PREFACE TO THE PAPERBACK

1. Jennifer Levitz, “Boston Marathon Bomber Dzhokhar Tsarnaev Sentenced to Death, Apologizes to Victims,” Wall Street Journal, June 24, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/dzhokhar-tsarnaev-apologizes-before-being-sentenced-to-death-for-boston-bombing-1435170191 (accessed June 13, 2016); Richard Fausset, Richard Pérez-Peña, and Matt Apuzzo, “Slain Troops in Chattanooga Saved Lives Before Giving Their Own,” New York Times, July 22, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/23/us/chattanooga-tennessee-shooting-investigation-mohammod-abdulazeez.html (accessed June 13, 2016); Laura Wagner and Bill Chappell, “FBI: San Bernardino Shooting Is Being Investigated as a Terrorist Act,” NPR, December 4, 2015, http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/12/04/458464907/alleged-san-bernardino-attacker-pledged-allegiance-to-isis (accessed June 13, 2016); Ralph Ellis, Ashley Frantz, Faith Karimi, and Eliott C. McLaughlin, “Orlando Shooting: 49 Killed, Shooter Pledged ISIS Allegiance,” CNN, June 13, 2016, http://www.cnn.com/2016/06/12/us/orlando-nightclub-shooting/ (accessed June 13, 2016).

2. Julie Turkewitz and Jack Healy, “3 Are Dead in Colorado Springs Shootout at Planned Parenthood Center,” New York Times, November 27, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/28/us/colorado-planned-parenthood-shooting.html (accessed June 13, 2016); Michael S. Schmidt, “Charleston Suspect Was in Contact With Supremacists, Officials Say,” New York Times, July 3, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/04/us/dylann-roof-was-in-contact-with-supremacists-officials-say.html (accessed June 13, 2016); Polly Mosendz, “Dylann Roof Confesses: Says He Wanted To Start ‘Race War,’” Newsweek, June 19, 2015, http://www.newsweek.com/dylann-roof-confesses-church-shooting-says-he-wanted-start-race-war-344797 (accessed June 13, 2016); Dan Weikel, Scott Gold, Richard Winton, Brian Bennett, Joel Rubin, Joseph Serna, Ari Bloomkatz, Samantha Schaefer, Kate Mather, Matt Stevens, Jill Cowan, Alicia Banks, and Laura J. Nelson, “LAX Shooting: Gunman Targeted TSA Officers, Wrote Anti-Government Note,” Los Angeles Times, November 1, 2013, http://articles.latimes.com/2013/nov/01/local/la-me-ln-lax-shooting-multiple-tsa-agents-shot-by-gunman-with-rifle-20131101 (accessed June 13, 2016).

INTRODUCTION

1. Paul Avrich, Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), pp. 196–97.

2. Mike Davis, Buda's Wagon: A Brief History of the Car Bomb (London: Verso, 2007), p. 2.

3. Avrich, Sacco and Vanzetti, p. 207.

4. The first reported midair plane bombing in the United States occurred near Chesterton, Indiana, on October 10, 1933. A United Airlines transcontinental passenger plane exploded, killing all seven people aboard. No motive or suspects were uncovered. The higher number of casualties caused by the Graham bombing and the reaction it elicited across the country, including front-page coverage in the New York Times, would seem to qualify that incident as the first “major” midair plane bombing in US history.

5. Mark Juergensmeyer, “Religious Terror and the Secular State,” Harvard International Review (Winter 2004): 5.

6. Avrich, Sacco and Vanzetti, p. 206.

7. Among the few systematic studies of lone wolves are Dennis Pluchinsky, The Global Jihad: Leaderless Terrorism? (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2006); Lone-Wolf Terrorism, COT, Institute voor Veiligheids-en Crisismanagement, Final draft, June 7, 2007, Case Study for Work Package 3, http://www.scribd.com/doc/34968770/Lone-Wolf-Terrorism (accessed June 10, 2011); Ramon Spaaij, Understanding Lone Wolf Terrorism: Global Patterns, Motivations, and Prevention (New York: Springer, 2012); Raffaello Pantucci, “A Typology of Lone Wolves: Preliminary Analysis of Lone Islamist Terrorists,” Developments in Radicalisation and Political Violence, March 2011; and George Michael, Lone Wolf Terror and the Rise of Leaderless Resistance (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2012).

8. Ricardo A. Martinez, “Partners in the Battle,” FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, February 2011, http://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/law-enforcement-bulletin/february2011/notable-speech (accessed November 8, 2012).

CHAPTER 1. THE GROWING THREAT OF LONE WOLF TERRORISM

1. Aamer Madhani, “Obama: ‘Lone Wolf’ Attack Is Biggest Concern,” National Journal, August 17, 2011, http://www.nationaljournal.com/whitehouse/obama-lone-wolf-attack-is-biggest-concern-20110816 (accessed August 23, 2011).

2. “Intelligence Officials Warn Attempted al Qaeda Attack Months Away,” Fox News, February 2, 2010, http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2010/02/02/intelligence-officials-warn-attempted-al-qaeda-attack-months-away/ (accessed April 16, 2010).

3. Matt Wade, “Game On,” Age, March 1, 2010, http://www.theage.com.au/world/game-on-20100228-pbc0.html (accessed April 14, 2010).

4. “Kevin Rudd Says Australia Faces Major Terror Threat,” BBC News, February 23, 2010, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8529613.stm (accessed April 14, 2010).

5. Brynjar Lia and Katja H-W Skjolberg, Why Terrorism Occurs—A Survey of Theories and Hypotheses on the Causes of Terrorism, FFI/RAPPORT-2000/02769, p. 8.

6. David C. Rapoport, “The Four Waves of Modern Terrorism,” in Attacking Terrorism: Elements of a Grand Strategy, ed. Audrey Kurth Cronin and James M. Ludes (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2004), pp. 46–73.

7. Ibid., p. 47.

8. Ibid., p. 48.

9. Ibid., p. 50.

10. Ibid., p. 70, n. 23.

11. Ibid., pp. 52–53.

12. Ibid., p. 56.

13. Ibid., p. 62.

14. Ibid.

15. For a discussion of the fifth wave of terrorism, see Jeffrey D. Simon, “Technological and Lone Operator Terrorism: Prospects for a Fifth Wave of Global Terrorism,” in Terrorism, Identity, and Legitimacy: The Four Waves Theory and Political Violence, ed. Jean E. Rosenfeld (London: Routledge, 2011), pp. 44–65.

16. Jeff Shogol, “DOD Report Says EFP Attacks Are Up in Iraq,” Stars and Stripes, September 19, 2007, http://www.stripes.com/news/dod-report-says-efp-attacks-are-up-in-iraq-1.68998 (accessed June 19, 2011).

17. Scott Shane, “Killings in Norway Spotlight Anti-Muslim Thought in U.S.,” New York Times, July 24, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/25/us/25debate.html?pagewanted=all (accessed July 28, 2011).

18. David Cay Johnston, “Tax Law Was Cited in Software Engineer's Suicide Note,” New York Times, February 18, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/19/us/19tax.html (accessed May 2, 2011).

19. Asher Price, “Suicide Pilot Joe Stack Had History of Shutting Doors on People,” Statesman, March 7, 2010, http://www.statesman.com/news/local/suicide-pilot-joe-stack-had-history-of-shutting-326300.html (accessed May 6, 2011).

20. “RAW DATA: Joseph Stack Suicide Manifesto,” Fox News, February 18, 2010, http://www.foxnews.com/us/2010/02/18/raw-data-joseph-stack-suicide-manifesto/ (accessed May 2, 2011).

21. “Richard Poplawski: The Making of a Lone Wolf,” Anti-Defamation League, April 8, 2009, http://www.adl.org/learn/extremism_in_the_news/White_Supremacy/poplawski%20report.htm (accessed August 13, 2009).

22. Jon Schmitz, “Poplawski Bought Guns through Shop in Wilkinsburg,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, April 7, 2009, http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/09097/961071-53.stm (accessed June 8, 2010).

23. Lone-Wolf Terrorism, COT, Instituut voor Veiligheids- en Crisismanagement, Final draft, June 7, 2007, Case Study for Work Package 3, p. 43, http://www.scribd.com/doc/34968770/Lone-Wolf-Terrorism (accessed June 10, 2011).

24. Duncan Gardham, “‘Al-Qaeda’ Terrorists Who Brainwashed Exeter Suicide Bomber Still on the Run,” Daily Telegraph, October 15, 2008, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/law-and-order/3204139/Al-Qaeda-terrorists-who-brainwashed-Exeter-suicide-bomber-still-on-the-run.html (accessed June 28, 2010).

25. Louis Beam, quoted in “Extremism in America: Louis Beam,” Anti-Defamation League, 2005, http://www.adl.org/learn/ext_us/beam.asp?xpicked=2&item=beam (accessed July 4, 2010).

26. Mark Sageman, “The Next Generation of Terror,” Foreign Policy (March/April 2008): 37–38.

27. Ibid., p. 41.

28. “‘Lone Wolf’ Attacks: A Developing Islamist Extremist Strategy?” Integrated Threat Assessment Centre, June 29, 2007: 2, http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/ITAC_lonewolves_062007.pdf (accessed April 26, 2010).

29. “Securing Australia/Protecting Our Community,” counterterrorism white paper, Australian government, 2010, p. 8.

30. EU Terrorism Situation and Trend Report (TE-SAT) 2010, Europol, p. 37.

31. Rightwing Extremism: Current Economic and Political Climate Fueling Resurgence in Radicalization and Recruitment, Office of Intelligence and Analysis, US Department of Homeland Security, April 7, 2009, http://www.fas.org./irp/eprint/rightwing.pdf (accessed April 22, 2009).

32. Jeffrey D. Simon, The Terrorist Trap: America's Experience with Terrorism, 2nd ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001), pp. 383–85.

CHAPTER 2. WHO ARE THE LONE WOLVES?

1. Walter Laqueur, The Age of Terrorism (Boston: Little, Brown, 1987), p. 70.

2. Yoram Schweitzer and Sari Goldstein Ferber, “Al-Qaeda and the Internationalization of Suicide Terrorism,” Memorandum 78, Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies, November 2005, p. 39.

3. Jessica Stern, Terror in the Name of God: Why Religious Militants Kill (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), p. 172.

4. David Johnston and James Risen, “Lone Terrorists May Strike in the U.S., Agencies Warn,” New York Times, February 23, 2003, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE1DC113DF930A15751C0A9659C8B63 (accessed April 3, 2011).

5. Ehud Sprinzak, “The Lone Gunman,” Foreign Policy (November/December 2001): 72–73.

6. Ibid.

7. See chapter 5 of this book for a detailed discussion of lone wolf assassins.

8. James W. Clarke, American Assassins: The Darker Side of Politics, rev. ed. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990); R. Hrair Dekmejian, Spectrum of Terror (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 2007), pp. 25–38.

