CHAPTER ONE:Lonely in a Social World
1.E. Berscheid, "Interpersonal attraction," in G. Lindzey and E. Aronson, eds., The Handbook of Social Psychology (New York: Random House, 1985).
2.C. Rubenstein and P. Shaver, In search of intimacy (New York: Delacorte, 1982). D. E. Steffick, "Documentation on affective functioning measures in the Health and Retirement Study," Documentation Report no. DR-005 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Survey Research Center, 2000), retrieved February 7, 2006, from hrsonline.isr.umich.edu/docs/userg/dr-005.pdf.
3.J. S. House, K. R. Landis, and D. Umberson, "Social relationships and health," Science 241 (1988): 540–545.
4.Simply write a down a number between 1 and 4 beside each question in Figure 1 to indicate how often you feel that way. However, note that half the questions are worded in a way that probes what you feel is missing from your life, and the other half are worded in a way that probes what you feel is present. Because both kinds of questions are coming at the same kinds of feelings from opposite directions, we score half the questions with the higher numbers meaning "more often," and half the questions with the higher numbers meaning "less often." For the questions marked with asterisks, write down a number to note how you feel according to this ranking: 1 = Always 2= Sometimes 3 = Rarely 4 = Never For the questions without asterisks, write down a number to note how you feel according to this ranking: 1 = Never 2 = Rarely 3 = Sometimes 4 = Always Then add up the numbers to find your score. High loneliness is defined as scoring 44 or higher. Low loneliness is defined as scoring less than 28. A score of 33 to 39 represents the middle of the spectrum.
5.J. Bowlby, "Affectional bonds: Their nature and origin," in R. S. Weiss, ed., Loneliness: The experience of emotional and social isolation (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1973), 38–52.
6.P. L. Jackson, A. N. Meltzoff, and J. Decety, "How do we perceive the pain of others? A window into the neural processes involved in empathy," NeuroImage 24 (2005): 771–779.
7.C. J. Norris, E. E. Chen, D. C. Zhu, S. L. Small, and J. T. Cacioppo, "The interaction of social and emotional processes in the brain," Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 16 (2004): 1818–29.
8.M. Gazzaniga, The cognitive neurosciences, 3rd ed. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004).
9.Bruskin Associates, "What are Americans afraid of?" Bruskin Report 53 (1973): 27.
10.K. D. Williams, Ostracism: The power of silence (New York: Guilford, 2001).
11.R. I. M. Dunbar and Suzanne Shultz, "Evolution and the social brain," Science 317 (September 7, 2007): 1344–47.
12.I. S. Bernstein, T. P. Gordon, and R. M. Rose, "The interaction of hormones, behavior, and social context in nonhuman primates," in B. B. Svare, ed., Hormones and aggressive behavior (New York: Plenum, 1983), 535–561.
13.Alexis M. Stranahan, David Khalil, and Elizabeth Gould, "Social isolation delays the positive effects of running on adult neurogenesis," Nature Neuroscience 9, no. 4 (April 2006).
14.R. S. Wilson, K. R. Krueger, S. E. Arnold, J. A. Schneider, J. F. Kelly, L. L. Barnes, Y. Tang, and D. A. Bennett, "Loneliness and risk of Alzheimer’s disease," Archives of General Psychiatry 64 (2007): 234–240.
15.S. W. Cole, L. C. Hawkley, J. M. Arevalo, C. Y. Sung, R. M. Rose, and J. T. Cacioppo, "Social regulation of gene expression in human leukocytes," Genome Biology 8 (2007): R189.
16.J. T. Cacioppo, J. M. Ernst, M. H. Burleson, M. K. McClintock, W. B. Malarkey, L. C. Hawkley, R. B. Kowalewski, A. Paulsen, J. A. Hobson, K. Hugdahl, D. Spiegel, and G. G. Berntson, "Lonely traits and concomitant physiological processes: The MacArthur social neuroscience studies," International Journal of Psychophysiology 35 (2000): 143–154.
17.G. R. Semin and J. T. Cacioppo, "Grounding social cognition: Synchronization, coordination, and co-regulation," in G. R. Semin and E. R. Smith, eds., Embodied grounding: Social, cognitive, affective, and neuroscientific approaches (New York: Cambridge University Press, in press).
CHAPTER TWO:Variation, Regulation, and an Elastic Leash
1.D. Weston, The political brain (New York: Public Affairs, 2006).
2.D. I. Boomsma, G. Willemsen, C. V. Dolan, L. C. Hawkley, and J. T. Cacioppo, "Genetic and environmental contributions to loneliness in adults: The Netherlands Twin Register Study," Behavior Genetics 35 (2005): 745–752.
3.J. T. Cacioppo, J. M. Ernst, M. H. Burleson, M. K. McClintock, W. B. Malarkey, L. C. Hawkley, R. B. Kowalewski, A. Paulsen, J. A. Hobson, K. Hugdahl, D. Spiegel, and G. G. Berntson, "Lonely traits and concomitant physiological processes: The MacArthur social neuroscience studies," International Journal of Psychophysiology 35 (2000): 143–154; J. T. Cacioppo and L. C. Hawkley, "Social isolation and health, with an emphasis on underlying mechanisms," Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 46 (2003): S39-S52. L. C. Hawkley, R. A. Thisted, and J. T. Cacioppo, "Loneliness predicts reduced physical activity: Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses," in a symposium entitled "Health behaviors: The relevance of social context and relationship features," Society for Personality and Social Psychology, New Orleans, LA, January 2005, I. Akerlind and J. O. Hornquist, "Loneliness and alcohol abuse: A review of evidence of an interplay," Social Science and Medicine 34 (1992): 405–414.
4.J. T. Cacioppo, L. C. Hawkley, G. G. Berntson, J. M. Ernst, A. C. Gibbs, R. Stickgold, and J. A. Hobson, "Lonely days invade the nights: Social modulation of sleep efficiency," Psychological Science 13 (2002): 384–387.
5.Cacioppo et al., "Lonely traits and concomitant physiological processes." L. C. Hawkley, C. M. Masi, J. D. Berry, and J. T. Cacioppo, "Loneliness is a unique predictor of age-related differences in systolic blood pressure," Psychology and Aging 21 (2006): 152–164. A. Steptoe, N. Owen, S. R. Kunz-Ebrecht, and L. Brydon, "Loneliness and neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, and inflammatory stress responses in middle-aged men and women," Psychoneuroendocrinology 29 (2004): 593–611.
6.E. Pennisi, "Why do humans have so few genes?" Science 309 (2005): 80.
7.Internal Human Genome Sequencing Consortium, "Finishing the euchromatic sequence of the human genome," Nature 431 (2004): 931–945.
8.P. T. Schoenemann, M. J. Sheehan, and D. Glotzer, "Prefrontal white matter volume is disproportionately larger in humans than in other primates," Nature Neuroscience 8 (2005): 242–252.
9.G. Roth and U. Dicke, "Evolution of the brain and intelligence," Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9 (2005): 250–257.
CHAPTER THREE:Losing Control
1.J. T. Cacioppo, J. M. Ernst, M. H. Burleson, M. K. McClintock, W. B. Malarkey, L. C. Hawkley, R. B. Kowalewski, A. Paulsen, J. A. Hobson, K. Hugdahl, D. Spiegel, and G. G. Berntson, "Lonely traits and concomitant physiological processes: The MacArthur social neuroscience studies," International Journal of Psychophysiology 35 (2000): 143–154.
2.I. Akerlind and J. O. Hornquist, "Loneliness and alcohol abuse: A review of evidence of an interplay," Social Science and Medicine 34 (1992): 405–414. A. W. Stacy, M. D. Newcomb, and P. M. Bentler, "Expectancy in mediational models of cocaine abuse," Personality and Individual Differences 19 (1995): 655–667. D. Coric and B. I. Murstein, "Bulimia nervosa: Prevalence and psychological correlates in a college community," Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment and Prevention 1 (1993): 39–51. S. K. Goldsmith, T. C. Pellmar, A. M. Kleinman, and W. E. Bunney, Reducing suicide: A national imperative (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2002).
