The word “garden” is relative; it may refer to a tiny plot in the center of a city or to several acres in the suburbs or country. In either case, the birds attracted will be determined by the available needs of survival—protective cover, nesting sites, food, and water. For most of us, the garden is a compromise between these two extremes. Of course, larger areas are likely to have a greater diversification of vegetation, and thus attract more birds.
Although the garden can be managed in a manner that will attract a great variety of birds, there are other established factors that influence bird distribution. Each species survives within a certain temperature range. We do not expect to find the purple finch nesting in the pines of Georgia, nor the painted bunting in the hedgerows of New England. Also, the vegetation upon which each species depends is limited with somewhat parallel temperature extremes. The hours of daylight influence birds’ arrival and departure dates. Even conditions hundreds of miles beyond your garden may determine the presence of certain species. Far-reaching storms may bring in wind-blown victims, or the scarcity of food in distant areas may account for a sporadic influx of nonresident birds. These and other indeterminate factors, along with the results of management, help make the garden an exciting place to watch birds. The rarities or the “finds of the year” may be observed sometimes in our own gardens; we have but to be alert to find them.
Seasonally, we think of birds being divided into four groups: the permanent residents, those that are with us the year round; the summer residents; the winter residents; and the spring and fall migrants. To these groups we could add the casual visitors which may appear at any time of the year. Obviously, to list and consider all the birds one might find in his garden during a year is beyond the scope of this book. Mostly, in this chapter, we are concerned with the nesting species—permanent and summer residents.1 Even such a list will vary according to geographical location and other factors. The species listed opposite have adjusted to living adjacent to mankind and are generally conceded to be our most common garden birds.
As you watch the birds about your garden, it will soon become obvious that each species is associated more closely with one particular niche, or section, than with the others. Some will feed in open areas; others will stick to the security of dense hedges and borders; and others will be at home in the taller shrubs and trees. The common variations in garden habitats and the birds associated with them are discussed in the following sections.
A number of garden birds do much of their foraging around open grassy lawns but, for obvious reasons, do not nest there. The robin, for example, is our most familiar lawn feeder, but it nests in tall shrubs or small trees. The first nest of the season is usually in a spruce, red cedar, or other dense evergreen that affords early protection. Subsequent nests (two or three broods), when the deciduous plants are in full leaf, will be found in such favorites as lilacs, dogwood, and maples.
The starling, common grackle, and brown-headed cowbird do much of their feeding on the ground. The starling, despite its rather ribald reputation, is a voracious ground feeder. It walks around the lawn, head down, and probes constantly. The starling always seems to be in a hurry, but it always seems to find an abundance of food. It helps free our lawns of grubs, cutworms, armyworms, and other insects, and is one of the few birds that will eat the destructive Japanese beetle. The common grackle walks more deliberately as it probes for the same foods. The brown-headed cowbird has a waddling gait; it feeds on insects and weed seeds. Often, both the grackle and the cowbird will interrupt their foraging with a vocal and visual display. Their somewhat harsh and squeaky songs are accompanied by the fanning of the tail and wings, and by ruffing the feathers on the neck and upper back.
The mourning dove patters around the lawn in search of grass seeds and weed seeds; however, it is seen more often in driveways and along bare edges, picking up bits of gravel, an essential part of its digestive system. The flicker spends a lot of time on the ground looking for ants, its chief source of food. Sparrows, cardinals, and blue jays may find a certain amount of their food in the grassy areas of the garden.
More birds are associated with shrubby borders and hedges than with any other niche within the garden. Just why this is so, or why any bird selects a particular biological niche, would provide the basis for some detailed study by the serious bird student. Undoubtedly, most factors influencing habitat selection are inherent, but consideration must be given to such visual references as light intensity, foliage recognition, and shadow patterns. Even within the mixed-shrub border, there is a finer, almost microcosmic, selection indicated among the various species. The catbird, mockingbird, and brown thrasher will prefer a nesting site in the thick briery or thorny tangles. The yellow warbler will build in the forked crotch of a shrub, but the chipping sparrow and the song sparrow will show a preference for an arborvitae or boxwood. The towhee will nest among the fallen leaves. The goldfinch may nest along the outer edges of the garden border, especially if it bounds an open field. The cardinal will select a site 6 or 8 feet above the ground in a shrubby tangle, or perhaps in a dense shrub against the side of your house.
There is little competition among the various species attracted to the garden border. Some food preferences may be similar, but there are differences in where and how they are obtained. The towhee will scratch in the leaves for grubs and worms in an area close to its nest, but the goldfinch will range farther afield for its seeds and insects.
As you study the birds about the hedges and borders of your garden, you will find them to be mostly common species. There are reasons for this: shrubby borders are also common and widely distributed throughout the East, and they provide a profusion of food, nesting sites, and cover.