9. Carolyn Tuft and Joe Holleman, “Inside the Christian Identity Movement,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, March 5, 2000, http://www.rickross.com/reference/christian_identity/christianidentity7.html (accessed April 24, 2011); “Extremism in America: Christian Identity,” Anti-Defamation League, 2005, http://www.adl.org/learn/ext_us/Christian_Identity.asp?xpicked=4&item=Christian_ID (accessed April 24, 2011).

10. Scott Brown, “Interview with Oklahoma City Bomber Timothy McVeigh Released as Part of MSNBC Special,” WGRZ/MSNBC, April 19, 2010, http://www.wgrz.com/news/local/story.aspx?storyid=76090&catid=13 (accessed May 1, 2011). Buffalo News reporters Lou Michel and Dan Herbeck spent parts of seven days interviewing McVeigh as he awaited his execution. They published a book on McVeigh in 2001 titled American Terrorist: Timothy McVeigh and the Oklahoma City Bombing (New York: Regan Books, 2001).

11. Ibid.

12. “Testimony of Jennifer McVeigh,” University of Missouri–Kansas City, May 5, 1997, http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/mcveigh/jennifertestimony.html (accessed May 2, 2011).

13. PrimeTime: McVeigh's Own Words, ABC News, March 29, 2001, http://abcnews.go.com/Primetime/story?id=132158&page=1 (accessed May 2, 2011).

14. Brown, “Interview with Oklahoma City Bomber Timothy McVeigh.”

15. “McVeigh Remorseless about Bombing,” Associated Press, March 29, 2001, http://www.rickross.com/reference/mcveigh/mcveigh6.html (accessed May 2, 2011).

16. Ibid.

17. Ibid.

18. PrimeTime.

19. Timothy Stenovec, “Oslo Terror Attacks: A History of Terrorism in Norway,” Huffington Post, July 22, 2011, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/22/oslo-terrorism-history_n_907380.html (accessed July 31, 2011).

20. Michael Schwirtz, “Norway's Premier Vows to Keep an Open Society,” New York Times, July 27, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/28/world/europe/28norway.html (accessed August 2, 2011).

21. “Norway's Black Friday: A Chronology of the Twin Attacks,” Spiegel Online International, July 25, 2011, http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/0,1518,776437,00.html (accessed August 1, 2011).

22. Ian MacDougall and Karl Ritter, “Norway Suspect Was Considering Other Targets,” Associated Press, July 30, 2011, http://www.tulsaworld.com/site/printerfriendlystory.aspx?articleid=20110730_298_0_OSLONo914857 (accessed November 8, 2012).

23. Karl Ritter, “Gunman's Background Puzzles Police in Norway,” Associated Press, July 23, 2011, http://news.yahoo.com/gunmans-background-puzzles-police-norway-044701742.html (accessed July 23, 2011).

24. Chris Slack, “Anders Breivik ‘Was on Norwegian Secret Service Watchlist’ after Buying Chemical Haul from Polish Retailer,” Mail Online, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2018646/Norway-shooting-Anders-Behring-Breivik-secret-service-watchlist.html (accessed July 26, 2011).

25. Ibid.

26. Victoria Klesty and Gwladys Fouche, “Norway Mourns Victims of Anti-Islam ‘Crusader,’” Reuters, July 24, 2011, http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/07/24/us-norway-idUSL6E7IN00C20110724 (accessed July 24, 2011).

27. Ibid.

28. Victoria Klesty and Gwladys Fouche, “Norway Suspect Deems Killings Atrocious but Needed,” Reuters, July 24, 2011 http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/global-filipino/world/07/24/11/norway-suspect-deems-killings-atrocious-needed (accessed July 24, 2011).

29. MacDougall and Ritter, “Norway Suspect Was Considering Other Targets.”

30. Bjoern Amland and Sarah DiLorenzo, “Suspect: Norway Attacks ‘Marketing’ for Manifesto,” Associated Press, July 24, 2011, http://abclocal.go.com/wpvi/story?section=news/national_world&id=8268226 (accessed August 2, 2011).

31. Michael Schwirtz and Matthew Saltmarsh, “Oslo Suspect Cultivated Parallel Life to Disguise ‘Martyrdom Operation,’” New York Times, July 24, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/25/world/europe/25breivik.html (accessed July 26, 2011).

32. “As Horrors Emerge, Norway Charges Christian Extremist,” New York Times, July 24, 2011.

33. Balazs Koranyi and Walter Gibbs, “Norway Killer Picked Victims Who Had ‘Leftist’ Look,” Reuters, http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/04/23/uk-norway-attacks-trial-idUKBRE83M0GT20120423 (accessed April 24, 2012).

34. Scott Stewart, “Norway: Lessons from a Successful Lone Wolf Attacker,” Stratfor Global Intelligence, July 28, 2011, http://www.stratfor.com/weekly/20110727-norway-lessons-successful-lone-wolf-attacker (accessed August 2, 2011).

35. Monte Kuligowski, “Anders Breivik: A Teachable Moment on Fundamentalism,” American Thinker, August 2, 2011, http://www.americanthinker.com/2011/08/anders_breivik_a_teachable_moment_on_fundamentalism.html (accessed August 2, 2011).

36. Scott Shane, “Killings in Norway Spotlight Anti-Muslim Thought in U.S.,” New York Times, July 24, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/25/us/25debate.html?pagewanted=all (accessed July 28, 2011).

37. Ibid.

38. Nicholas Kulish, “Shift in Europe Seen in Debate on Immigrants,” New York Times, July 27, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/28/world/europe/28europe.html (accessed August 1, 2011).

39. Ibid.

40. Steven Erlanger and Scott Shane, “Oslo Suspect Wrote of Fear of Islam and Plan for War,” New York Times, July 23, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/24/world/europe/24oslo.html?pagewanted=all (accessed August 2, 2011).

41. Tad Tietze, “The Importance of the Anders Breivik Verdict Reaches beyond Norway,” Guardian, August 24, 2012, http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2012/aug/24/anders-breivik-verdict-norway1 (accessed November 9, 2012).

42. Mark Townsend, “Breivik Verdict: Norwegian Extremist Declared Sane and Sentenced to 21 Years,” Guardian, August 24, 2012, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/aug/24/breivik-verdict-sane-21-years (accessed November 9, 2012). Breivik himself indicated shortly after his arrest that he was quite aware of what he had done. According to his lawyer, Breivik said that “he believed the actions were atrocious, but that in his head they were necessary.” See Klesty and Fouche, “Norway Suspect Deems Killings Atrocious but Needed.”

43. Laura Smith-Spark, “Norway Killer Anders Breivik Ruled Sane, Given 21-Year Prison Term,” CNN, August 24, 2012, http://www.cnn.com/2012/08/24/world/europe/norway-breivik-trial/index.html (accessed November 9, 2012).

44. Stewart, “Norway.”

45. Gavin Hewitt, “Analysis,” BBC News, July 25, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-14280210 (accessed August 4, 2011).

46. “Bin Laden Death Could Inspire Lone Wolf Attacks, Feds Say,” CBS News, May 10, 2011, http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503543_162-20061417-503543.html (accessed May 10, 2011).

47. James Dao, “Suspect Was ‘Mortified’ about Deployment,” New York Times, November 5, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/06/us/06suspect.html (accessed May 11, 2011).

48. Chris McGreal, “Fort Hood Shootings: Nidal Hasan's Quiet Manner Hid Hostility to US Army,” Guardian, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/nov/06/fort-hood-shootings-nidal-hasan (accessed May 11, 2011).

49. Daniel Pipes, “Maj. Hasan's Islamist Life,” FrontPageMagazine.com, November 20, 2009, http://www.danielpipes.org/7763/major-nidal-hasan-islamist-life (accessed May 11, 2011).

50. Ibid.

51. Joseph I. Lieberman and Susan M. Collins, A Ticking Time Bomb: Counterterrorism Lessons from the U.S. Government's Failure to Prevent the Fort Hood Attack, United States Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Government Affairs, February 3, 2011, p. 8.

52. Pipes, “Maj. Hasan's Islamist Life.”

53. Lieberman and Collins, Ticking Time Bomb, p. 9

54. Del Quentin Wiber, “Von Brunn, White Supremacist Holocaust Museum Shooter, Dies,” Washington Post, January 7, 2010, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/01/06/AR2010010604095.html (accessed May 14, 2011).

55. “Extremism in America: Christian Identity,” Anti-Defamation League, 2005, http://www.adl.org/learn/ext_us/Christian_Identity.asp?xpicked=4&item=Christian_ID (accessed April 24, 2011).

56. “James von Brunn: An ADL Backgrounder,” Anti-Defamation League, 2009, http://www.adl.org/main_Extremism/von_brunn_background.htm?Multi_page_sections=sHeading_2 (accessed April 24, 2011).

57. Ibid.

58. David Stout, “Museum Gunman a Longtime Foe of Government,” New York Times, June 10, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/11/us/11shoot.html (accessed May 14, 2011); “Law Center: Shooting Suspect Has ‘Long History’ with Neo-Nazis,” CNN Justice, June 10, 2009, http://articles.cnn.com/2009-06-10/justice/dc.museum.shooting.suspect_1_white-supremacist-jews-and-blacks-von-brunn?_s=PM:CRIME (accessed May 14, 2011).

59. “James von Brunn.”

60. Neal Augenstein, “Separatist Describes Von Brunn as Depressed,” WTOP, June 11, 2009, http://www.wtop.com/?nid=25&sid=1694189 (accessed May 15, 2011).

61. “White Supremacists Celebrate Holocaust Museum Shooter Suspect as a Martyr and Hero,” Anti-Defamation League, June 11, 2009, http://www.adl.org/main_Extremism/White-Supremacists-Celebrate-Shooter.htm (accessed May 14, 2011).

62. “Full Text of Eric Rudolph's Confession,” NPR, April 14, 2005, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4600480 (accessed May 17, 2011).

63. Ibid.

64. Ibid.

65. Jeffrey Gettleman, “Ambivalence in the Besieged Town of ‘Run, Rudolph, Run,’” New York Times, June 1, 2003, http://www.nytimes.com/2003/06/01/national/01SCEN.html (accessed May 18, 2011).

66. “Atlanta Olympic Bombing Suspect Arrested,” CNN, May 31, 2003, http://articles.cnn.com/2003-05-31/us/rudolph.main_1_eric-robert-rudolph-george-nordmann-atlanta-olympic-bombing?_s=PM:US (accessed May 19, 2011).

67. “Full Text of Eric Rudolph's Confession.”

68. Ibid.

69. Shaila Dewan, “Olympics Bomber Apologizes and Is Sentenced to Life Terms,” New York Times, August 23, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/23/national/23bomber.html?pagewanted=print (accessed May 19, 2011).