3.J. M. Harlow, "Recovery from the passage of an iron bar through the head," History of Psychiatry 4 (1993): 271–281.
4.A. Damasio, Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain (New York: Putnam, 1994).
5.R. F. Baumeister, J. M. Twenge, and C. K. Nuss, "Effects of social exclusion on cognitive processes: Anticipated aloneness reduces intelligent thought," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83, no. 4 (2002): 817–827.
6.W. K. Campbell, E. A. Krusemark, K. A. Dyckman, A. B. Brunell, J. E. McDowell, J. M. Twenge, and B. A. Clementz, "A magnetoencephalography investigation of neural correlates for social exclusion and self-control," Social Neuroscience 1 (2006): 124–134.
7.R. F. Baumeister, C. N. DeWall, N. J. Ciarocco, and J. M. Twenge, "Social exclusion impairs self-regulation," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88 (2005): 589–604.
8.R. S. Weiss, Loneliness: The experience of emotional and social isolation (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1973).
9.J. K. Maner, C. N. DeWall, R. F. Baumeister, and M. Schaller, "Does social exclusion motivate interpersonal reconnection? Resolving the ‘porcupine problem,’" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92 (2007): 42–55.
10.J. M. Twenge, R. F. Baumeister, D. M. Tice, and T. S. Stucke, "If you can’t join them, beat them: Effects of social exclusion on aggressive behavior," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (2001): 1058–69. K. Rotenberg, "Loneliness and interpersonal trust," Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 13 (1994): 152–173.
11.J. M. Twenge, R. F. Baumeister, C. N. DeWall, N. J. Ciarocco, and J. M. Bartels, "Social exclusion decreases prosocial behavior," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92 (2007): 56–66. J. M. Twenge, K. R. Catanese, and R. F. Baumeister, "Social exclusion causes self-defeating behavior," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002): 606–615.
12.L. C. Hawkley and J. T. Cacioppo, "Aging and loneliness: Downhill quickly?" Current Directions in Psychological Science 16 (2007): 187–191.
13.Baumeister, DeWall, Ciarocco, and Twenge, "Social exclusion impairs self-regulation."
14.Weiss, Loneliness.
15.Ibid.
16.S. T. Boysen, G. G. Berntson, M. B. Hanna, and J. T. Cacioppo, "Quantity-based choices: Interference and symbolic representations in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 22 (1996): 76–86.
17.J. Vitkus, and L. M. Horowitz, "Poor social performance of lonely people: Lacking a skill or adopting a role," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52 (1987): 1266–73.
CHAPTER FOUR:Selfish Genes, Social Animals
1.M. McPherson, L. Smith-Lovin, and M. T. Brashears, "Social isolation in America: Changes in core discussion networks over two decades," American Sociological Review 71 (2006): 353–375.
2.F. Hobbs and N. Stoops, Demographic trends in the 20th century, U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000 Special Reports, Series CENSR-4 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2002).
3.Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, Everyman ed. (1651; New York: Dutton, 1975), introduction by K. R. Minogue.
4.Ibid.
5.Charles Darwin, Autobiography (1887), in F. Darwin, ed., The life and letters of Charles Darwin (Whitefish, MT: Kessinger, 2004).
6.G. Williams, Adaptation and Natural Selection (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966).
7.R. F. Baumeister and C. N. DeWall, "The inner dimensions of social exclusion: Intelligent thought and self-regulation among rejected persons," in K. D. Williams, J. P. Forgas, and W. von Hippel, eds., The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (New York: Psychology Press, 2005), 53–73.
8.The languages of the Kalahari rely on "click" sounds, as well as guttural sounds produced deep within the throat. Thus "!Kung" is pronounced "Gung," as if you were imitating water glugging through a drainpipe, but with a strong initial clicking sound on the hard "g."
9.Bruce Bowere, "Murder in good company," Science News, February 6, 1988.
10.M. Nowak, "Five rules for the evolution of cooperation," Science 314 (2006): 1560–63.
11.R. I. M. Dunbar and Suzanne Shultz, "Evolution and the social brain," Science 317 (September 7, 2007): 1344–47.
12.D. L. Cheney and R. M. Seyfarth, Baboon metaphysics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007).
13.Williams, Adaptation and Natural Selection.
14.R. L. Trivers, "Parental investment and sexual selection," in B. Campbell, ed., Sexual selection and the descent of man, 1871–1971 (Chicago: Aldine, 1972), 136–179.
15.J. T. Cacioppo and L. C. Hawkley, "Loneliness," in M. R. Leary and R. H. Hoyle, eds., Handbook of individual differences in social behavior (New York: Guilford, in press); Dunbar and Shultz, "Evolution and the social brain."
CHAPTER FIVE:The Universal and the Particular
1.C. Tucker-Ladd, Psychological self-help (1996), retrieved June 19, 2007, from www.psychologicalselfhelp.org.
2.Marja Jylha, "Old Age and loneliness: Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses in the Tampere Longitudinal Study on Aging," Canadian Journal on Aging 23, no. 2 (2004): 157–158.
3.M. B. Brewer and W. Gardner, "Who is this ‘we’? Levels of collective identity and self representations," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 71 (1996): 83–93.
4.Ibid.
5.L. C. Hawkley, M. W. Browne, and J. T. Cacioppo, "How can I connect with thee? Let me count the ways," Psychological Science 16 (2005): 798–804.
6.W. Mischel, Y. Shoda, and R. E. Smith, Introduction to personality: Toward an integration, 7th ed. (New York: Wiley, 2004).
7.Clinical depression is a complex diagnosis in which the individual must exhibit a variety of specific symptoms such as difficulty making decisions, difficulty sleeping, or loss of appetite. Depressed affect is a more intuitive, commonsense designation that includes simply feeling down, however briefly.
8.C. Segrin, "Interpersonal communication problems associated with depression and loneliness," in P. A. Andersen and L. K. Guerrero, eds., Handbook of communication and emotion: Research, theory, applications, and contexts (San Diego: Academic Press, 1998), 215–242.
9.L. S. Radloff, "The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population," Applied Psychological Measurement 1(1977): 385–401.
10.R. S. Weiss, ed., Loneliness: The experience of emotional and social isolation (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1973); J. T. Cacioppo, L. C. Hawkley, J. M. Ernst, M. Burleson, G. G. Berntson, B. Nouriani, and D. Spiegel, "Loneliness within a nomological net: An evolutionary perspective," Journal of Research in Personality 40 (2006): 1054–85.
11.P. Watson and P. Andrews, "Toward a revised evolutionary adaptationist analysis of depression: The social navigation hypothesis," Journal of Affective Disorders 72 (2002): 1–14.
12.G. L. Engel, "The clinical application of the biopsychosocial model," American Journal of Psychiatry 137 (1980): 535–544.
13.J. S. Price, L. Sloman, R. Gardner, P. Gilbert, and P. Rhode, "The social competition hypothesis of depression," British Journal of Psychiatry 164 (1994): 309–315.
14.E. H. Hagan, "The function of postpartum depression," Evolution and Human Behavior 20 (1999): 325–359.
15.N. B. Allen and P. B. T. Badcock, "The social risk hypothesis of depressed mood: Evolutionary, psychosocial, and neurobiological perspectives," Psychological Bulletin 129 (2003): 887–913.