You will discover, also, that your own garden is a good place to conduct detailed studies. The birds are relatively tame, and repeated observations can be made without the need of travel. Even though the birds may be considered as common, they do, nonetheless, include some of the most fascinating species. The cardinal, for example, is a familiar bird in many gardens, yet surely it is one of the most beautiful and most admired of all birds. The male’s cheerful whistle starts with the first hint of dawn, and his bright red brilliance about the garden never fails to stir a spontaneous flash of admiration. Mated cardinals are extremely devoted to each other. During the nesting season, the male frequently brings favorite morsels of food to the female, feeding her as though she were a fledgling just out of the nest. They stay close together when feeding and resting, and when the young have left the nest, they in turn become intensely devoted parents. Both parents will bring food to the young, but the male’s main role seems to be one of protection. He does most of his hunting within a few feet of the fledglings.
No matter what your special interests of study may be, your own garden is the ideal place to start.
Trees do more for birds and the garden community than fulfill the obvious needs for food, cover, and nesting. By the very nature of their size, they receive the full impact of the sun, wind, and precipitation. As a deterrent to these factors, and through the process of transpiration, they alter the garden climate. The garden becomes a more pleasant place to be, not only for us, but for the birds as well.
From one point of view, a single tree in your garden can be looked upon as a microcosmic neighborhood within the garden community, and as such, it affects the lives of birds in many ways. Each tree, depending upon the species, size, and nature of growth, supports an abundance of life from microscopic forms to the dominant birds. Rain-filled knotholes may harbor mosquito larvae, sow bugs, and the rat-tailed maggots of the beelike syrphid fly. Ladybird beetles fly and crawl about the trees, feeding on plant lice; birds eat the beetles. There are bark beetles and wood borers, and myriad insects that swarm about the foliage providing provender for the warblers, vireos, and flycatchers. Finches and grosbeaks feed on the tender spring buds. Spiders, lizards, and tree frogs may find a home about the tree and become prey for still another species. Egg cases and cocoons provide food and nesting materials; hummingbirds, gnatcatchers, and wood pewees gather tree lichens to camouflage their nests. Blue jays, cardinals, and mourning doves gather the small twigs. Chipmunks burrow beneath the trunk, and squirrels inhabit the hollow limbs.
As you watch the tree-nesting birds, you will soon note that each species has decided preferences for locating its nest. There will be differences in the kinds of trees and in the nesting levels selected. Evergreens appeal to several species because they provide thick cover in early spring. Robins show a preference for the larger red cedars; pines appeal to the grackles; and spruces are favored by purple finches, blue jays, song sparrows, and chipping sparrows. Look for the swinging, cradlelike nest of the Baltimore oriole in larger trees in the open: elms, sycamores, and willows are favorites. If your garden is deeply shaded and borders on a woodland, wood thrushes and red-eyed vireos may nest in the dogwoods, hornbeams, witch hazels, and other understory trees.
A colorful array of flowers about our gardens does more to attract birds than we may realize. Our first thoughts turn to the ruby-throated hummingbird, because it is dependent upon flowers for its chief source of food, nectar and tiny insects. But flowers attract a great variety of insects, and these in turn are a source of food for many birds. It is not unusual to see sparrows, warblers, flycatchers, and other birds feeding around the flower beds. When flowers go to seed, certain varieties provide foods for sparrows, finches, buntings, and other seed eaters.
The ruby-throat is the only nesting hummingbird in the eastern half of our continent. Fortunately, it is quite common and widely distributed; it is likely to be found in gardens from southeastern Canada southward to the Gulf states and Florida. It is our smallest bird; it is tame, pugnacious, and beautiful. These features make it one of our favorite garden birds.
The habits and behavioral patterns of the ruby-throat make it a fascinating bird to watch. It is easily recognized by its rapid, insectlike wing beat, and by its ability to hover and to fly backwards as it flits from one flower to another. Both sexes are burnished green above and white underneath, but the male sports an iridescent ruby gorget that may appear black in subdued light. This tiny hummer can be confused only with the hawk moths which sometimes feed about the flowers in a similar manner.
The male ruby-throat arrives in our gardens about the time the first wild columbines bloom. In addition to feeding amid the early spring flowers, he spends much of his time on an exposed perch watching for the arrival of a female. When she arrives, usually several days later, the male goes into his courtship antics. In long, pendulous arcs, he swings back and forth in front of the female. Once he has been accepted and mating is completed, his role in rearing a new family is mostly finished. He may spend time defending the territory against all intruders, but the female assumes the duties of nest building and caring for the young.