70. Henry Schuster with Charles Stone, Hunting Eric Rudolph (New York: Berkeley, 2005).

71. Thad Anderson, “Notes on Eric Rudolph's Manifesto & Postscript,” Blogcritics, http://blogcritics.org/politics/article/notes-on-eric-rudolphs-manifesto-postscript/ (accessed May 20, 2011).

72. Blake Morrison, “Special Report: Eric Rudolph Writes Home,” USA Today, July 5, 2005, http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2005-07-05-rudolph-cover-partone_x.htm (accessed May 22, 2011).

73. Peter Jan Margry, “The Murder of Pim Fortuyn and Collective Emotions: Hype, Hysteria, and Holiness in the Netherlands?” Etnofoor:antropologisch tijdschrift 16 (2003): 106–31, http://www.meertens.knaw.nl/meertensnet/file/edwinb/20050420/PF_webp_Engels_lang.pdf (accessed May 25, 2011).

74. Rod Dreher, “Murder in Holland,” National Review Online, May 7, 2002, http://old.nationalreview.com/dreher/dreher050702.asp (accessed May 24, 2011).

75. “Crisis Talks over Dutch Killing,” BBC News, May 7, 2002, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1971943.stm (accessed May 25, 2011).

76. “Dutch Election to Go Ahead,” BBC News, May 7, 2002, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1972454.stm (accessed May 25, 2011).

77. Ibid.

78. “The Political Legacy of Pim Fortuyn,” Economist, May 9, 2002, http://www.economist.com/node/1125205 (accessed May 24, 2011); Dreher, “Murder in Holland.”

79. Lone-Wolf Terrorism, COT, Instituut voor Veiligheids- en Crisismanagement, Final draft, June 7, 2007, Case Study for Work Package 3, p. 24, http://www.scribd.com/doc/34968770/Lone-Wolf-Terrorism (accessed June 10, 2011).

80. Ibid., p. 35.

81. Ibid., p. 44.

82. Ibid., p. 46.

83. Ibid., pp. 64–65.

84. Ibid., pp. 24–25.

85. Marlise Simons, “Dutch Court Sentences Killer of Politician to 18-Year Term,” New York Times, April 16, 2003, http://www.nytimes.com/2003/04/16/world/dutch-court-sentences-killer-of-politician-to-18-year-term.html?ref=pimfortuyn (accessed May 24, 2011).

86. Lone-Wolf Terrorism, p. 25.

87. “Fortuyn Gunman Spared Life Term,” BBC News, April 15, 2003, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2948555.stm (accessed May 24, 2011).

88. Margry, “Murder of Pim Fortuyn.”

89. Ibid.

90. Lone-Wolf Terrorism, p. 79.

91. Ibid., p. 80. The Netherlands experienced another assassination in November 2004 when controversial filmmaker Theo van Gogh was shot and stabbed to death in Amsterdam by a Dutch Moroccan man upset with Van Gogh's anti-Islamic views as well as with a recent film that portrayed violence against women in Islamic societies.

92. Jeffrey D. Simon, The Terrorist Trap: America's Experience with Terrorism, 2nd ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001), pp. 49–51.

93. Ibid., p. 49.

94. Ibid., pp. 49–50.

95. Ibid., p. 50.

96. “What Kind of Man Is This?” Rocky Mountain News, November 16, 1955, p. 44.

97. “Famous Cases and Criminals: Jack Gilbert Graham,” Federal Bureau of Investigation, http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/jack-gilbert-graham (accessed May 31, 2011); “Graham Paying Back Check Forgery Fund,” Denver Post, November 14, 1955, p. 1.

98. “Graham Paying Back Check Forgery Fund.”

99. “Graham Faces Charge of Murder,” Denver Post, November 14, 1955, p. 3.

100. “Famous Cases and Criminals.”

101. Ibid.

102. Ibid.

103. This discussion of Panos Koupparis (“Commander Nemo”) is drawn from Simon, Terrorist Trap, pp. 335–37, and from Jeffrey D. Simon, “Lone Operators and Weapons of Mass Destruction,” in Hype of Reality: The “New Terrorism” and Mass Casualty Attacks, ed. Brad Roberts (Alexandria, VA: Chemical and Biological Arms Control Institute, 2000), pp. 75–76, 78–79. I have included Koupparis in this discussion of criminal lone wolves even though he had help from more than one or two other people. However, since that support came entirely from his family members, it seems to be a special case of an individual who uses close relatives to assist him in threatening a terrorist attack.

104. Pericles Solomides, “Blackmailers Had Plans for Bombings,” Cyprus Mail, May 19, 1987, p. 1.

105. Simon, Terrorist Trap, p. xii.

106. Ted Ottley, “Ted Kaczynski: The Unabomber,” TruTV Crime Library, http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/terrorists/kaczynski/15.html (accessed June 9, 2011).

107. For a discussion of the Croatian hijacking, see Simon, Terrorist Trap, pp. 110–19.

108. Ibid., p. xii.

109. Lone-Wolf Terrorism, pp. 27–28.

110. Ibid., pp. 39–40.

111. Ottley, “Ted Kaczynski.”

112. Kevin Fagan, “Victims React to Kaczynski's Plea Deal/They're Sad, Angry But Glad It's Over,” SFGate, January 24, 1998, http://articles.sfgate.com/1998-01-24/news/17710993_1_hugh-scrutton-unabomber-theodore-kaczynski-unabomber-explosion (accessed June 10, 2011). Epstein died in 2011 at the age of seventy-seven.

113. “Psychological Evaluation of Theodore Kaczynski,” 1998, http://www.paulcooijmans.com/psychology/unabombreport2.html (accessed June 10, 2011).

114. This discussion of Muharem Kurbegovic (the “Alphabet Bomber”) is drawn from Jeffrey D. Simon, “The Alphabet Bomber,” in Toxic Terror: Assessing Terrorist Use of Chemical and Biological Weapons, ed. Jonathan B. Tucker, BCSIA Studies in International Security (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), pp. 71–94; Simon, Terrorist Trap, pp. xxvi–xxvii; and Simon, “Lone Operators and Weapons of Mass Destruction,” pp. 76–79.

115. Transcript of tape recovered on August 9, 1974, in Maywood, California, following call to CBS (Los Angeles Police Department Item No. 1340, Files, Los Angeles County District Attorney's Office).

116. Transcript of tape recovered August 16, 1974, at 11th and Los Angeles Streets (Los Angeles Police Department Item No. 1345, Files, Los Angeles County District Attorney's Office).

117. Simon, “Alphabet Bomber,” p. 92.

118. Transcript of tape recovered August 20, 1974, at Sunset and Western, the site of Kurbegovic's arrest (Los Angeles Police Department Item No. 1337 and Item No. 1338, Files, Los Angeles County District Attorney's Office).

119. Simon, “Alphabet Bomber,” p. 92.

120. Ibid., pp. 92–93.

CHAPTER 3. WHY LONE WOLVES ARE SO DANGEROUS

1. Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction: Assessing the Risks, US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA-ISC-559 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1993), p. 54.

2. Jeffrey D. Simon, Terrorists and the Potential Use of Biological Weapons: A Discussion of Possibilities (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 1989).

3. Milton Leitenberg, The Problem of Biological Weapons (Stockholm: Swedish National Defense College, 2004), pp. 27–29; David C. Rapoport, “Terrorism and Weapons of the Apocalypse,” in Twenty-First Century Weapons Proliferation, ed. Henry Sokolski and James M. Ludes (London: Frank Cass, 2001), p. 22.

4. David E. Kaplan and Andrew Marshall, The Cult at the End of the World: The Incredible Story of Aum (London: Arrow Books, 1996), pp. 93–112, 289.

5. Jeffrey D. Simon, “Technological and Lone Operator Terrorism: Prospects for a Fifth Wave of Global Terrorism,” in Terrorism, Identity, and Legitimacy: The Four Waves Theory and Political Violence, ed. Jean E. Rosenfeld (London: Routledge, 2011), p. 58.

6. Rebecca L. Frerichs, Reynolds Mathewson Salerno, Kathleen Margaret Vogel, et al., Historical Precedence and Technical Requirements of Biological Weapons Use: A Threat Assessment, Sandia National Laboratories, SAND2004-1854, May 2004, p. 3.

7. Simon, Terrorists and the Potential Use of Biological Weapons; Jeffrey D. Simon, “Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Terrorism: Understanding the Threat and Designing Responses,” International Journal of Emergency Mental Health 1, no. 2 (Spring 1999): 81–89.

8. The following discussion is drawn from Simon, “Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Terrorism,” pp. 83–84.

9. Jessica Eve Stern, “The Covenant, the Sword, and the Arm of the Lord,” in Toxic Terror: Assessing Terrorist Use of Chemical and Biological Weapons, BCSIA Studies in International Security, ed. Jonathan B. Tucker (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), pp. 139–57.

10. “Evidence of Anthrax Labs near Kandahar,” ABC News, March 25, 2002, http://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=80052&page=1 (accessed September 9, 2011).

11. Graham Allison, Nuclear Terrorism: The Ultimate Preventable Catastrophe (New York: Times Books, 2004), p. 26.

12. Jeffrey D. Simon, “The Forgotten Terrorists: Lessons from the History of Terrorism,” Journal of Terrorism and Political Violence 20, no. 2 (April/June 2008): 207.

13. Richard Preston, The Hot Zone (New York: Random House, 1994); “Fort Detrick, Maryland,” GlobalSecurity.org, http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/facility/fort_detrick.htm (accessed September 22, 2011).

14. Noah Shachtman, “Anthrax Redux: Did the Feds Nab the Wrong Guy?” WIRED, April 2011, http://www.wired.com/magazine/2011/03/ff_anthrax_fbi/all/1 (accessed September 30, 2011).

15. Ibid.

16. Amerithrax Investigative Summary, United States Department of Justice, February 19, 2010, p. 10.

17. Shachtman, “Anthrax Redux.”

18. Ibid.

19. Amerithrax Investigative Summary, p. 61.

20. David Willman, The Mirage Man: Bruce Ivins, the Anthrax Attacks, and America's Rush to War (New York: Bantam Books, 2011), p. 13.

21. Ibid., p. 48.

22. Ibid., p. 9.

23. Ibid., pp. 55–56.

24. Ibid., p. 72.

25. Amerithrax Investigative Summary, p. 39.

26. Ibid.

27. Willman, Mirage Man, pp. 49–50.

28. Ibid., pp. 62–63.

29. Ibid., p. 61.

30. Ibid., p. 67.

31. Ibid., p. 65.

32. Scott Shane, “Panel on Anthrax Inquiry Finds Case against Ivins Persuasive,” New York Times, March 23, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/24/us/24anthrax.html?_r=1&hp (accessed October 16, 2011).

33. Amerithrax Investigative Summary, p. 8.

34. Ibid., p. 10.

35. Ibid., p. 9.

36. Ibid.

37. Ibid., pp. 2–3.

38. “Amerithrax or Anthrax Investigation,” Famous Cases and Criminals, Federal Bureau of Investigation, http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/anthrax-amerithrax (accessed September 9, 2011).