16.J. T. Cacioppo, J. M. Ernst, M. H. Burleson, M. K. McClintock, W. B. Malarkey, L. C. Hawkley, R. B. Kowalewski, A. Paulsen, J. A. Hobson, K. Hugdahl, D. Spiegel, and G. G. Berntson, "Lonely traits and concomitant physiological processes: The MacArthur Social Neuroscience Studies," International Journal of Psychophysiology 35 (2000): 143–154.
17.J. M. Ernst and J. T. Cacioppo, "Lonely hearts: Psychological perspectives on loneliness," Applied and Preventive Psychology 8 (1998): 1–22; M. R. Leary and R. F. Baumeister, "The nature and function of self-esteem: Sociometer theory," in M. P. Zanna, ed., Advances in experimental social psychology, vol. 32 (San Diego: Academic Press, 2000), 1–62; M. R. Leary, E. S. Tambor, S. K. Terdal, and D. L. Downs, "Self-esteem as an interpersonal monitor," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68 (1995): 518–530.
18.Cacioppo et al., "Loneliness within a nomological net."
19.S. M. Kosslyn, W. L. Thompson, M. F. Costantini-Ferrando, N. M. Alpert, and D. Spiegel, "Hypnotic visual illusion alters color processing in the brain," American Journal of Psychiatry 157 (2000): 1279–84.
20.J. T. Cacioppo, M. E. Hughes, L. J. Waite, L. C. Hawkley, and R. A. Thisted, "Loneliness as a specific risk factor for depressive symptoms: Cross sectional and longitudinal analyses," Psychology and Aging 21 (2006): 140–151.
21.Ibid.
CHAPTER SIX:The Wear and Tear of Loneliness
1.R. Lewontin, The triple helix: Gene, organism, and environment (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002). J. Irving, The world according to Garp (1978; New York: Ballantine, 1990), 618.
2.T. C. Pellmar, E. N. Brandt, and M. A. Baird, "Health and behavior: The interplay of biological, behavioral, and social influences: Summary of an Institute of Medicine report," American Journal of Health Promotion 16, no. 4 (2001): 206–219.
3.L. F. Berkman and S. L. Syme, "Social networks, host resistance and mortality: A nine-year follow-up study of Alameda County residents," American Journal of Epidemiology 109, no. 2 (1979): 186–204.
4.J. S. House, K. R. Landis, and D. Umbertson, "Social relationships and health," Science 241 (1988): 540–545.
5.D. Russell, E. Cutrona, A. De La Mora, and R. B. Wallace, "Loneliness and nursing home admission among rural older adults," Psychology and Aging 12 (1997): 574–589.
6.L. Wheeler, H. Reis, and J. B. Nezlek, "Loneliness, social interaction, and sex roles," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 45 (1983): 943–953. L. C. Hawkley, M. H. Burleson, G. G. Berntson, and J. T. Cacioppo, "Loneliness in everyday life: Cardiovascular activity, psychosocial context, and health behaviors," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85 (2003): 105–120.
7.J. T. Cacioppo, L. C. Hawkley, G. G. Berntson, J. M. Ernst, A. C. Gibbs, R. Stickgold, and J. A. Hobson, "Lonely days invade the nights: Social modulation of sleep efficiency," Psychological Science 13 (2002): 384–387. J. T. Cacioppo, L. C. Hawkley, L. E. Crawford, J. M. Ernst, M. H. Burleson, R. B. Kowalewski, W. B. Malarkey, E. Van Cauter, and G. G. Berntson, "Loneliness and health: Potential mechanisms," Psychosomatic Medicine 64 (2002): 407–417.
8.P. A. Nakonezny, R. B. Kowalewski, J. M. Ernst, L. C. Hawkley, D. L. Lozano, D. A. Litvack, G. G. Berntson, J. J. Sollers III, P. Kizakevich, J. T. Cacioppo, and W. R. Lovallo, "New ambulatory impedance cardiograph validated against the Minnesota impedance cardiograph," Psychophysiology 38 (2001): 465–474. The monitor was developed for us by a team from the MacArthur Network led by Bill Lovallo.
9.R. W. Frenck Jr., E. H. Blackburn, and K. M. Shannon, "The rate of telomere sequence loss in human leukocytes varies with age," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 95 (1998): 5607–10.
10.M. Marmot, The Status Syndrome (New York: Times Books, 2004).
11.M. H. Hecker, M. A. Chesney, G. W. Black, and N. Frautschi, "Coronaryprone behaviors in the Western Collaborative Group Study," Psychosomatic Medicine 50 (1988): 153–164.
12.J. M. Ernst and J. T. Cacioppo, "Lonely hearts: Psychological perspectives on loneliness," Applied and Preventive Psychology 8 (1998): 1–22.
13.M. D. Boltwood, C. B. Taylor, M. B. Burke, H. Grogin, and J. Giacomini, "Anger report predicts coronary artery vasomotor response to mental stress in atherosclerotic segments," American Journal of Cardiology 72(1993): 1361–65.
14.G. Ironson, C. B. Taylor, M. Boltwood, T. Bartzokis, C. Dennis, M. Chesney, S. Spitzer, and G. M. Segall, "Effects of anger on left ventricular ejection fraction in coronary artery disease," American Journal of Cardiology 70(1992): 281–285.
15.N. A. Christakis and J. H. Fowler, "The spread of obesity in a large social network over 32 years," New England Journal of Medicine 357, no. 4 ( July 26, 2007): 370–379.
16.N. E. Adler, M. A. Chesney, C. S. Folkman, R. L. Kahn, and S. L. Syme, "Socioeconomic status and health," American Psychologist 49, no. 1 (1994): 15–24. G. A. Kaplan and J. E. Keil, "Socioeconomic factors and cardiovascular disease: A review of the literature," Circulation 88 (1993): 141–142.
17.W. B. Cannon, "The role of emotions in disease," Annals of Internal Medicine 11 (1936): 1453–65.
18.G. G. Berntson and J. T. Cacioppo, "From homeostasis to allodynamic regulation," in J. T. Cacioppo, L. G. Tassinary, and G. G. Berntson, eds., Handbook of psychophysiology, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 459–481. P. Sterling and J. Eyer, "Allostasis: A new paradigm to explain arousal pathology," in S. Fisher and J. Reason, eds., Handbook of life stress, cognition and health (New York: Wiley, 1988), 629–649.
19.T. E. Seeman, B. S. McEwen, J. W. Rowe, and B. H. Singer, "Allostatic load as a marker of cumulative biological risk: MacArthur studies of successful aging," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98 (1997): 4770–75. B. S. McEwen, "Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators," New England Journal of Medicine 338 (1998): 171–179.
20.J. T. Cacioppo, M. E. Hughes, L. J. Waite, L. C. Hawkley, and R. A. Thisted, "Loneliness as a specific risk factor for depressive symptoms: Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses," Psychology and Aging 21 (2006): 140–151. Loneliness predicts hypertension and cardiovascular disease in the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing; J. Smith, personal communication, October 2007. L. C. Hawkley, C. M. Masi, J. D. Berry, and J. T. Cacioppo, "Loneliness is a unique predictor of age-related differences in systolic blood pressure," Psychology and Aging 21 (2006): 152–164.
21.L. C. Hawkley and J. T. Cacioppo, "Aging and loneliness: Downhill quickly?" Current Directions in Psychological Science 16 (2007): 187–191.
22.Ibid.
23.Hawkley, Burleson, Berntson, and Cacioppo, "Loneliness in everyday life." J. T. Cacioppo, J. M. Ernst, M. H. Burleson, M. K. McClintock, W. B. Malarkey, L. C. Hawkley, R. B. Kowalewski, A. Paulsen, J. A. Hobson, K. Hugdahl, D. Spiegel, and G. G. Berntson, "Lonely traits and concomitant physiological processes: The MacArthur social neuroscience studies," International Journal of Psychophysiology 35 (2000): 143–154.
24.Hawkley and Cacioppo, "Aging and loneliness: Downhill quickly?"