The ruby-throat’s nest is so small and so well camouflaged that it is difficult to locate. The completed nest is about the size of a golf ball and sits like a saddle on a small horizontal or downward-sloping limb. It is built of plant down and bound together with spider and caterpillar webs. The exterior is covered with lichens and bits of moss, and the nest appears to be just another knot or natural protrusion on the limb. Hornbeams, beeches, maples, and birches seem to be favored trees.
One can attract hummingbirds to gardens by growing their favorite plants, which include the following: dwarf buckeye, mimosa, Japanese flowering quince, azaleas, bee balm, columbine, gladiolus, honeysuckles, larkspur, lupine, sage, and trumpet vine.
Some birds have become so adapted to the presence and ways of man that they will accept his shelter as their own. Today, more phoebes nest on porches and under bridges than in their original habitat of sheltered ledges. Robins, too, will build their nests in the shelter of a porch or other outbuildings. Chimney swifts are probably chimney dwellers exclusively; the use of hollow tree stubs seems to be a thing of the past. House wrens and Carolina wrens do not hesitate to build in our garages or carports; they will tuck their sticks behind a box, a paint can, an old shoe, or anything else that will hide and support them. House sparrows and starlings will occupy any holes along the eaves of buildings.
If you have a barn on your property, barn swallows may nest on the exposed beams; cliff swallows may plaster their gourd-shaped nests beneath the eaves; and perhaps a barn owl will find a high ventilator or silo top to its liking.
A garden pond or stream adds a whole new dimension to the bird life within a garden. The presence of water alone may add a dozen or more species to your garden list.
The larger the pond, and the more diversified its borders, the greater the variety of birds it will attract. But even a small pond is a definite asset to the garden. Herons and egrets will come to the pond to feed on minnows, frogs, tadpoles, and aquatic insects. A kingfisher may find the fishing easy, and a pair of mallards or black ducks may find enough seclusion to nest along its borders. The beautiful wood duck is likely to accept your man-made nesting box.
Along the garden stream we may hear the waterthrush and the yellowthroat, or the “peet-weet” of the spotted sandpiper. The yellowthroat may stay to nest. And at one time or another, most of the garden birds will drink from the stream and bathe in its sandy shallows.
As you watch your garden bath, you will notice differences in the way various species approach it, and in the way they drink and bathe. Any drinking usually precedes bathing, and most species drink in a manner similar to that of a chicken, i.e., they must raise their heads in order to swallow the water. Doves are an exception to this procedure; they can drink their fill without removing their beaks from the water. In the standard procedure of bathing, the bird hops into the water, flattens itself against the bottom, and splashes water over its body by a vigorous flapping of the wings. This is done rather quickly and may be repeated several times, but invariably, the bird will shake off all excess water and take a quick look around between each dip. Birds seem innately concerned for their own safety when the quickness of flight can be hampered by water-soaked and disarrayed feathers. When the bath is finished, birds will shake off the water, fly to a nearby perch, and quickly preen their feathers into place.
As in most households, there is a definite priority in the use of the bath. The order of dominance at a birdbath depends upon the variety of birds in the garden. If blue jays are present, they will hold the key and usurp the bath whenever they want it. Next come the grackles and starlings. Starlings are communal bathers, and at times they will arrive in such numbers that even the jay’s boldness cannot deter them. The remaining order of priority is determined mostly by size: robins, thrashers, mockingbirds, catbirds, orioles, sparrows, and finally, the warblers.
Blue jays approach the bath in bold direct flight from a distance. They come flashing in, often screaming like a hawk, and any other bathers are quick to relinquish the bath. Blue jays are vigorous bathers, throwing water in all directions, often nearly emptying the bath by the time they are finished. Usually, they will repeat this procedure several times before they are satisfied, but will shake off the excess water between flurries; they will not stay water-soaked for a prolonged period of time. Robins also use a direct approach to the bath, but they usually have just one good dip and are finished. They shake off the water, fly to a nearby perch, and rearrange their feathers.
When a flock of starlings descends upon the bath, there is a squabbling melee as they all try to bathe at once. When they are finished, you can be sure the bath will need a good cleaning and fresh water. Most of the water will be gone, and the little that remains will be saturated with seeds, droppings, and lost feathers.
Thrashers and catbirds are more cautious in their approach to the bath. They work their way through the low shrubbery, gradually getting as close as possible before flying to the edge. A drink and one quick bath is their usual routine. Warblers are perhaps the most cautious of all the garden bathers. I have banded hundreds of them by using water traps. Their approach to the water was nearly always the same. They would land high in a nearby tree and gradually work their way downward. They were constantly alert and always seemed nervous, but they could not resist the temptation of dripping water.