39. Shachtman, “Anthrax Redux.”

40. Ibid.

41. Ibid.

42. Amerithrax Investigative Summary; see also “Amerithrax or Anthrax Investigation.”

43. Scott Shane, “Expert Panel Is Critical of F.B.I. Work in Investigating Anthrax Letters,” New York Times, February 15, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/16/us/16anthrax.html (accessed October 17, 2011).

44. Shane, “Panel on Anthrax Inquiry.”

45. Ibid. Regarding Ivins's animosity toward the news media, the panel wrote that the New York Post, which was one of the targets of the anthrax letters, “represented [to Ivins] the media and New York City, [and] appeared to have been [a] symbolic stand-in…for broader targets.” See Report of the Expert Behavioral Analysis Panel, Gregory Saathoff, chairman, August 23, 2010, p. 9. The panel's report was not made public until March 2011.

46. Simon, “Forgotten Terrorists,” p. 207.

47. Beverly Gage, The Day Wall Street Exploded: A Story of America in Its First Age of Terror (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 326.

48. “Sixteen Individuals Arrested in the United States for Alleged Roles in Cyber Attacks,” Department of Justice, July 19, 2011, http://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/2011/July/11-opa-944.html, (accessed January 7, 2012).

49. Jeffrey D. Simon, “The Alphabet Bomber,” in Toxic Terror: Assessing Terrorist Use of Chemical and Biological Weapons, ed. Jonathan B. Tucker, BCSIA Studies in International Security (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), p. 86.

50. Nassim Nicholas Taleb, The Black Swan: The Impact of the Highly Improbable (New York: Random House, 2007), pp. xvii–xviii.

51. Taleb views the 9/11 attacks, which were committed by a terrorist group, al Qaeda, and not by a lone wolf, as a black-swan event, since they served as evidence that “some events, owing to their dynamics, stand largely outside the realm of the predictable” and were an example of the “built-in defect of conventional wisdom” (Black Swan, p. xxi). However, I do not view the 9/11 attacks as a black-swan event, since while they certainly had an extreme impact in the United States and elsewhere, it is questionable whether they were beyond our realm of normal expectations. There had been suicide terrorist attacks on the ground in Lebanon and elsewhere during the 1980s as well as a suicide attack at sea on the USS Cole in Yemen in 2000. It was therefore just a matter of time before terrorists escalated to suicide attacks from the air.

52. Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, p. 3.

53. Technologies Underlying Weapons of Mass Destruction, US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA-BP-ISC-115 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, December 1993), p. 71.

54. David A. Relman, “Bioterrorism—Preparing to Fight the Next War,” New England Journal of Medicine 354, no. 2 (2006): 113–15; cited in Richard J. Danzig, A Policymaker's Guide to Bioterrorism and What to Do about It, Center for Technology and National Security Policy, National Defense University, December 2009, p. 9.

55. Danzig, Policymaker's Guide, pp. 9–10.

56. Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, pp. 2–3.

57. Ibid., p. 3.

58. “Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors,” World Nuclear Association, October 31, 2011, http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf06.html (accessed November 28, 2011).

59. Allison, Nuclear Terrorism, p. 46.

60. Brian Michael Jenkins, Will Terrorists Go Nuclear? (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2008), p. 372.

CHAPTER 4. WHERE ARE THE WOMEN?

1. David C. Rapoport, “The Four Waves of Modern Terrorism,” in Attacking Terrorism: Elements of a Grand Strategy, ed. Audrey Kurth Cronin and James M. Ludes (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2004), p. 51.

2. Amy Knight, “Female Terrorists in the Russian Socialist Revolutionary Party,” Russian Review 38, no. 2 (April 1979): 139.

3. Ibid.

4. Walter Laqueur, The Age of Terrorism (Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1987), p. 79.

5. Knight, “Female Terrorists,” p. 139.

6. Eileen MacDonald, Shoot the Women First (New York: Random House, 1991), p. 91.

7. All the hostages from the other hijacked planes were also eventually released in exchange for Palestinian militants in prisons in Switzerland, West Germany, and Britain. Israel also released a number of Palestinian and Libyan prisoners after the hostages were freed but denied that this was part of any deal with the hijackers. All the planes (with the exception of one) had been diverted to Jordan, where, after taking the hostages and crew off the planes, the terrorists blew the planes up on the ground. They did the same thing in Cairo with the Pan Am jet that they hijacked and forced to land there. See Jeffrey D. Simon, The Terrorist Trap: America's Experience with Terrorism, 2nd ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001), pp. 97–106.

8. Ibid, pp. 110–19. Before surrendering in Paris, the hijackers cut up pieces of the fake clay bombs and gave them to the passengers as souvenirs!

9. Ibid., p. 117.

10. MacDonald, Shoot the Women First, pp. 127–28.

11. Simon, Terrorist Trap, p. 118.

12. Thomas Strentz, “The Stockholm Syndrome: Law Enforcement Policy and Hostage Behavior,” Victims of Terrorism, ed. Frank M. Ochberg and David A. Soskis (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1982), pp. 149–63.

13. Simon, Terrorist Trap, p. 114.

14. Ibid., p. 343.

15. MacDonald, Shoot the Women First, p. 104.

16. Ibid., pp. 104–105.

17. Ibid., p. xiv.

18. Simon, Terrorist Trap, pp. 339–40.

19. Cindy D. Ness, “In the Name of the Cause: Women's Work in Secular and Religious Terrorism,” in Female Terrorism and Militancy: Agency, Utility, and Organization, ed. Cindy D. Ness (London: Routledge, 2008), p. 13.

20. MacDonald, Shoot the Women First, p. 198. Both Baader and Meinhof committed suicide while in prison in the 1970s.

21. Margaret Gonzalez-Perez, Women and Terrorism: Female Activity in Domestic and International Terror Groups (London: Routledge, 2008), pp. 117–18.

22. Simon, Terrorist Trap, p. 320.

23. “‘The Urban Guerrilla Is History’: The Final Communiqué from the Red Army Faction (RAF),” German Guerilla, March 1998, http://www.germanguerilla.com/red-army-faction/documents/98_03.html (accessed September 5, 2009).

24. One of the members of the Weather Underground was Judith Clark, who was a classmate of mine at Midwood High School in Brooklyn, New York, in the 1960s. Clark is currently serving three consecutive twenty-five-years-to-life sentences in a New York state prison for her participation in a Brinks armored truck robbery and murders that occurred in Nyack, New York, in 1981. During the trial, she and her two codefendants claimed that the robbery was an “expropriation” needed to finance a revolution against the United States. Another classmate of mine had a different experience with terrorism. Miriam Beeber was one of the hostages taken by the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine when it hijacked four planes on the same day in September 1970. She was eventually freed after spending several weeks in captivity in Jordan. When I looked at my high-school yearbook for the first time in decades, I was surprised to discover that Clark, Beeber, and I appeared together in a group photo for the honor society. When I related that story during a radio call-in show, a person called the show and wanted to know if the name of my high school was Terror High!

25. This religious wave, as noted in chapter 1, was characterized by David Rapoport as the fourth wave of modern terrorism.

26. The fervent belief that God is on one's side is also the reason why it is more difficult to bring about an end, whether negotiated or forced, to a religious-inspired terrorist movement than it is to bring about an end to a secular one. In the case of political and ethnic-nationalist terrorist movements, several things can happen to end the hostilities. For example, a group that is driven by a desire for a homeland, a separate state, or the overthrow of a government will end its terrorist acts once that homeland or state is achieved or the government overthrown. A political terrorist group can also fade from the scene as members are arrested and it becomes difficult to find new recruits, or when the issues for which it fought are either resolved or are no longer seen as important by members of the group. Political terrorists may also decide, once they get older, to simply retire from the terrorist life. This is not likely to happen in the case of the religious terrorist. Religious terrorism cannot be resolved by political agreements (like the Northern Ireland conflict, which was more of a political than a religious conflict). Compromise is not in the vocabulary of the religious extremist, who may view anything short of a complete victory as failing in the eyes of God.

27. Hezbollah also bombed the barracks of the French contingent of the Multinational Force in Lebanon the same day it attacked the US Marine barracks (October 23, 1984).

28. Yoram Schweitzer, “Suicide Terrorism: Development & Characteristics,” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, April 21, 2000, http://www.ict.org.il/Articles/tabid/66/Articlsid/42/Default.aspx (accessed December 23, 2011).

29. Ness, “In the Name of the Cause,” p. 19.

30. “The Role of Palestinian Women in Suicide Terrorism,” Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, January 30, 2003, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2003/1/The%20Role%20of%20Palestinian%20Women%20in%20Suicide%20Terrorism (accessed December 24, 2011).

31. Ibid.

32. Ibid.

33. Alissa J. Rubin, “Despair Drives Suicide Attacks by Iraqi Women,” New York Times, July 5, 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/05/world/middleeast/05diyala.html?pagewanted=all (accessed December 25, 2011).

34. Rohan Gunaratna, “Suicide Terrorism: A Global Threat,” PBS Frontline/World, October 2000, http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/srilanka/globalthreat.html (accessed December 25, 2011).

35. Steve Emerson, “Female Suicide Bombers Raise Deadly Stakes,” Newsmax, March 29, 2010, http://www.newsmax.com/Emerson/femalesuicidebombers-terrorists-Hamas/2010/03/29/id/354164 (accessed December 24, 2011).

36. Mia Bloom, Bombshell: Women and Terrorism (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), pp. 233–49. Bloom notes that another “R,” which stands for rape, can be added to the list. She points out (p. 236) that in Iraq and Chechnya rape was used “to coerce women to participate in combat.”

37. See chapter 1 and the appendix for my definition of lone wolf terrorism.

38. Lone-Wolf Terrorism, COT, Instituut voor Veiligheids- en Crisismanagement, Final draft, June 7, 2007, Case Study for Work Package 3, p. 24, http://www.scribd.com/doc/34968770/Lone-Wolf-Terrorism (accessed June 10, 2011), pp. 98–111. The only female lone wolf attack recorded for this period occurred in Wichita, Kansas, when Rachelle Shannon shot and wounded George Tiller, a late-term abortion doctor, outside his clinic in August 1993. Tiller would again be the target of an anti-abortion lone wolf when Scott Roeder assassinated him in Wichita in July 2009.

39. Cristen Conger, “What Is a Lone Wolf?” Animal Planet, http://animals.howstuffworks.com/mammals/lone-wolf.htm (accessed December 27, 2011).

40. Alison Jamieson, “Entry, Discipline, and Exit in the Italian Red Brigades,” Terrorism and Political Violence 2, no. 1 (Spring 1990): 18–19.

41. Christine R. Harris, Michael Jenkins, and Dale Glaser, “Gender Difference in Risk Assessment: Why Do Women Take Fewer Risks Than Men?” Judgment and Decision Making 1, no. 1 (July 2006): 48–63.