25.P. L. Schnall, P. A. Landsbergis, and D. Baker, "Job strain and cardiovascular disease," Annual Review of Public Health 15 (1994): 381–411.
26.Cacioppo et al., "Lonely traits and concomitant physiological processes." Hawkley et al., "Loneliness in everyday life."
27.Cacioppo et al., "Lonely traits and concomitant physiological processes."
28.Ibid.
29.J. T. Cacioppo and G. G. Berntson, "A bridge linking social psychology and the neurosciences," in Paul A. M. Van Lange, ed., Bridging social psychology: The benefits of transdisciplinary approaches (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 2006).
30.Hawkley et al., "Loneliness is a unique predictor of age-related differences in systolic blood pressure."
31.R. Glaser, J. K. Kiecolt-Glaser, C. E. Speicher, and J. E. Holliday, "Stress, loneliness, and changes in herpes virus latency," Journal of Behavioral Medicine 8, no. 3 (September 1985): 249–260. S. D. Pressman, S. Cohen, G. E. Miller, A. Barkin, B. S. Rabin, and J. J. Treanor, "Loneliness, social network size, and immune response to influenza vaccination in college freshmen," Health Psychology 24 (2005): 297–306.
32.L. C. Hawkley, J. A. Bosch, C. G. Engeland, P. T. Marucha, and J. T. Cacioppo, "Loneliness, dysphoria, stress and immunity: A role for cytokines," in N. P. Plotnikoff, R. E. Faith, and A. J. Murgo, eds., Cytokines: Stress and immunity, 2nd ed. (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2007), 67–86.
33.E. K. Adam, L. C. Hawkley, B. M. Kudielka, and J. T. Cacioppo, "Day-today dynamics of experience: Cortisol associations in a population-based sample of older adults," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103(2006): 17058–63. S. W. Cole, L. C. Hawkley, J. M. Arevalo, C. Y. Sung, R. M. Rose, and J. T. Cacioppo, "Social regulation of gene expression in human leukocytes," Genome Biology 8, no. 9 (2007): R189. Hawkley et al., "Loneliness, dysphoria, stress, and immunity."
34.A. Sherwood, C. A., Dolan, and K. C. Light, "Hemodynamics of blood pressure responses during active and passive coping," Psychophysiology 27 (1990): 656–668.
35.Cacioppo et al., "Loneliness and health: Potential mechanisms." Hawkley et al., "Loneliness in everyday life."
36.Hawkley et al., "Loneliness is a unique predictor of age-related differences in systolic blood pressure." Cacioppo et al., "Loneliness and health." Jim Smith, personal communication, 2007.
37.Lewontin, Triple Helix, 104.
38.K. Spiegel, R. Leprout, and E. Van Cauter, "Impact of sleep debt on metabolic function," Lancet 354 (1999): 1435–39.
39.Cacioppo et al., "Lonely days invade the nights."
40.Hawkley and Cacioppo, "Aging and loneliness: Downhill quickly?"
CHAPTER SEVEN:Sympathetic Threads
1.Henry Melvill, Best thoughts of best thinkers, Penny Pulpit Sermons no. 2, 365 (Cleveland, 1904).
2.Nicholas A. Christakis and James H. Fosler, "The spread of obesity in a large social network over 32 years," New England Journal of Medicine 357 ( July 26, 2007): 370–379.
3.D. P. Phillips, T. E. Ruth, and L. M. Wagner, "Psychology and survival," Lancet 342 (1993): 1142–45.
4.Antonio Damasio, Descartes’ error (New York: Putnam, 1994); L. W. Barasalou, "Cognitive and neural contributions to understanding the conceptual system," Current Directions in Psychological Science, in press.
5.W. James, The principles of psychology (New York: Henry Holt, 1890).
6.C. E. Cornell, J. Rodin, and H. P. Weingarten, "Stimulus-induced eating when satiated," Physiology and Behavior 45 (1989): 695–704.
7.S. N. Haber and P. R. Barchas, "The regulatory effect of social rank on behavior after amphetamine administration," in P. R. Barchas, ed., Social hierarchies: Essays toward a sociophysiological perspective (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1983), 119–132.
8.Robin Marantz Henig, "The real transformers," New York Times Magazine, July 29, 2007.
9.A. N. Meltzoff and M. K. Moore, "Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates," Science 198 (1977): 75–78. M. Myowa-Yamakoski, M. Tomonaga, M. Tanaka, and T. Matsuzawa, "Imitation in neonatal chimpanzees," Development Science 7 (2004): 437–442.
10.Pier F. Ferrari, Elisabetta Visalberghi, Annika Paukner, Leonardo Fogassi, Angela Ruggiero, and Stephen J. Suomi, "Neonatal imitation in rhesus macaques," PLOS Biology 4, no. 9 (September 2006): e302.
11.L. B. Adamson and J. E. Frick, "The still face: A history of a shared experimental paradigm," Applied Psychology and Management 4, no. 4 (2003): 451–473.
12.E. Hatfield, J. T. Cacioppo, and R. L. Rapson, Emotional contagion (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 240.
13.M. La France and M. Broadbent, "Group rapport: Posture sharing as a nonverbal indicator," Group and Organization Studies 1 (1976): 328–333.
14.F. J. Bernieri, "Coordinated movement and rapport in teacher-student interactions," Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 12 (1988): 120–138.
15.D. Byrne, The attraction paradigm (New York: Academic Press, 1971).
16.R. E. Maurer and J. H. Tindall, "Effect of postural congruence on client’s perception of counselor empathy," Journal of Counseling Psychology 30(1983): 158–163. J. L. Lakin and T. L. Chartrand, "Using nonconscious behavioral mimicry to create affiliation and rapport," Psychological Science 14 (2003): 334–339.
17.Lakin and Chartrand, "Using nonconscious behavioral mimicry to create affiliation and rapport."
18.M. R. Leary, C. A. Cottrell, and M. Phillips, "Deconfounding the effects of dominance and social acceptance on self-esteem," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (2001): 898–909. W. L. Gardner, "Social exclusion and selective memory: How the need to belong influences memory for social events," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 26 (2000): 486–496.
19.K. D. Williams, C. K. T. Cheung, and W. Choi, "Cyberostracism: Effects of being ignored over the Internet," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79 (2000): 748–762.
20.K. D. Williams and K. L. Sommer, "Social ostracism by coworkers: Does rejection lead to loafing or compensation?" Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 23 (1997): 693–706.
21.S. E. Taylor, The tending instinct: How nurturing is essential to who we are and how we live (New York: Time Books, 2002).
22.N. S. Wingreen and S. A. Levin, "Cooperation among microorganisms," PLOS Biology, 4, no. 9 (2006): 299.
23.C. E. Taylor and M. T. McGuire, "Reciprocal altruism: Fifteen years later," Ethology and Sociobiology 9 (1988): 67–72.
24.F. de Waal, Our inner ape (New York: Riverhead, 2006).
25.C. Darwin, The descent of man and selection in relation to sex (1874; Chicago: Rand McNally, 1974), 613. A. Damasio, Descartes’ error (New York: Putnam, 1994).
CHAPTER EIGHT:An Indissociable Organism
1.J. E. Swain, J. P. Lorberbaum, S. Kose, and L. Strathhearn, "Brain basis of early parent-infant interactions: Psychology, physiology, and in vivo functional neuroimaging studies," Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 48, nos. 3/4 (2007): 262–287.
2.H. F. Harlow and R. Zimmerman, "Affectional responses in the infant monkey," Science 130 (1959): 421–432.
3.University of Wisconsin, The Why Files.org 087/mother/4.html.
4.K. Z. Lorenz, "Der Kumpan in der Umwelt des Vogels" (1935), English translation in Instinctive behavior: The development of a modern concept, trans. and ed. Claire H. Schiller (New York: International Universities Press, 1957).
