations are cleverly arranged in such a way that the messages crisscross the borders of the Hebrew kingdoms and effectively climax with the prophet’s “target” audience—the nation of Israel (see the map below). Chisholm (2002:378-386) has likened this to placing a noose around Israel’s neck and slowly tightening it, as divine judgment against each of the surrounding nations is sounded off one by one.
It is widely noted that each of the seven oracles of doom is scripted in a stereotyped literary pattern that includes, with slight variations:
- The opening messenger formula: “This is what the LORD says”
- A numerical formula: “The people of ______ have sinned again and again” (lit., “sinned three, even four times”)
- The indictment of specific sins committed by the nations
- The announcement of judgment (introduced by the formula “I will send down fire” in every case except the oracle against Israel)
- An elaboration of the announcement of judgment extending to the people and the rulers (only in 1:5, 8, 15; 2:3)
- A closing formula that includes the name of Yahweh (only in 1:5, 8, 15; 2:3)
This standardized literary form of the oracles of doom serves as one indicator of God’s fairness or consistency in the application of divine justice to human affairs.
Andersen and Freedman (1989:208-209) have recognized that the 3 + 4 pattern of the numerical formula has implications for both the general structure and the internal organization of the oracles of doom. For instance, the first three oracles specify judgment against cities, while the latter four are directed against nations. The former are situated along the main routes of travel and would be the first to bear the brunt by an attack from an invading army, while the latter lay along a secondary line of march. Andersen and Freedman conclude, however, that even if Amos was envisioning an invasion from the north by Assyria, the list of nations indicted by the prophet is arranged according to literary and theological considerations—not military ones.
The oracles against the nations neighboring Judah and Israel may be understood as a unit for the sake of commentary (1:3–2:3). The indictments against Damascus, Gaza, Tyre, Edom, Ammon, and Moab are similar in that all involve crimes against humanity (Hubbard 1989:128). The word rendered “sinned” (pesha‘ [TH6588, ZH7322]; 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 13; 2:1; 3:14; 5:12) means to commit a legal offense and signifies an act of rebellion in the form of social transgression. Such treacherous “conduct constituted rebellion against Yahweh himself” (NIDOTTE 3.708).
The repetition of the messenger formula (“This is what the LORD says” [1:3], also found in the opening verse of each oracle) serves the dual purpose of emphasizing God as the source of the prophet’s message and legitimizing his sovereign rule over the nations.
The repetition of the phrase “I will not let them go unpunished!” after the messenger formula is a sober reminder that God is holy and he will bring just punishment against sinners. The expression calls to mind the words of the prophet Nahum, who warned that “the LORD is slow to get angry, but his power is great, and he never lets the guilty go unpunished” (Nah 1:3). The reality and certainty of God’s judgment emerges out of his character. First, he is holy. This means God is utterly perfect and absolutely pure in his character as a transcendent and unapproachable being (cf. Eichrodt 1961:272-280). Second, he is righteous. This means God responds to human behavior (whether individual or national) with right or just conduct and impartial judgment in all situations as divine judge (cf. Eichrodt 1961:239-241). So God’s “deeds are perfect. Everything he does is just and fair” (Deut 32:4).
Implicit in each of the oracles against the neighbors of Judah and Israel is the truth that God sometimes uses other nations to bring judgment against renegade kingdoms and to accomplish his purposes of divine retribution on a cosmic scale. The vantage of historical perspective shows this to be the case with the oracles of Amos, as the ancient superpowers of Assyria and Babylonia did overthrow the peoples the prophet targeted for divine wrath. This reality proved a hard teaching for the prophet Habakkuk to accept when he learned that God had decreed the judgment of Judah at the hands of the Babylonians—a nation more wicked than the people of God (Hab 1:12-13). Yet the curses pronounced by Moses against Israel—should they fail to obey the stipulations of Yahweh’s covenant—indicated that God would bring other nations against his people to judge their sin (cf. Deut 28:25-26, 36, 49-53).