42. Ibid, p. 49.

43. David Weidner, “Women Are Better Investors, and Here's Why,” Wall Street Journal, June 24, 2011, http://www.marketwatch.com/story/women-are-better-investors-and-heres-why-2011-06-14?pagenumber=1 (accessed December 27, 2011).

44. Nigel Barber, “Why Women Live Longer Than Men,” Psychology Today, August 10, 2010, http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-human-beast/201008/why-women-live-longer-men (accessed December 27, 2011).

45. Paola Sapienza, Luigi Zingales, and Dario Maestripieri, “Gender Differences in Financial Risk Aversion and Career Choices Are Affected by Testosterone,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, August 24, 2009, http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2009/08/20/0907352106 (accessed December 28, 2011).

46. Laura Madson and David Trafimow, “Gender Comparisons in the Private, Collective, and Allocentric Selves,” Journal of Social Psychology 141, no. 4 (2001): 552.

47. Stephanie S. Covington, “The Relational Theory of Women's Psychological Development: Implications for the Criminal Justice System,” in Female Offenders: Critical Perspectives and Effective Interventions, 2nd ed., ed. Ruth T. Zaplin (Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett, 2007), pp. 135–64.

48. Sarah Ben-David, “The Two Facets of Female Violence: The Public and the Domestic Domains,” Journal of Family Violence 8, no. 4 (December 1993): 352.

49. See chapter 7 for a further discussion of the role of psychology in explaining lone wolf terrorism.

50. Jennie Jacobs Kronenfeld, “Gender and Health Status,” in Handbook of the Sociology of Gender, ed. Janet Saltzman Chafetz (New York: Springer), p. 476.

51. “Paranoid Schizophrenia: Definition,” Mayo Clinic, December 16, 2010, http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/paranoid-schizophrenia/DS00862 (accessed December 29, 2011).

52. “Health Guide: Schizophrenia,” New York Times, January 27, 2011, http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/disease/schizophrenia/risk-factors.html (accessed December 26, 2011).

53. “Paranoid Schizophrenia: Symptoms,” Mayo Clinic, December 16, 2010, http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/paranoid-schizophrenia/DS00862/DSECTION=symptoms (accessed December 29, 2011).

54. Richard Howard and Conor Duggan, “Mentally Disordered Offenders: Personality Disorders,” in Forensic Psychology, ed. Graham J. Towl and David A. Crighton (Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), p. 321.

55. “Antisocial Personality Disorder: Definition,” Mayo Clinic, October 8, 2010, http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/antisocial-personality-disorder/DS00829 (accessed December 29, 2011).

56. “Antisocial Personality Disorder: Symptoms,” Mayo Clinic, October 8, 2010, http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/antisocial-personality-disorder/DS00829/DSECTION=symptoms (accessed December 29, 2011).

57. “Schizoid Personality Disorder: Causes,” Mayo Clinic, December 8, 2010, http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/schizoid-personality-disorder/DS00865/DSECTION=causes (accessed January 1, 2012).

58. Michael H. Stone, The Anatomy of Evil (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2009), p. 190; Anna Motz, The Psychology of Female Violence: Crimes against the Body, 2nd ed. (London and New York: Routledge, 2008), p. 271.

59. Ben-David, “Two Facets of Female Violence,” p. 347.

60. Shauna Bottos, “Women and Violence: Theory, Risk, and Treatment Implications,” Research Branch, Correctional Service Canada, July 2007, p. 22.

61. Simon, Terrorist Trap, p. 23.

62. Most of the following account of LaRose's Internet activity (unless otherwise noted) is derived from the text of her federal indictment and a superseding indictment. See In the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania, United States of America v. Colleen R. LaRose, a/k/a “Fatima LaRose,” a/k/a “JihadJane,” Case 2:10-cr-00123-PBT, Document 23, Criminal No. 10, Date Filed: March 4, 2010; In the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania, United States of America v. Colleen R. LaRose, a/k/a “Fatima LaRose,” a/k/a “JihadJane,” [and defendant] Jamie Paulin-Ramirez, Case 2:10-cr-00123-PBT, Document 31, Criminal No. 10-123, Date Filed: April 1, 2010.

63. Ian Urbina, “Views of ‘JihadJane’ Were Unknown to Neighbors,” New York Times, March 10, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/11/us/11pennsylvania.html (accessed June 22, 2010).

64. David Sapsted, “‘Jihad Jane’ Was Tracked by Amateur Internet Sleuths,” National, March 18, 2010, http://www.thenational.ae/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20100317/FOREIGN/703169948/1013/ART (accessed June 22, 2010).

65. Maryclaire Dale, “‘Jihad Jane’ Terror Suspect Pleads Guilty in PA,” Associated Press, February 1, 2011, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/41374247/ns/us_news-security/t/jihad-jane-terror-suspect-pleads-guilty-pa/#.TwOhkRw0jw5 (accessed January 3, 2012); Peter Hall, “‘Jihad Jane’ Codefendant Pleads Guilty to Terrorism Charge,” Los Angeles Times, March 10, 2011, http://articles.latimes.com/2011/mar/10/nation/la-na-terror-plea-20110310 (accessed January 3, 2012).

66. Urbina, “Views of ‘JihadJane’ Were Unknown to Neighbors”; Sapsted, “‘Jihad Jane’ Was Tracked by Amateur Internet Sleuths”; Eamon McNiff, “Net Posse Tracked ‘Jihad Jane’ for Three Years,” ABC News, March 11, 2010, http://abcnews.go.com/TheLaw/Technology/internet-monitors-tracked-jihad-jane-years/story?id=10069484 (accessed June 14, 2010).

67. Raffaello Pantucci, “Trial of Would-Be Assassin Illustrates al-Awlaki's Influence on the British Jihad,” Jamestown Foundation, December 2, 2010, http://www.jamestown.org/programs/gta/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=37234&cHash=873daf2211 (accessed January 3, 2012).

68. Vikram Dodd, “Profile: Roshonara Choudhry,” Guardian, November 2, 2010, http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2010/nov/02/profile-roshonara-choudhry-stephen-timms (accessed January 3, 2012).

69. Vikram Dodd, “Roshonara Choudhry: Police Interview Extracts,” Guardian, November 3, 2010, http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2010/nov/03/roshonara-choudhry-police-interview (accessed December 29, 2011). Choudhry also told police that she was influenced by a YouTube video she watched in April 2010 by Sheikh Abdullah Azzam, who was a Palestinian Islamic militant killed in 1989. Choudhry told the detectives that Azzam said that “when a Muslim land is attacked it becomes obligatory on every man, woman and child and even slave to go out and fight and defend the land and the Muslims.”

70. Paul Avrich, Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America (Edinburgh: AK Press, 2005), pp. 107, 111, 120, 132, 157, 158, 316; cited in Jeffrey D. Simon, “The Forgotten Terrorists: Lessons from the History of Terrorism,” Terrorism and Political Violence 20, no. 2 (April/June 2008): 196.

71. Dodd, “Roshonara Choudhry: Police Interview Extracts.”

72. Pantucci, “Trial of Would-Be Assassin.”

73. Vikram Dodd, “Roshonara Choudhry: I Wanted to Die…I Wanted to be a Martyr,” Guardian, November 3, 2010, http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2010/nov/04/stephen-timms-attack-roshonara-choudhry (accessed December 29, 2011).

74. Dodd, “Roshonara Choudhry: Police Interview Extracts.”

75. Dodd, “Profile: Roshonara Choudhry.”

76. Dodd, “Roshonara Choudhry: Police Interview Extracts.”

77. “Student Jailed for Stabbing of MP Stephen Timms,” Channel 4 News, November 3, 2010, http://www.channel4.com/news/student-jailed-for-stabbing-of-mp-stephen-timms (accessed January 4, 2012).

CHAPTER 5. LONE WOLF ASSASSINS

1. Maximilien Robespierre gave birth to the term terrorism by unleashing his Reign of Terror between 1793 and 1794 upon all strata of French society. The Committee on Public Safety that ruled France following the French Revolution can be considered the first case of state terror imposed upon a people. It was the forerunner of twentieth-century terror governments such as Stalin's Russia, Hitler's Germany, and Pol Pot's Cambodia. Robespierre viewed terror as the only way to save the revolution from anarchy at home and the threat of invasion from abroad by European monarchs. More than seventeen thousand people, ranging from peasants and workers to aristocrats and moderate revolutionaries, met their deaths by the guillotine, while approximately twenty-five thousand others were shot or killed by different methods throughout the country. There were more than one hundred thousand political prisoners taken, while several hundred thousand others were declared suspects. Robespierre did not view terrorism as an evil or immoral act but instead thought of it as a virtuous deed. “If the basis of popular government in time of peace is virtue,” he argued, “the basis of popular government in time of revolution is both virtue and terror: virtue without which terror is murderous, terror without which virtue is powerless.” See Jeffrey D. Simon, The Terrorist Trap: America's Experience with Terrorism, 2nd ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001), pp. 27–29. The word terrorism first appeared in the 1798 supplement of the Dictionnaire de l'Académie Française, as meaning a “système, régime de la terreur.” See Walter Laqueur, The Age of Terrorism (Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1987), p. 11.

2. Bernard Lewis, The Assassins: A Radical Sect in Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), p. 134.

3. Quoted in ibid., p. 5.

4. A poison-tipped umbrella was used to assassinate Bulgarian dissident Georgi Markov on a London street in 1978. Markov was waiting for a bus when a man poked him in the thigh with the umbrella and then apologized as though it had been an accident. What he had actually done, however, was fire a platinum pellet from the umbrella containing ricin, a poison derived from the castor bean plant for which there is no antidote. Markov died a few days later. Bulgarian agents working with the Soviet KGB had designed the plot.

5. Philip B. Heymann, Terrorism and America: A Commonsense Strategy for a Democratic Society (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press), p. 6.

6. R. Hrair Dekmejian, Spectrum of Terror (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 2007), p. 25.

7. Franklin L. Ford, Political Murder: From Tyrannicide to Terrorism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985), p. 381.

8. See, for example, Nancy Jo Sales, “Click Here for Conspiracy,” Vanity Fair, August 2006, http://www.vanityfair.com/ontheweb/features/2006/08/loosechange200608 (accessed February 25, 2012); “Debunking the 9/11 Myths: Special Report—The World Trade Center,” Popular Mechanics, March 2005, http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/military/news/debunking-911-myths-world-trade-center (accessed February 25, 2012).

9. Lindsay Porter, Assassination: A History of Political Murder (New York: Overlook Press, 2010), p. 154.

10. Ibid., p. 143.

11. David C. Rapoport, Assassination and Terrorism (Toronto: Canadian Broadcasting Company, 1971), p. 19.

12. Ibid.

13. Ford, Political Murder, pp. 383–84.

14. See for example, Trevor Burrus, “Get Rid of the Spoils System,” Washington Times, March 11, 2011, http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2011/mar/11/run-democrats-run/ (accessed March 26, 2012); “Garfield, James A.: Assassination,” Encyclopedia Britannica, 2012, http://www.britannica.com/presidents/article-302549 (accessed March 26, 2012); “History through the Decades, United States Census Bureau,” http://www.census.gov/history/www/through_the_decades/fast_facts/1880_fast_facts.html (accessed March 26, 2012).