5.M. D. S. Ainsworth, M. C. Blehar, E. Waters, and S. Wall, Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1978).
6.J. Kagan and N. Snidman, The long shadow of temperament (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004).
7.P. Ekman and R. J. Davidson, The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), xiv, 496.
8.R. J. Davidson, P. Ekman, C. Saron, J. Senulis, and W. V. Friesen, "Emotional expression and brain physiology I: Approach/withdrawal and cerebral asymmetry," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58 (1990): 330–341.
9.N. A. Fox, K. H. Rubin, S. D. Calkins, T. R. Marshall, R. J. Coplan, S. W. Porges, J. M. Long, and S. Stewart, "Frontal activation asymmetry and social competence at four years of age," Child Development 66 (1995): 1770–84.
10.A. J. Tomarken, R. J. Davidson, R. E. Wheeler, and L. Kinney, "Psychometric properties of resting anterior EEG asymmetry: Temporal stability and internal consistency," Psychophysiology 29 (1992): 576–592. See also S. K. Sutton and R. J. Davidson, "Prefrontal brain asymmetry: A biological substrate of the behavioral approach and inhibition systems," Psychological Science 8, no. 3 (1997): 204–210.
11.A. Damasio, Descartes’ Error (New York: Putnam, 1994), xvi–xvii.
12.T. R. Insel and L. E. Shapiro, "Oxytocin receptor distribution reflects social organization in monogamous and polygamous voles," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 89 (1992): 5981–85. T. R. Insel, Z. Wang, and C. F. Ferris, "Patterns of brain vasopressin receptor distribution associated with social organization in microtine rodents," Journal of Neuroscience 14 (1994): 5381–92. M. M. Lim, Z. Wang, D. E. Olazábal, X. Ren, E. F. Terwilliger, and L. J. Young, "Enhanced partner preference in promiscuous species by manipulating the expression of a single gene," Nature 429 (2004): 754–757.
13.K. Uvnas-Moberg, The oxytocin factor (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo, 2003).
14.K. Uvnas-Moberg, "Oxytocin may mediate the benefits of positive social interaction and emotions," Psychoneuroendocrinology 23, no. 8 (1998): 819–835.
15.Uvnas-Moberg, The oxytocin factor.
16.Ibid.
17.Sam Roberts, "The shelf life of bliss," New York Times, July 1, 2007.
18.P. V. Bradford, Ota Benga: The Pygmy in the zoo (New York: St. Martin’s, 1992).
CHAPTER NINE:Knowing Thyself, among Others
1.C. Darwin, The expression of the emotions in men and animals (1872; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965).
2.F. de Waal, Our inner ape (New York: Riverhead, 2006).
3.N. K. Humphrey, A history of the mind: Evolution and the birth of consciousness (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992).
4.A. Smith, The theory of moral sentiments (1752; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 12.
5.L. Carr, M. Iacoboni, M. C. Dubeau, J. C. Mazziotta, and G. L. Lenzi, "Neural mechanisms of empathy in humans: A relay from neural systems for imitation to limbic areas," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100 (2003): 5497–5502.
6.G. Di Pellegrino, L. Fadiga, L. Fogassi, V. Gallese, and G. Rizzolatti, "Understanding motor events: A neurophysiological study," Experimental Brain Research 91, no. 1 (1992): 176–180. S. Blakeslee, "Cells that read minds," New York Times, January 10, 2006.
7.V. Gallese, L. Fadiga, L. Fogassi, and G. Rizzolatti, "Action recognition in the premotor cortex," Brain 119, no. 2, 593–609, cited in L. Winerman, "The mind’s mirror," APA Online 36, no. 9 (2005). M. A. Umilita, E. Kohler, V. Gallese, L. Fogassi, L. Fadiga, C. Keysers, and G. Rizzolatti, "I know what you are doing: A neurophysiological study," Neuron 31, no. 1 (2001): 155–165. G. R. Semin and J. T. Cacioppo, "Grounding social cognition: Synchronization, coordination, and co-regulation," in G. R. Semin and E. R. Smith, eds., Embodied grounding: Social, cognitive, affective, and neuroscientific approaches (New York: Cambridge University Press, in press).
8.G. Rizzolatti and L. Craighero, "The mirror-neuron system," Annual Review of Neuroscience 27 (2004): 169–192.
9.G. Buccino, F. Lui, N. Canessa, I. Patteri, G. Lagravinese, F. Benuzzi, C. A. Porro, and G. Rizzolatti, "Neural circuits involved in the recognition of actions performed by nonconspecifics: An fMRI study," Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 16 (2004): 114–126.
10.B. Wicker, C. Keysers, J. Plailly, J. P. Royet, V. Gallese, and G. Rizzolatti, "The common neural basis of seeing and feeling disgust," Neuron 40, no. 3(2003): 655–664, reported in L. Winerman, "The mind’s mirror," APA Online 36, no. 9 (2005).
11.G. Buccino, F. Binkofski, G. R. Fink, L. Fadiga, L. Fogassi, V. Gallese, R. J. Seitz, K. Zilles, G. Rizzolatti, and H. J. Freund, "Action observation activates premotor and parietal areas in a somatotopic manner: An fMRI study," European Journal of Neuroscience 13 (2001): 400–404.
12.E. Hatfield, J. T. Cacioppo, and R. L. Rapson, Emotional contagion (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
13.J. T. Cacioppo and G. G. Berntson, Social neuroscience (New York: Psychology Press, 2005). H. Fukui, T. Murai, J. Shinozaki, T. Aso, H. Fukuyama, T. Hayashi, and T. Hanakawa, "The neural basis of social tactics: An fMRI study," NeuroImage 32 (2006): 913–920.
14.D. Tankersley, C. J. Stowe, and S. A. Huettel, "Altruism is associated with an increased neural response to agency," Nature Neuroscience 10 (2007): 150–151.
15.G. G. Berntson, A. Bechara, H. Damasio, D. Tranel, and J. T. Cacioppo, "Amygdala contribution to selective dimensions of emotion," Social, Cognitive, and Affective Neuroscience 2 (2007): 123–129.
16.K. Grill-Spector, N. Knouf, and N. Kanwisher, "The fusiform face area subserves face perception, not generic within-category identification," Nature Neuroscience 7, no. 5 (2004): 555–562. N. Kanwisher, J. McDermott, and M. M. Chun, "The fusiform face area: A module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception," Journal of Neuroscience 17, no. 11 (1997): 4302–11.
17.M. L. Phillips et al., "A specific neural substrate for perceiving facial expressions of disgust," Nature 389, no. 6650 (1997): 495–498. J. Decety and C. Lamm, "The biological bases of empathy," in G. G. Berntson and J. T. Cacioppo, eds., Handbook of neuroscience for the behavioral sciences (New York: Wiley, in press). R. Adolphs, "Social cognition and the human brain," Trends in Cognitive Sciences 3, no. 12 (1999): 469–479. H. C. Breiter et al., "Response and habituation of the human amygdala during visual processing of facial expression," Neuron 17 (1996): 875–887.
18.J. S. Morris, A. Ohman, and R. J. Dolan, "Conscious and unconscious emotional learning in the human amygdala," Nature 393 (1998): 467–470. P. J. Whalen et al., "Masked presentations of emotional facial expressions modulate amygdala activity without explicit knowledge," Journal of Neuroscience 18 (1998): 411–418.
19.C. J. Norris and J. T. Cacioppo, "I know how you feel: Social and emotional information processing in the brain," in E. Harmon-Jones and P. Winkielman, eds., Social neuroscience (New York: Guilford, 2007), 84–105.
