Notes

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2National Institutes of Health, “Guidelines on the Inclusion of Women and Minorities as Subjects in Clinical Research,” October 9, 2001. https://grants.nih.gov/policy/inclusion/women-and-minorities/guidelines.htm.

3Esther H. Chen et al., “Gender Disparity in Analgesic Treatment of Emergency Department Patients with Acute Abdominal Pain,” Academic Emergency Medicine 15, no. 5 (May 2008). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18439195/.

4University of Copenhagen Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, “Across Diseases, Women Are Diagnosed Later Than Men,” ScienceDaily, March 11, 2019.

5This assumes that surgery was the first treatment in 83 percent and that mortality without the delay was 12 percent. Timothy P. Hanna et al., “Mortality Due to Cancer Treatment Delay: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” BMJ 371: (2020). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m4087.

6Library of Congress, “1978: Madrigal v. Quilligan,” Library of Congress Research Guides, accessed August 16, 2023. https://guides.loc.gov/latinx-civil-rights/madrigal-v-quilligan.

7Mayo Clinic, “Functional Neurologic Disorder/Conversion Disorder,” accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/conversion-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20355197.

8Cleveland Clinic, “Conversion Disorder,” accessed August 16, 2023. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17975-conversion-disorder.

9Association of American Medical Colleges, “Percentage of All Active Physicians by Race/Ethnicity, 2018,” accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.aamc.org/data-reports/workforce/data/figure-18-percentage-all-active-physicians-race/ethnicity-2018.

10Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Vital Signs: African American Health,” accessed August 16, 2023. https://archive.cdc.gov/#/details?url=https://www.cdc.gov/vitalsigns/aahealth/index.html.

11Donna L. Hoyert, “Maternal Mortality Rates in the United States, 2020.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, February 23, 2022. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/113967.

12Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Working Together to Reduce Black Maternal Mortality.” April 3, 2023. https://www.cdc.gov/healthequity/features/maternal-mortality/index.html.

13Tatiana Andreyeva et al., “Changes in Perceived Weight Discrimination Among Americans, 1995–1996 Through 2004–2006,” Obesity (Silver Spring) 16, no. 5 (September 6, 2012): 1129–34. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2008.35.

14José R. Guardado, “Medical Liability Claim Frequency Among U.S. Physicians.” American Medical Association, 2017. https://www.ama-assn.org/sites/ama-assn.org/files/corp/media-browser/public/government/advocacy/policy-research-perspective-medical-liability-claim-frequency.pdf.

15José R. Guardado, “Medical Liability Claim Frequency Among U.S. Physicians.” Policy Research Perspectives, American Medical Association (AMA), 2016.

16OpenNotes, “JAMA Network Open: 1 Out of 5 Patients Who Read Visit Notes Report Finding Mistakes.” OpenNotes, accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.opennotes.org/news/jama-network-open-1-out-of-5-patients-who-read-visit-notes-report-finding-mistakes/.

17Duke Health, “Common Medical Abbreviations,” Duke MyChart, accessed August 16, 2023, https://www.dukemychart.org/home/en-us/docs/commonmedicalabbreviations.pdf.

18L. Zhang, E. A. R. Losin, Y. K. Ashar, L. Koban, and T. D. Wager, “Gender Biases in Estimation of Others’ Pain,” The Journal of Pain 22, no. 9, https://www.jpain.org/article/S1526-5900(21)00035-3/fulltext.

19E. J. Bartley and R. B. Fillingim, “Sex Differences in the Brain: A Brief Review of Clinical and Experimental Findings,” British Journal of Anaesthesia 111, no. 1 (July 2013): 52–58. https://doi.org/10.1093/bja/aet127.

20Christopher J. D. Wallis et al., “Association of Surgeon-Patient Sex Concordance with Postoperative Outcomes,” JAMA Surgery 156, no. 9 (December 2021): 146–56. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamasurgery/fullarticle/2786671.

21Ishani Ganguli et al., “Physician Work Hours and the Gender Pay Gap: Evidence from Primary Care,” New England Journal of Medicine 383 (October 1, 2020): 1349–57. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa2013804.

22Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Understanding the Opioid Overdose Epidemic,” accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.cdc.gov/overdose-prevention/about/understanding-the-opioid-overdose-epidemic.html?CDC_AAref_Val=https://www.cdc.gov/opioids/basics/epidemic.html.

23Deborah Dowell, Tamara M. Haegerich, and Roger Chou, “CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain: United States, 2016,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 65, no. RR-1 (2016): 1–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6501e1.

24US Food and Drug Administration, “FDA Identifies Harm Reported from Sudden Discontinuation of Opioid Pain Medicines and Requires Label Changes to Guide Prescribers on Gradual, Individualized Tapering.” FDA, accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-identifies-harm-reported-sudden-discontinuation-opioid-pain-medicines-and-requires-label-changes.

25National Child Traumatic Stress Network, “Pediatric Toolkit for Health Care Providers,” accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.nctsn.org/sites/default/files/resources//pediatric_toolkit_for_health_care_providers.pdf.