15. James W. Clarke, American Assassins: The Darker Side of Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), pp. 198–99, 206–207. During his trial, Guiteau continually referred to the need to “remove the President of the United States for the good of the American people.” See Douglas O. Linder, “Excerpts from the Trial Transcript: Cross-Examination of Charles Guiteau,” University of Missouri–Kansas City School of Law, http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/guiteau/guiteautranscriptguiteaucrossx.html (accessed January 22, 2012).

16. Clarke, American Assassins, pp. 209–10; Alan Peskin, “Charles Guiteau of Illinois: President Garfield's Assassin,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 70, no. 2 (May 1977): 130–31; Charles Guiteau Collection, Georgetown University, http://gulib.georgetown.edu/dept/speccoll/cl133.htm (accessed January 22, 2012).

17. Clarke, American Assassins, pp. 199–200; Peskin, “Charles Guiteau of Illinois,” pp. 130–32.

18. Clarke, American Assassins, pp. 201–202; Peskin, “Charles Guiteau of Illinois,” p. 132.

19. Peskin, “Charles Guiteau of Illinois,” p. 132.

20. Candice Millard, Destiny of the Republic: A Tale of Madness, Medicine, and the Murder of a President (New York: Doubleday, 2011), pp. 30–47.

21. Ibid., p. 57.

22. Clarke, American Assassins, p. 204.

23. Ibid.

24. Peskin, “Charles Guiteau of Illinois,” p. 135.

25. Clarke, American Assassins, pp. 206–207.

26. Peskin, “Charles Guiteau of Illinois,” p. 136.

27. Millard, Destiny of the Republic, p. 113.

28. Peskin, “Charles Guiteau of Illinois,” p. 136.

29. Clarke, American Assassins, p. 207.

30. Ibid.

31. “Guiteau's Day of Torture: The Assassin Driven into Maze of Contradictions,” New York Times, December 2, 1881, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=F60A17FB3A581B7A93C0A91789D95F458884F9 (accessed January 22, 2012).

32. Millard, Destiny of the Republic, pp. 119–24.

33. Ibid., pp. 125–37.

34. Douglas O. Linder, “The Trial of Charles Guiteau: An Account,” University of Missouri–Kansas City School of Law, http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/guiteau/guiteauaccount.html (accessed January 22, 2012).

35. Millard, Destiny of the Republic, p. 215.

36. Ibid., p. 253.

37. Ibid., p. 236.

38. Guiteau Trial, Closing Speech to the Jury of John K. Porter of New York, In the Case of Charles J. Guiteau, the Assassin of President Garfield, Washington, January 23, 1882 (New York: John Polhemus, 1882), p. 54.

39. “Guiteau's Day of Torture.”

40. Ibid.

41. Ibid.

42. “Pendleton Act (1883),” Our Documents, http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=48 (accessed January 27, 2012).

43. Millard, Destiny of the Republic, p. 249.

44. Ibid.

45. The Boxer Rebellion was a peasant uprising against foreign presence in China. The United States and several other nations sent troops to China to suppress the rebellion and protect their interests in the country.

46. Clarke, American Assassins, p. 44.

47. Scott Miller, The President and the Assassin: McKinley, Terror, and Empire at the Dawn of the American Century (New York: Random House, 2011), p. 57.

48. Clarke, American Assassins, pp. 44–49.

49. Miller, President and the Assassin, p. 246.

50. Ibid., pp. 273–75.

51. Clarke, American Assassins, p. 55.

52. Ibid., p. 56.

53. Ibid., pp. 56–57.

54. Porter, Assassination, p. 154.

55. “‘Lights Out in the City of Light’: Anarchy and Assassination at the Pan-American Exposition,” Libraries, University of Buffalo, June 2004, http://library.buffalo.edu/exhibits/panam/law/trial.html (accessed January 29, 2012).

56. Miller, President and the Assassin, p. 323.

57. “‘Lights Out in the City of Light.’”

58. Clarke, American Assassins, pp. 10–11. The M'Naghten Rule derived from a case in Britain in 1843. Daniel M'Naghten, a Scottish woodworker, believed that he was the target of a conspiracy between the pope and British prime minister Robert Peel. He attempted to assassinate Peel but instead shot and killed the prime minister's private secretary, Edward Drummond. M'Naghten was acquitted based on his lawyers’ successful argument that their client was insane. The verdict infuriated the British public and government as well as Queen Victoria, who, a few years earlier, had herself been the target of an assassin who was also found not guilty by reason of insanity. The House of Lords and the queen, along with many other people, felt that Britain needed a clear and strict definition of criminal insanity. Therefore, the British Supreme Court ruled, just four months after the M'Naghten verdict, that a defendant could use an insanity defense only if “at the time of committing of the act, the party accused was labouring under such a defect of reason, from a disease of the mind, as not to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing; or, if he did know it, that he did not know he was doing what was wrong.” See Millard, Destiny of the Republic, p. 237.

59. All the doctors who examined Czolgosz found him to be sane. One group of doctors wrote in its report that “the most careful questioning failed to discover any hallucinations of sight or hearing. He had received no special command; he did not believe he had been specially chosen to do the deed. He always spoke of his motive for the crime as duty; he always referred to the Anarchists’ belief that killing of rulers was a duty…. He is the product of anarchy, sane and responsible.” See Miller, President and the Assassin, pp. 347–48.

60. Clarke, American Assassins, pp. 58–59.

61. Ibid., p. 59.

62. Ibid.

63. Ibid.

64. Theodore Roosevelt, “State of the Union Message,” December 3, 1901, Primary Speeches, Addresses, and Essays by Theodore Roosevelt, Almanac of Theodore Roosevelt, http://www.theodore-roosevelt.com/trspeeches.html (accessed February 3, 2012). While many anarchists condemned the assassination and denounced Czolgosz, Emma Goldman came to his defense. In an article in Free Society one month after the assassination, she wrote, “Some people have hastily said that Czolgosz's act was foolish and will check the growth of progress. Those worthy people are wrong in forming hasty conclusions. What results the act of September 6 will have no one can say; one thing, however, is certain: he has wounded government in its most vital spot.” See Jewish Women's Archive, “Article by Goldman about Leon Czolgosz's Assassination of President McKinley and the Use of Violence,” http://jwa.org/media/article-by-goldman-about-leon-czolgoszs-assassination-of-president-mckinley-and-use-of-violenc (accessed January 29, 2012).

65. Paul Avrich, Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), p. 130.

66. Porter, Assassination, p. 154.

67. Gerald Posner, Case Closed: Lee Harvey Oswald and the Assassination of JFK (New York: Anchor Books, 2003), p. xii. Posner wrote the first edition of the book for Random House in 1993.

68. Ibid., pp. 5–7.

69. Ibid., pp. 10–11.

70. Clarke, American Assassins, p. 108.

71. Ibid.

72. Porter, Assassination, pp. 140–41.

73. Clarke, American Assassins, pp. 109–10.

74. Ibid., pp. 110–11.

75. Ibid., pp. 113–20.

76. There has been speculation that Oswald might have changed his mind about killing Kennedy had his wife, Marina, given him assurances that their rocky relationship would improve. Oswald visited her the night before the assassination. They had been living apart, and Marina was staying with friends in Irving, Texas, while Oswald stayed in Dallas during the week for his job. Marina was surprised to see Oswald on a Thursday and rebuffed his pleas for her to come live with him. She even turned her back on him when he spoke. A panel of doctors told the Warren Commission that if Marina had been warm and affectionate to Oswald during that last visit, he might have changed his mind about the assassination. One doctor said, “I think what Marina had a chance to do unconsciously that night was to veto his plan without ever knowing of its existence, but she didn't. She really stamped it down hard.” See Posner, Case Closed, pp. 220–21.

77. Simon, Terrorist Trap, pp. 262–63.

78. Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (New York: Mentor/Penguin, 1964), pp. 292–93.

79. Porter, Assassination, p. 143.

80. Mark Lane, Rush to Judgment (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1966).

81. Posner, Case Closed, pp. 412–13.

82. Porter, Assassination, pp. 143–45.

83. Ibid., pp. 145–48.

84. Posner, Case Closed, p. 477.

85. James G. Blight, Janet M. Lang, and David A. Welch, Vietnam If Kennedy Had Lived: Virtual JFK (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2009), p. xiii.

86. Sean Wilentz, “What If Kennedy Had Lived?” New York Times, November 21, 2003, http://www.nytimes.com/2003/11/21/opinion/what-if-kennedy-had-lived.html (accessed January 16, 2012). The Cuban missile crisis occurred in October 1962, when the world stood on the brink of nuclear war due to a US-Soviet confrontation over the placement of Soviet intermediate-range nuclear missiles in Cuba and a subsequent US naval blockade of Cuba to prevent Soviet vessels from delivering additional weapons to the island. The crisis ended when the Soviets agreed to remove the missiles already there and dismantle the missile sites in exchange for a US promise not to invade Cuba.

87. Blight et al., Vietnam, pp. 17–20.

88. Ibid., pp. 107–108.

89. Ehud Sprinzak, “Israel's Radical Right and the Countdown to the Rabin Assassination,” in The Assassination of Yitzhak Rabin, ed. Yoram Peri (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000), p. 122.

90. Oslo I Accords (Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements), Council on Foreign Relations, Essential Documents, http://www.cfr.org/israel/oslo-accords-declaration-principles-interim-self-government-arrangements/p9674 (accessed February 16, 2012).

91. Michael Karpin and Ina Friedman, Murder in the Name of God: The Plot to Kill Yitzhak Rabin (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1998), pp. 19–20.

92. Sprinzak, “Israel's Radical Right,” pp. 121–23.

93. Karpin and Friedman, Murder in the Name of God, pp. 105–106.

94. Sprinzak, “Israel's Radical Right,” p. 121.

95. Karpin and Friedman, Murder in the Name of God, p. 27.

96. Sprinzak, “Israel's Radical Right,” p. 123.

97. Serge Schmemann, “Rabin Killer and 2 Others Guilty of Related Plots against Leader,” New York Times, September 12, 1996, http://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/12/world/rabin-killer-and-2-others-guilty-of-related-plots-against-leader.html (accessed February 14, 2012).

98. Sprinzak, “Israel's Radical Right,” p. 126.

99. Nadav Gabay, “Peace Begins at Home: Toleration, Identity Politics, and the Changing Conception of Peacemaking in Israel after Yitzhak Rabin's Assassination,” Social Identities 12, no. 3 (May 2006): 358.