20.C. J. Norris, E. E. Chen, D. C. Zhu, S. L. Small, and J. T. Cacioppo, "The interaction of social and emotional processes in the brain," Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 16 (2004): 1818–29. J. C. Britton, K. L. Phan, S. F. Taylor, R. C. Welsh, K. C. Berridge, and I. Liberzon, "Neural correlates of social and nonsocial emotions: An fMRI study," NeuroImage 31 (2006): 397–409.
21.Norris and Cacioppo, "I know how you feel."
22.R. I. M. Dunbar and S. Shultz, "Evolution in the social brain," Science 317(September 7, 2007): 1344–47.
23.D. M. Buss, Handbook of evolutionary psychology (New York: Wiley, 2005).
24.R. Adolphs and M. Spezio, "The neuroscience of social cognition," in Berntson and Cacioppo, eds., Handbook of neuroscience for the behavioral sciences.
25.Berntson et al., "Amygdala contribution to selective dimensions of emotion."
26.T. A. Ito and J. T. Cacioppo, "Electrophysiological evidence of implicit and explicit categorization processes," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 36 (2000): 660–676.
27.H. L. Gallagher and C. D. Frith, "Functional imaging of theory of mind," Trends in Cognitive Sciences 7, no. 2 (2003): 77–83.
28.W. L. Gardner, C. L. Pickett, V. Jefferis, and M. Knowles, "On the outside looking in: Loneliness and social monitoring," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31, no. 11 (2005): 1549–60.
29.C. L. Pickett and W. L. Gardner, "The social monitoring system: Enhanced sensitivity to social cues as an adaptive response to social exclusion," in K. D. Williams, J. P. Forgas, and W. von Hippel, eds., The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (New York: Psychology Press, 2005), 214–226.
30.Ibid.
31.J. T. Cacioppo, C. J. Norris, J. Decety, G. Monteleone, and H. C. Nusbaum, "In the eye of the beholder: Individual differences in loneliness predict neural responses to social stimuli," Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience (in press).
32.J. T. Cacioppo, J. M. Ernst, M. H. Burleson, M. K. McClintock, W. B. Malarkey, L. C. Hawkley, R. B. Kowalewski, A. Paulsen, J. A. Hobson, K. Hugdahl, D. Speigel, and G. G. Berntson, "Lonely traits and concomitant physiological processes: The MacArthur social neuroscience studies," International Journal of Psychophysiology 35 (2000): 143–154.
33.S. L. Gable, G. Gonzaga, and A. Strachman, "Will you be there for me when things go right? Social support for positive events," Journal of Person- ality and Social Psychology 91 (2006): 904–917. M. D. Johnson et al., "Problem-solving skills and affective expressions as predictors of change in marital satisfaction," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 73, no. 1 (2005): 15–27.
34.P. L. Jackson, A. N. Meltzoff, and J. Decety, "How do we perceive the pain of others? A window into the neural processes involved in empathy," NeuroImage 24 (2005): 771–779.
35.P. L. Jackson and J. Decety, "Motor cognition: A new paradigm to study self-other interactions," Current Opinion in Neurobiology 14, no. 2 (2004): 259–263.
36.J. Decety and C. Lamm, "The biological bases of empathy," in G. G. Berntson and J. T. Cacioppo, eds., Handbook of neuroscience for the behavioral sciences (New York: John Wiley & Sons, in press).
37.D. Schiller, ed., The little Zen companion (New York: Workman, 1994).
CHAPTER TEN:Conflicted by Nature
1.C. N. Macrae, J. Moran, T. Heatherton, J. Banfield, and W. Kelley, "Medial prefrontal activity predicts memory for self," Cerebral Cortex 14(2004): 647–654. K. N. Ochsner, K. Knierim, D. Ludlow, J. Hanelin, T. Ramachandran, and S. Mackey, "Reflecting upon feelings: An fMRI study of neural systems supporting the attribution of emotion to self and other," Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 16, no. 10 (2004): 1746–72.
2.H. Shintel, J. T. Cacioppo, and H. Nusbaum, "Accentuate the negative, eliminate the positive? Individual differences in attentional bias to positive and negative information," presented at the 47th Annual Meeting of the Psychonomic Society, Houston, TX, November 2006.
3.J. Kruger and T. Gilovich, "‘Naïve cynicism’ in everyday theories of responsibility assessment: On biased assumptions of bias," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76 (1999): 743–753. L. Ross, D. Greene, and P. House, "The false consensus effect: An egocentric bias in social perception and attributional processes," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 13 (1977): 279–301. W. J. McGuire, "The probabilogical model of cognitive structure and attitude change," in R. E. Petty, T. M. Ostrom, and T. C. Brock, eds., Cognitive responses in persuasion (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 291–307.
4.M. Ross and F. Sicoly, "Egocentric biases in availability and attribution," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37 (1979): 322–336. E. Vaughan, "Chronic exposure to an environmental hazard: Risk perceptions and self-protective behavior," Health Psychology 3 (1992): 431–457. E. F. Loftus, Eyewitness testimony (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996).
5.C. A. Anderson, R. S. Miller, A. L. Riger, J. C. Dill, and C. Sedikides, "Behavioral and characterological attributional styles as predictors of depression and loneliness: Review, refinement, and test," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66 (1994): 549–558.
6.S. E. Taylor, J. S. Lerner, D. K. Sherman, R. M. Sage, and N. K. McDowell, "Portrait of the self-enhancer: Well-adjusted and well-liked or maladjusted and friendless?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84 (2003): 165–176.
7.L. C. Hawkley, C. M. Masi, J. D. Berry, and J. T. Cacioppo, "Loneliness is a unique predictor of age-related differences in systolic blood pressure," Psychology and Aging 21 (2006): 152–164.
8.J. E. Nurmi and K. Salmela-Aro, "Social strategies and loneliness: A prospective study," Personality and Individual Differences 23, no. 2 (1997): 205–211. D. Damsteegt, "Loneliness, social provisions and attitude," College Student Journal 26, no. 1 (1992): 135–139. C. S. Crandall and C. Cohen, "The personality of the stigmatizer: Cultural world view, conventionalism, and self-esteem," Journal of Research in Personality 28 (1994): 461–480.
9.K. Rotenberg, "Loneliness and interpersonal trust," Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 13 (1994): 152–173.
10.H. S. Sullivan, The interpersonal theory of psychiatry (New York: Norton, 1953), 261, quoted in R. S. Weiss, ed., Loneliness: The experience of emotional and social isolation (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1973), 147.
11.J. Milton, Paradise Lost (1667), in M. Y. Hughes, ed., John Milton: Complete Poems and Major Prose (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), 217. W. Shakespeare, Hamlet (1603), act 2, scene 2.
12.N. Epley, A. Waytz, and J. T. Cacioppo, "On seeing human: A three-factor theory of anthropomorphism," Psychological Review 114 (2007): 864–886.
13.S. L. Murray and J. G. Holmes, "The (mental) ties that bind: Cognitive structures that predict relationship resilience," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77 (1999): 1228–44.
14.C. H. Solano, "Loneliness and perceptions of control: General traits versus specific attributions," Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 2, no. 2 (1987): 201–214.
15.S. Lau and G. E. Gruen, "The social stigma of loneliness: Effect of target person’s and perceiver’s sex," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 18(1992): 182–189. K. J. Rotenberg and J. Kmill, "Perception of lonely and non-lonely persons as a function of individual differences in loneliness," Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 9 (1992): 325–330. K. J. Rotenberg, J. A. Gruman, and M. Ariganello, "Behavioral confirmation of the loneliness stereotype," Basic and Applied Social Psychology 24 (2002): 81–89.
16.S. L. Murray, G. M. Bellavia, P. Rose, and D. W. Griffin, "Once hurt, twice hurtful: How perceived regard regulates daily marital interactions," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84 (2003): 126–147.
17.Rotenberg and Kmill, "Perception of lonely and non-lonely persons as a function of individual differences in loneliness."