In the absence of a birdbath, garden birds must resort to other means of obtaining water for drinking and bathing. Some will travel quite far to enjoy the shallow edges of some pond or stream. Rain puddles, no matter how muddy they may be, are used by many species. I have seen mockingbirds, cardinals, catbirds, flycatchers, and other garden birds bathe by taking rain showers, by flying through the spray of lawn sprinklers, and by pushing their bodies through rain-soaked foliage or dew-covered grass. Certain species, such as the downy woodpecker, black-capped chickadee, and slate-colored junco, will sometimes bathe in the snow.
For the bird watcher, the greatest advantage of a garden birdbath is that it attracts birds into place for close observation—birds that otherwise would go unnoticed. Many “firsts” have been recorded by watching a birdbath.
At least 150 species of birds have been observed anointing their feathers with ants. This is done in one of two ways: the bird will pick up the ant, crush it, and quickly rub the feathers (usually the underside of the wing tips and the undertail coverts) with its bill, or it may spread its body over the ants and allow them to crawl through the feathers. In the latter, or more passive, type of anting, it is believed that the type of ants selected exude a repugnant mist. The most plausible explanation of this seemingly strange behavior is that the body juices of ants contain formic acid which helps rid the bird of mites. However, this is but one of many theories, and the positive reason for anting is unknown.
Watch the mockingbird while it is on the ground. It has the very common habit of “flashing” its wings, i.e., it will raise its wings repeatedly to an angle of about 45 degrees. Often this is done in a series of successive steps rather than by one continuous movement. When the wings are raised in this manner, the white underneath wing patches are displayed, or exposed. The reason for this wing flashing by mockingbirds is still one of the unsolved mysteries of bird behavior. Several theories have been advanced, suggesting that wing flashing is a courtship display, a means of flushing insects from the grass, or an outlet for emotional frustrations. But if you watch the procedure, and note when and under what circumstances it is performed, not one of these theories seems to have much basis. Additional detailed studies are needed to reach a positive conclusion on the reason for wing flashing.
The edges of flower beds and driveways are favorite places for garden birds to sun themselves. Usually, the bird turns one side toward the sun, fluffs up its feathers, and spreads the tail and one or both wings. Practically all birds engage in this activity, but about the garden, I have noticed it most frequently among mourning doves, blue jays, mockingbirds, cardinals, and robins. The significance of sun bathing remains obscure, but it is likely that birds obtain some physical benefit from the practice, and that it is not done merely for the enjoyment of the extra warmth.
Some birds bathe by dusting. They scratch a depression in the dry dirt surface and force the powdery soil through their plumage. This method of bathing is the one used by pheasants, grouse, bobwhites, whip-poor-wills, and chuck-will’s-widows. Within the garden, it is most likely to be noticed among members of the sparrow family. Dust bathing undoubtedly helps birds get rid of external parasites.
This is the birds’ method of caring for their plumage. Frequently, it is engaged in after bathing or some disturbance that disarranges the feathers. As you watch a bird preen, you will observe that it takes the feather in its bill and gradually works toward the tip. By working the mandibles, or by drawing the feather through the bill in one continuous action, the bird cleans the feather and interlocks any separated barbs. When oiling the feathers, the bird will touch the oil gland with its bill. This oil may be applied directly by the bill, or it may be transferred to the foot and then applied. Preening is needed not only for comfort and appearance; more importantly, it is essential to maintaining maximum aerodynamic efficiency.
Most of us have seen a robin, cardinal, mockingbird, or some other species wage a relentless battle with its own reflection in a hub cap, bumper, window, or similar reflective surface. This is an act of territorial defense. The bird (usually a male) looks upon the reflection as an intruder and is doing his best to chase it away. The battle may persist for days, and the only way to stop it is by covering the reflective surface.
To me, the most exciting aspect of garden bird watching is managing the garden so that it will continue to attract an increasing number and variety of birds. This can be done without interfering with the aesthetic values of any landscaping plans. Remember this main point: birds are attracted to an area that provides them with the means of survival. There are obvious differences in the needs of birds, and the garden that provides a variety of food, cover, and nesting sites will attract the greatest numbers.2
Whether you keep any other bird records or not, you will find much pleasure in keeping a few simple records of the birds about your garden. Over a period of years you will be interested in knowing the total number of species you have seen in your garden, the total for each year, and the arrival and departure dates for certain species. If you do not start keeping these records now, there will be many times in the future when you will wish you had done so.
More complete information on record keeping will be found in Chapter 17, “Techniques Afield.”
1 For winter birds about the garden, see Chapter 14, “Watching Songbirds in Winter.”
2 At this point I can do no better than to recommend my own book, The New Handbook of Attracting Birds, 2nd ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1960). It contains detailed information on numerous projects that will attract birds to your garden.