100. Sprinzak, “Israel's Radical Right,” p. 121.

101. Yoram Peri, ed., “The Assassination: Causes, Meaning, Outcomes,” in The Assassination of Yitzhak Rabin (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000), p. 49.

102. Bill Clinton, “Finish Rabin's Work,” New York Times, November 4, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/04/opinion/04clinton.html (accessed February 17, 2012).

103. Peri, “Assassination,” p. 57.

104. Dan Perry, “Rabin's Assassin Convicted of Murder by Israeli Court,” Associated Press, March 27, 1996, http://www.apnewsarchive.com/1996/Rabin-s-Assassin-Convicted-Of-Murder-By-Israeli-Court/id-2121d3a0c955c801ad444fa5b0d80c9d (accessed February 17, 2012).

105. Sprinzak, “Israel's Radical Right,” p. 125.

106. Karpin and Friedman, Murder in the Name of God, p. 28.

107. Joel Greenberg, “Rabin Assassin's Testimony: My Goal Was to Paralyze Him,” New York Times, January 24, 1996, http://www.nytimes.com/1996/01/24/world/rabin-assassin-s-testimony-my-goal-was-to-paralyze-him.html (accessed February 14, 2012).

108. Dekmejian, Spectrum of Terror, pp. 25–38.

109. Clarke, American Assassins, pp. 14–17.

CHAPTER 6. STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH LONE WOLF TERRORISM

1. Marc Sageman, Leaderless Jihad: Terror Networks in the Twenty-First Century (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), p. vii.

2. Ibid., pp. vii–viii.

3. Ibid., pp. 147–78.

4. Paul Cruickshank and Tim Lister, “The ‘Lone Wolf’—The Unknowable Terror,” CNN, September 7, 2011, http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2011/09/07/the-lone-wolf-the-unknowable-face-of-terror/ (accessed March 4, 2012).

5. Tenth Anniversary Report Card: The Status of the 9/11 Commission Recommendations, National Security Preparedness Group, Bipartisan Policy Center, Washington, DC, September 2011, p. 7.

6. Geraldo Rivera, “Are We Any Safer?” Fox News, September 9, 2011, http://www.foxnews.com/on-air/geraldo/blog/2011/09/09/are-we-any-safer (accessed March 4, 2012).

7. John Mueller and Mark G. Stewart, Terror, Security, and Money: Balancing the Risks, Benefits, and Costs of Homeland Security (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 3.

8. Jeffrey D. Simon, The Terrorist Trap: America's Experience with Terrorism, 2nd ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001), pp. 396–97.

9. Paul Cruickshank, Nic Robertson, and Ken Shiffman, “How Safe Is the Cargo on Passenger Flights?” CNN, February 19, 2012, http://www.cnn.com/2012/02/16/travel/cargo-terror-concerns/index.html (accessed March 8, 2012).

10. Ibid.

11. Ibid.

12. Ibid.

13. Semiannual Report on the Audit, Investigative, and Security Activities of the United States Postal Service, April 1–September 30, 2008, United States Postal Service, pp. 30–31.

14. “Postal Strike: Spotting Mailbombs,” Global Security Solutions, http://www.global-securitysolutions.com/scanna-msc-ltd-security-screening-and-detection/postal-strike-spotting-mailbombs.html (accessed March 10, 2012).

15. Barry Zellen, “Special Delivery: After Two Centuries, Letter-Bombs Continue Their Lethal Legacy,” Security Innovator, March 6, 2009, http://securityinnovator.com/index.php?articleID=15842&sectionID=27 (accessed March 9, 2012).

16. Marcus Wohlsen, “Scientists Man Bioterror Front Lines Post-9/11,” Associated Press, http://www.rdmag.com/News/2011/08/Life-Science-Biotechnology-Analytical-Scientists-man-bioterror-front-lines/ (accessed March 12, 2012). The deployment of the air monitors is known as the national BioWatch system. However, it was revealed in October 2012 that tests of the system by scientists found that BioWatch “operated with defective components that left it unable to detect lethal germs.” See David Willman, “BioWatch Technology Couldn't Detect Lethal Germs, Tests Found,” Los Angeles Times, October 22, 2012, http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-biowatch-faulty-assays-20121023,0,6634110.story (accessed November 16, 2012).

17. There is, however, x-ray technology that has been developed to specifically visualize and enhance powders inside packages. These are being used to inspect suspicious letters and packages. See “Postal Strike.”

18. Ian Evans, “Report: London No Safer for All Its CCTV Cameras,” Christian Science Monitor, February 22, 2012, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2012/0222/Report-London-no-safer-for-all-its-CCTV-cameras (accessed March 12, 2012).

19. Christopher Hope, “1,000 CCTV Cameras to Solve Just One Crime, Met Police Admits,” Telegraph, August 25, 2009, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/crime/6082530/1000-CCTV-cameras-to-solve-just-one-crime-Met-Police-admits.html (accessed March 12, 2012).

20. Lone-Wolf Terrorism, COT, Instituut voor Veiligheids-en Crisismanagement, Final draft, June 7, 2007, Case Study for Work Package 3, p. 22, http://www.scribd.com/doc/34968770/Lone-Wolf-Terrorism (accessed June 10, 2011).

21. Ibid., pp. 77–78.

22. “Real Crime—Nailing the Nailbomber,” Real Crime, June 4, 2007, http://www.throng.co.nz/real-crime/real-crime-nailing-the-nailbomber (accessed March 13, 2012).

23. Lone-Wolf Terrorism, p. 77.

24. Ian Evans, “London Riots Caught on CCTV Camera: ‘We Will Pursue You’ Say Police,” Christian Science Monitor, August 9, 2011, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2011/0809/London-riots-caught-on-CCTV-camera-We-will-pursue-you-say-police-VIDEO (accessed March 16, 2012).

25. Fred Burton, “The Challenge of the Lone Wolf,” Stratfor, May 30, 2007, http://www.stratfor.com/challenge_lone_wolf (accessed December 23, 2011).

26. Scott Stewart and Fred Burton, “Lone Wolf Lessons,” Stratfor, 2009, http://www.trapwire.com/stratforreport4.htm (accessed March 15, 2012).

27. Jeff Salton, “Smarter CCTV System to Be Used to Recognize and Prevent Crime,” Gizmag, September 29, 2009, http://www.gizmag.com/intelligent-cctv-system-recognizes-prevents-crime/12971/ (accessed March 15, 2012).

28. Michael Pollitt, “Surveillance: The Next Generation,” Guardian, February 18, 2009, http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2009/feb/19/cctv-behaviour-patterns (accessed March 15, 2012).

29. “Could ‘Smart CCTV Surveillance’ Help in Fight against Terror,” PRNewswire, July 18, 2011, http://www.prnewswire.co.uk/cgi/news/release?id=150279 (accessed March 15, 2012).

30. Mimi Hall, “Feds Focus on Detecting Bombs,” USA Today, November 27, 2007, http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-11-26-bomb-detection_N.htm (accessed March 9, 2012).

31. Retired Department of Defense intelligence analyst, telephone interview with author, March 2, 2012.

32. “Introduction to Biometrics,” National Science and Technology Council (NSTC), Committee on Technology, Committee on Homeland and National Security, Subcommittee on Biometrics, August 7, 2006, http://www.biometrics.gov/ReferenceRoom/Introduction.aspx (accessed March 19, 2012); “History of Biometrics,” Global Security, July 13, 2011, http://www.globalsecurity.org/security/systems/biometrics-history.htm (accessed March 18, 2012).

33. “The Bertillon System,” US National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, February 16, 2006, http://www.nlm.nih.gov/visibleproofs/galleries/technologies/bertillon.html (accessed March 19, 2012).

34. “History of Biometrics.”

35. “The FBI and the American Gangster, 1924–1938,” Federal Bureau of Investigation, http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/a-centennial-history/fbi_and_the_american_gangster_1924-1938 (accessed March 17, 2012).

36. The National Biometrics Challenge, National Science and Technology Council, Subcommittee on Biometrics and Identity Management, September 2011, p. 6; “Introduction to Biometrics.”

37. National Biometrics Challenge, p. 5.

38. Ibid., p. 6.

39. Ibid., pp. 5, 16.

40. CJIS Annual Report 2011, US Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Criminal Justice Information Services Division, p. 20.

41. William M. Casey, interview with author, February 22, 2012, Clarksburg, West Virginia.

42. “The Biometric News Portal,” http://www.biometricnewsportal.com/biometrics_definition.asp (accessed February 20, 2012); “Introduction to Biometrics”; National Biometrics Challenge, pp. 11–15; CJIS Annual Report 2011, p. 24; “Biometrics,” Global Security, July 13, 2011, http://www.globalsecurity.org/security/systems/biometrics.htm (accessed March 20, 2012).

43. Stephen G. Fischer Jr., interview with author, February 22, 2012, Clarksburg, West Virginia.

44. “Biometric News Portal”; “Biometrics.”

45. Rym Momtaz and Lee Ferran, “French School Shooter Was on US No Fly List,” ABC News, http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/french-school-shooter-us-fly-list/story?id=15981115#.T24CfxxBnw4 (accessed March 23, 2012); Scott Sayare, “Suspect in French Killings Slain as Police Storm Apartment after 30-Hour Siege,” New York Times, March 22, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/23/world/europe/mohammed-merah-toulouse-shooting-suspect-french-police-standoff.html (accessed March 23, 2012).

46. National Biometrics Challenge, p. 20.

47. Margit Sutrop and Katrin Laas-Mikko, “From Identity Verification to Behavior Prediction: Ethical Implications of Second Generation Biometrics,” Review of Policy Research 29, no. 1 (2012): 21–36; Ellen Messmer, “Can Behavioral Biometrics Help Detect Terrorists Entering the U.S.?” Network World, September 22, 2010, http://www.networkworld.com/news/2010/092210-biometrics.html (accessed March 19, 2012).

48. Privacy Impact Assessment for the Future Attribute Screening Technology (FAST) Project, Science and Technology Directorate, Department of Homeland Security, December 15, 2008, p. 2.

49. Declan McCullagh, “Real-Life ‘Minority Report’ Program Gets a Try-Out,” CBS News, October 7, 2011, http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-503063_162-20117207.html (accessed March 26, 2012).

50. Privacy Impact Assessment, p. 4.

51. Sharon Weinberger, “Terrorist ‘Pre-Crime’ Detector Field Tested in United States,” Nature, May 27, 2011, http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110527/full/news.2011.323.html (accessed March 24, 2012); McCullagh, “Real-Life ‘Minority Report’ Program”; Wilmer Heck, “EU to Monitor Deviant Behavior in Fight against Terrorism,” Spiegel Online International, October 21, 2009, http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/0,1518,656468,00.html (accessed March 24, 2012).

52. Elizabeth Montalbano, “Homeland Security Tests Crime Prediction Tech,” Information Week, October 11, 2011, http://www.informationweek.com/news/government/security/231900555 (accessed March 24, 2012).