18.M. T. Wittenberg and H. T. Reis, "Loneliness, social skills, and social perception," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 12, no. 1 (1986): 121–130. J. T. Cacioppo and L. C. Hawkley, "People thinking about people: The vicious cycle of being a social outcast in one’s own mind," in K. D. Williams, J. P. Forgas, and W. von Hippel, eds., The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (New York: Psychology Press, 2005), 91–108.
19.S. Duck, K. Pond, and G. Leatham, "Loneliness and the evaluation of relational events," Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 11 (1994): 253–276.
20.C. M. Anderson and M. M. Martin, "The effects of communication motives, interaction involvement, and loneliness on satisfaction," Small Group Research 26, no. 1 (1995): 118–137.
21.A. Burt and R. Trivers, Genes in conflict (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006).
CHAPTER ELEVEN:Conflicts in Nature
1.R. L. Trivers, "Parent-offspring conflict," American Zoologist 14 (1974): 249–264, 261.
2.F. de Waal, Our inner ape (New York: Riverhead, 2006).
3.M. Doebeli, C. Hauert, and T. Killingback, "The evolutionary origin of cooperators and defectors," Science 306 (2004): 859–862.
4.O. Gurerk, B. Irlenbursch, and B. Rockenbach, "The competitive advantage of sanctioning institutions," Science 312 (April 7, 2006): 108–111.
5.Richard Dawkins, The selfish gene (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976).
6.B. Sinervo, A. Chaine, J. Clobert, R. Calsbeek, L. Hazard, L. Lancaster, A. G. McAdam, S. Alonzo, G. Corrigan, and M. E. Hochberg, "Self-recognition, color signals, and cycles of greenbeard mutualism and altruism," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103, no. 19 (2006): 7372–77.
7.W. Grossman, "New tack wins prisoner’s dilemma," retrieved June 20, 2007, from www.wired.com/culture/lifestyle/news/2004/10/65317.
8.L. Cosimides and J. Tooby, "Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture (part two)," Ecology and Sociobiology 10 (1989): 51–97.
9.M. A. Nowak, "Five rules for the evolution of cooperation," Science 314(2006): 1560–63.
10.B. Carey, "Study links punishment to an ability to profit," New York Times, April 7, 2006.
11.E. Fehr and S. Gächter, "Altruistic punishment in humans," Nature 415(2002): 137–140.
12.D. De Quervain, U. Fischbacher, V. Treyer, M. Schellhammer, U. Schnyder, A. Buck, and E. Fehr, "The neural basis of altruistic punishment," Science 305 (2004): 1254–58.
13.R. Trivers, "The evolution of reciprocal altruism," Quarterly Review of Biology 46, no. 1 (1971): 35–57, 49.
14.M. Wilson and M. Daly, "The age-crime relationship and the false dichotomy of biological versus sociological explanations," paper presented at a meeting of the Human Behavior and Evolution Society, Los Angeles, 1990.
CHAPTER TWELVE:Three Adaptations
1.K. E. Reed, "Early hominid evolution and ecological change through the African Plio-Pleistocene," Journal of Human Evolution 32 (1997): 289–322. S. Begley, "Beyond stones and bones," Newsweek, March 19, 2007, 52–58.
2.B. Heinrich, Racing the antelope: What animals can teach us about running and life (New York: Ecco, 2001).
3.I. Parker, "Swingers," New Yorker, July 30, 2007, 48–61.
4.M. A. Nowak, "Five rules for the evolution of cooperation," Science 314(2006): 1560–63.
5.J. Silk, "Who are the more helpful, humans or chimpanzees?" Science 311(2006): 1248–49.
6.Ibid.
7.E. Pennisi, "Social animals prove their smarts," Science 312, no. 5781(2006): 1734–38.
8.Richard Dawkins, The selfish gene (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976); E. O. Wilson and C. Lumsden, Genes, mind, and culture: The coevolutionary process (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981).
9.F. de Waal, Our inner ape (New York: Riverhead, 2006).
10.Ibid., 54.
11.J. Goodall, The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1986), cited in de Waal, Our inner ape.
12.de Waal, Our inner ape, 158.
13.A. Stravynski and R. Boyer, "Loneliness in relation to suicide ideation and parasuicide: A population-wide study," Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior 31 (2001): 32–40; A. R. Rich and R. L. Bonner, "Concurrent validity of a stress-vulnerability model of suicidal ideation and behavior: A follow-up study," Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior 17 (1987): 265–270.
14.J. M. Twenge, R. F. Baumeister, D. M. Tice, and T. S. Stucke, "Social exclusion causes self-defeating behavior," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2001): 606–615. J. M. Twenge, K. R. Catanese, and R. F. Baumeister, "If you can’t join them, beat them: Effects of social exclusion on aggressive behavior," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (2002): 1058–69. J. M. Twenge, K. R. Catanese, and R. F. Baumeister, "Social exclusion and the deconstructed state: Time perception, meaninglessness, lethargy, lack of emotion, and self-awareness," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85 (2003): 409–423.
15.J. T. Cacioppo, W. L. Gardner, and G. G. Berntson, "The affect system has parallel and integrative processing components: Form follows function," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76 (1999): 839–855.
16.E. Suh, E. Diener, and F. Fujita, "Events and subjective well-being: Only recent events matter," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70 (1996): 1091–1102.
17.P. Brickman, D. Coates, and R. Janoff-Bulman, "Lottery winners and accident victims: Is happiness relative?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 36 (1978): 917–927.
18.J. T. Cacioppo, L. C. Hawkley, A. Kalil, M. E. Hughes, L. Waite, and R. A. Thisted, "Happiness and the invisible threads of social connection: The Chicago Health, Aging, and Social Relations Study," in M. Eid and R. Larsen, eds., The science of well-being (New York: Guilford, 2008), 195–219.
19.Ibid.
20.J. T. Cacioppo, G. G. Berntson, A. Bechara, D. Tranel, and L. C. Hawkley, "Could an aging brain contribute to subjective well-being? The value added by a social neuroscience perspective," in A. Tadorov, S. T. Fiske, and D. Prentice, eds., Social neuroscience: Toward understanding the underpinnings of the social mind (New York: Oxford University Press, in press).
21.L. L. Carstensen, D. M. Isaacowitz, and S. T. Charles, "Taking time seriously: A theory of socioemotional selectivity," American Psychologist 54(1999): 165–181.
22.A. M. Isen, "Positive affect and decision making," in M. Lewis and J. M. Haviland-Jones, eds., Handbook of emotions, 2nd ed. (New York: Guilford, 2000), 417–435.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN:Getting It Right
1.A. M. Isen, "Positive affect, cognitive processes, and social behavior," Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 20 (1987): 203–253.
2.J. Masters, The road past Mandalay: A personal narrative (New York: Harper, 1961).
3.S. Sassoon, Memoirs of an infantry officer (London: Faber and Faber, 1930).
4.M. Wei, D. W. Russell, and R. A. Aakalik, "Adult attachment, social self-efficacy, self-disclosure, loneliness, and subsequent depression for freshman college students: A longitudinal study," Journal of Counseling Psychology 52 (2005): 602–614. J. T. Cacioppo, M. E. Hughes, L. J. Waite, L. C. Hawkley, and R. A. Thisted, "Loneliness as a specific risk factor for depressive symptoms: Cross sectional and longitudinal analyses," Psychology and Aging 21 (2006): 140–151.
5.I. L. Martinez, K. Frick, T. A. Glass, M. Carlson, E. Tanner, M. Ricks, and L. Fried, "Engaging older adults in high-impact volunteering that enhances health: Recruitment and retention in the Experience Corps Baltimore," Journal of Urban Health 83, no. 5 (2006): 941–953.
6.R. Niebuhr, Moral man and immoral society (New York: Scribner, 1932).
7.W. B. Swann Jr., K. L. McClarty, and P. J. Rentfrow, "Shelter from the storm? Flawed reactions to stress in precarious couples," Journal of Social and Personal Relationships (2007): 793–808.
8.S. L. Murray, G. Bellavia, P. Rose, and D. Griffin, "Once hurt, twice hurtful: How perceived regard regulates daily marital interaction," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84 (2003): 126–147.
9.J. M. Martz, J. Verette, X. B. Arriaga, L. F. Slovik, C. L. Cox, and C. E. Rusbult, "Positive illusion in close relationships," Personal Relationships 5(1998): 159–181.
10.P. J. E. Miller, S. Niehuis, and T. L. Huston, "Positive illusions in marital relationships: A 13-year study," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 32, no. 12 (2006): 1579–94.
11.S. L. Gable, H. T. Reis, E. Impett, and E. R. Asher, "What do you do when things go right? The intrapersonal and interpersonal benefits of sharing positive events," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87 (2004): 228–245.
CHAPTER FOURTEEN:The Power of Social Connection
1.M. McPherson, L. Smith-Lovin, and M. T. Brashears, "Social isolation in America: Changes in core discussion networks over two decades," American Sociological Review 71 (2006): 353–375.
2.WHO World Mental Health Survey Consortium, "Prevalence, severity, and unmet need for treatment of mental disorders in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys," Journal of the American Medical Association 291 (2004): 2581–90.
3.UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, Florence, An overview of child well being in rich countries, United Nations Children’s Fund, February 13, 2007.
4.L. Margulis and D. Sagan, What is life? (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995).
5.R. S. Weiss, ed., Loneliness: The experience of emotional and social isolation (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1973).
6.Ibid.
7.R. Putnam, Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000). J. Berger, "Homes too rich for firefighters who save them," New York Times, April 9, 2006.
8.S. Coontz, "Too close for comfort," New York Times, November 7, 2006.
9.K. Vonnegut, Slapstick (New York: Delacorte, 1976).
10.R. Schuller, My journey: From an Iowa farm to a cathedral of dreams (San Francisco: Harper, 2002).
11.Samuel G. Freedman, "An unlikely megachurch lesson," New York Times, November 3, 2007.
12.J. Mahler, "The soul of the new exurb," New York Times Magazine, March 27, 2005.
13.J. Yardley, "China’s path to modernity, mirrored in a troubled river," New York Times, November 19, 2006. Lippmann quoted in Putnam, Bowling alone, 379.
14.Nadime Kam, "Rosie," Honolulu Star Bulletin, October 13, 2000.
15.Ibid.
16.A. Rokach and H. Brock, "Coping with loneliness," Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied 192 (1998): 107–127. B. S. Cain, "Divorce among elderly women: A growing social phenomenon," Social Casework—Journal of Contemporary Social Work 69 (1988): 563–568. S. T. Michael, M. R. Crowther, B. Schmid, and R. S. Allen, "Widowhood and spirituality: Coping responses to bereavement," Journal of Women and Aging 15 (2003): 145–165. P. Granqvist and B. Hagekkull, "Religiosity, adult attachment, and why ‘singles’ are more religious," International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 10 (2000): 111–123.
17.J. M. Siegel, "Stressful life events and use of physician services among the elderly: The moderating role of pet ownership," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58 (1990): 1081–86. J. M. Siegel, F. J. Angulo, R. Detels, J. Wesch, and A. Mullen, "AIDS diagnosis and depression in the multicenter AIDS cohort study: The ameliorating impact of pet ownership," AIDS Care 11 (1999): 157–170. K. Allen, J. Blascovich, and W. B. Mendes, "Cardiovascular reactivity and the presence of pets, friends and spouses: The truth about cats and dogs," Psychosomatic Medicine 64 (2002): 727–739.
18.K. Allen, J. Blascovich, and W. B. Mendes, "Cardiovascular reactivity and the presence of pets, friends and spouses: The truth about cats and dogs," Psychosomatic Medicine 64 (2002): 727–739.
19.N. Epley, S. Akalis, A. Waytz, and J. T. Cacioppo, "Creating social connection through inferential reproduction: Loneliness and perceived agency in gadgets, gods, and greyhounds," Psychological Science 19 (2008): 114–120. N. Epley, A. Waytz, S. Akalis, and J. T. Cacioppo, "When we nee a human: Motivational determinants of anthropomorphism," Social Cognition 26 (2008): 143–155. N. Epley and S. Akalis, "Detecting versus enhancing anthropomorphic agents: The divergent effects of fear and loneliness," paper presented at a meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, New Orleans, February 2005.
20.S. L. Brown, R. M. Nesse, J. S. House, and R. L. Utz, "Religion and emotional compensation: Results from a prospective study of widowhood," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30 (2004): 1165–74.
21.F. Castelli, F. Happé, U. Frith, and C. D. Frith, "Movement and mind: A functional imaging study of perception and interpretation of complex intentional movement patterns," NeuroImage 12 (2000): 314–325.
22.A. Birgegard and P. Granqvist, "The correspondence between attachment to parents and God: Three experiments using subliminal separation cues," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30 (2004): 1122–35. T. Cole and L. Leets, "Attachment styles and intimate television viewing: Insecurely forming relationships in a parasocial way," Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 16 (1999): 495–511. L. A. Kirkpatrick and P. R. Shaver, "Attachment theory and religion: Childhood attachments, religious beliefs, and conversion," Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 29 (1990): 315–334.
23.J. Adler, "In search of the spiritual," Newsweek, August 29, 2005, 46–64.
24.W. L. Gardner, C. L. Pickett, V. Jefferis, and M. Knowles, "On the outside looking in: Loneliness and social monitoring," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31, no. 11 (2005): 1549–60.
25.R. Kraut, M. Patterson, V. Lundmark, and S. Kiesler, "Internet paradox: A social technology that reduces social involvement and psychological wellbeing?" American Psychologist 53 (1999): 1017–31.
26.L. H. Powell, L. Shahabi, and C. E. Thoresen, "Religion and spirituality: Linkages to physical health," American Psychologist 58 (2003): 36–52.
27.A. Lamott, Bird by bird: Some instructions on writing and life (New York: Anchor, 1994).
28.Mitchell quoted in K. Kelley, The home planet (Reading, MA.: Addison-Wesley, 1988), 138.
29.Center for Budget and Policy Priorities, quoted in E. Konigsberg, "A new class war: The haves vs. the have mores," New York Times, November 19, 2006.
30.D. Brooks, "Mourning Mother Russia," New York Times, April 28, 2005.
31.K. Vohs, N. Mead, and M. Goode, "The psychological consequences of money," Science 314, no. 5802 (2006): 1154.
32.G. A. Kaplan et al. "Inequality in income and mortality in the United States: Analysis of mortality and potential pathways," British Medical Journal 312, no. 7037 (1996): 999–1003. See also B. P. Kennedy, I. Kawachi, and D. Prothrow-Stith "Income distribution and mortality: Cross-sectional ecological study of the Robin Hood index in the United States," British Medical Journal 312, no. 7037 (1996): 1004–07.
33.L. F. Berkman and I. Kawachi, Social epidemiology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 164.
34.R. Axelrod, The evolution of cooperation (New York: Perseus, 2006).
35.J. Donne, Devotions upon emergent occasions (1624), in John Donne: The Major Works (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 333–351, 344. C. Darwin, The descent of man and selection in relation to sex (1874; Chicago: Rand McNally, 1974), 119.
36.M. A. Nowak, "Five rules for the evolution of cooperation," Science 314 (2006): 1560–63.
37.C. S. Lewis, The Four Loves (New York: Harcourt, 1960), 2. E. O. Wilson, Consilience (New York: Vintage, 1999), 6.