53. Weinberger, “Terrorist ‘Pre-Crime’ Detector.”

54. Joseph A. Bernstein, “Big Idea Seeing Crime before It Happens,” Discover Magazine, January 23, 2012, http://discovermagazine.com/2011/dec/02-big-idea-seeing-crime-before-it-happens/article_view?b_start:int=1&-C (accessed March 26, 2012).

55. Steven Cherry and Anne-Marie Corely, “Loser: Bad Vibes: A Quixotic U.S. Government New Security System Seeks to Look into Your Soul,” IEEE Spectrum, January 2010, http://spectrum.ieee.org/computing/embedded-systems/loser-bad-vibes (accessed March 24, 2012).

56. Sageman, Leaderless Jihad, p. 114.

57. Ibid., pp. 115–16.

58. Ibid., p. 122.

59. Charlie Savage, “Homeland Analysts Told to Monitor Policy Debates in Social Media,” New York Times, February 22, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/23/us/house-questions-homeland-security-program-on-social-media.html (accessed March 27, 2012).

60. Ibid.

61. Lori Andrews, “Facebook Is Using You,” New York Times, February 4, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/05/opinion/sunday/facebook-is-using-you.html?pagewanted=all (accessed March 31, 2011).

62. Mark F. Giuliano, interview with author, October 1, 2009, Washington, DC.

63. David Johnston and James Risen, “Lone Terrorists May Strike in the U.S., Agencies Warn,” New York Times, February 23, 2003, http://www.nytimes.com/2003/02/23/world/threats-responses-domestic-security-lone-terrorists-may-strike-us-agencies-warn.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm (accessed April 1, 2012).

64. Michael Brick, “Man Crashes Plane into Texas I.R.S. Office,” New York Times, February 18, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/19/us/19crash.html?_r=1 (accessed April 2, 2012).

65. Matthew Harwood, “Tripping up Terrorists,” Security Management, January 2012, http://www.securitymanagement.com/print/9356 (accessed April 1, 2012).

66. Sageman, Leaderless Jihad, pp. 156–57.

67. Ibid., pp. 151–54; Liat Shetret, “Use of the Internet for Counter-Terrorist Purposes,” Policy Brief, Center on Global Counterterrorism Cooperation, February 2011, pp. 6–7.

68. Shetret, “Use of the Internet,” p. 6.

69. “Empowering Local Partners to Prevent Violent Extremism in the United States,” Office of the Press Secretary, White House, August 2011, http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/08/03/empowering-local-partners-prevent-violent-extremism-united-states (accessed April 2, 2012).

70. Benjamin Weiser and Colin Moynihan, “A Guilty Plea in Plot to Bomb Times Square,” New York Times, June 22, 2010, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B05E0DA1030F931A15755C0A9669D8B63&pagewanted=allAft (accessed April 10, 2012).

71. Carl Franzen, “How Faisal Shahzad Was Apprehended, Step by Step,” AOL News, May 4, 2010, http://www.aolnews.com/2010/05/04/how-faisal-shahzad-was-apprehended-step-by-step/ (accessed April 10, 2012); “FBI Team ‘Lost’ Suspected Times Square Bomber during Critical Hours,” Fox News, May 5, 2010, http://www.foxnews.com/us/2010/05/05/fbi-team-lost-suspected-times-square-bomber-crucial-hours/ (accessed April 10, 2012). After learning Shahzad's identity, the FBI placed him on the no-fly list and alerted other federal agencies that he was a suspect in the attempted bombing in Times Square. An updated no-fly list, however, had not yet been activated in computer systems. That was how Shahzad was able to board the plane. It wasn't until Shahzad was already on the plane that Customs and Border Protection officials received the final passenger list with his name from Emirates Airlines. Had the authorities been just a few minutes late before notifying air-traffic control at Kennedy Airport to not allow the plane to take off, Shahzad would have safely fled the country.

72. CJIS Annual Report 2011, p. 18.

73. Yanjun Yan and Lisa Ann Osadciw, “Bridging Biometrics and Forensics,” in Security, Forensics, Steganography, and Watermarking of Multimedia Contents X, ed. Edward J. Delp, Ping Wah Wong, Jana Dittmann, and Nasir D. Memon (San Jose, CA: Proceedings—SPIE, 2008).

74. Fischer Jr., interview.

75. CJIS Annual Report 2011, p. 24.

76. Casey, interview.

77. Lone-Wolf Terrorism, pp. 26, 66; Adrian Bridge, “Austria's ‘Unabomber’ Taunts Police with History and Myth,” Independent, December 15, 1996, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/austrias-unabomber-taunts-police-with-history-and-myth-1314636.html (accessed April 11, 2012).

78. Lone-Wolf Terrorism, pp. 80–82; Ramon Spaaij, Understanding Lone Wolf Terrorism: Global Patterns, Motivations and Prevention (New York: Springer, 2012), pp. 84–86.

79. Ibid.

80. Ibid.

81. Michael M. Greenburg, The Mad Bomber of New York: The Extraordinary True Story of the Manhunt That Paralyzed a City (New York: Union Square Press, 2012), p. 79; Spaaij, Understanding Lone Wolf Terrorism, pp. 23–24; Melissa Ann Madden, “George Metesky: New York's Mad Bomber (City Under Siege),” TruTV Crime Library, http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/terrorists/metesky/1.html (accessed April 12, 2012).

82. Don DeNevi and John H. Campbell, Into the Minds of Madmen: How the FBI's Behavioral Science Unit Revolutionized Crime Investigation (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2004), pp. 60–65; Lyn Bixby, “‘Mad Bomber’ of Waterbury Terrorized New York for 17 Years,” Hartford Courant, July 2, 1995, http://articles.courant.com/1995-07-02/news/9507020146_1_unabomber-s-signature-first-bomb-george-metesky (accessed April 12, 2012); Madden, “George Metesky (Small Beginnings),” TruTV Crime Library, http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/terrorists/metesky/2.html (accessed April 12, 2012).

83. DeNevi and Campbell, Into the Minds of Madmen, pp. 60–65.

84. Madden, “George Metesky (The Game Begins),” TruTV Crime Library, http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/terrorists/metesky/5.html (accessed April 12, 2012); Madden, “George Metesky (Revelations),” TruTV Crime Library, http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/terrorists/metesky/7.html (accessed April 12, 2012); DeNevi and Campbell, Into the Minds of Madmen, pp. 60–65.

85. Madden, “George Metesky (Aftermath),” TruTV Crime Library, http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/terrorists/metesky/9.html (accessed April 12, 2012); Alexander Feinberg, “Edison Clerk Finds Case in File; Bomber's Words Alerted Her,” New York Times, January 23, 1957, p. 18; “The Bomber's Grievances Came to Light in a Series of Letters,” New York Times, January 23, 1957, p. 19; Malcolm Gladwell, “Dangerous Minds: Criminal Profiling Made Easy,” New Yorker, November 12, 2007, http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/11/12/071112fa_fact_gladwell (accessed April 12, 2012); Michael T. Kaufman, “‘Mad Bomber,’ Now 70, Goes Free Today,” New York Times, December 13, 1973, p. 1.

86. “Bomber's Grievances Came to Light.”

87. “Extremist Chatter Praises Eric Rudolph as ‘Hero,’” Anti-Defamation League, June 3, 2003, http://www.adl.org/presrele/asus_12/4264_72.htm (accessed April 14, 2012).

88. Edecio Martinez, “Joe Stack Is a ‘True American Hero’: Facebook Groups Support Domestic Terrorist,” CBS News, February 19, 2010, http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-504083_162-6223132-504083.html (accessed May 8, 2011).

89. Andrea Canning and Lee Ferran, “Stack's Daughter Retracts ‘Hero,’ Statement,” ABC News, February 22, 2010, http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/joe-stacks-daughter-samantha-bell-calls-dad-hero/story?id=9903329#.T4svwBxBnw5 (accessed April 14, 2012).

90. Jeffrey D. Simon, “Biological Terrorism: Preparing to Meet the Threat,” Journal of the American Medical Association 278, no. 5 (August 6, 1997): 428–30.

CHAPTER 7. UNCOVERING THE LESSONS LEARNED

1. George Santayana, Reason in Common Sense, vol. 1, The Life of Reason, or, The Phases of Human Progress (New York: Scribner's, 1905), p. 284.

2. Matthew Cole, “New Al Qaeda Video: American Muslims Should Buy Guns, Start Shooting People,” ABC News, June 3, 2011, http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/al-qaeda-video-buy-automatic-weapons-start-shooting/story?id=13704264#.T5bzKxxLmfc (accessed April 24, 2012).

3. David Ljunggren, “Al Qaeda Challenges with Lone Wolf Tactics: Canada,” Reuters, April 23, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/04/23/us-alqaeda-idUSBRE83M1HP20120423 (accessed April 23, 2012).

4. Claire Sterling, The Terror Network (New York: Henry Holt, 1981).

5. Jerry S. Piven, “On the Psychosis (Religion) of Terrorists,” in Terror and the Apocalypse: Psychological Undercurrents of History, Volume II, ed. Jerry S. Piven, Paul Zilio, and Henry W. Lawton (Lincoln, NE: Bloomusalem Press, 2002), p. 186.

6. Jeffrey D. Simon, The Terrorist Trap: America's Experience with Terrorism, 2nd ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001), pp. 5–6.

7. See, for example, Martha Crenshaw, “The Causes of Terrorism,” in International Terrorism, ed. Charles W. Kegley Jr. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990), p. 121; John Horgan, The Psychology of Terrorism (London: Routledge, 2005), pp. 62–79; Marc Sageman, Leaderless Jihad: Terror Networks in the Twenty-First Century (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), pp. 62–65; Jerrold M. Post, The Mind of the Terrorist: The Psychology of Terrorism from the IRA to al-Qaeda (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), pp. 3–4.

8. Christopher Hewitt, Understanding Terrorism in America: From the Klan to al Qaeda (London: Routledge, 2003), p. 80.

9. Ibid.

10. Ramon Spaaij, “The Enigma of Lone Wolf Terrorism: An Assessment,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 33, no. 9 (2010): 862.

11. Horgan, Psychology of Terrorism, p. 48.

12. Steven Emerson, Jihad Incorporated: A Guide to Militant Islam in the US (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2006), p. 479.

13. John H. Campbell and Don DeNevi, Profilers: Leading Investigators Take You inside the Criminal Mind (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2004), p. 194; Malcolm Gladwell, “Dangerous Minds: Criminal Profiling Made Easy,” New Yorker, November 12, 2007, http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/11/12/071112fa_fact_gladwell (accessed April 12, 2012); Melissa Ann Madden, “George Metesky: New York's Mad Bomber,” Dinge en Goete (Things and Stuff), http://dingeengoete.blogspot.com/2012/03/george-metesky-new-yorks-mad-bomber.html (accessed April 29, 2012).

14. “Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2002,” United States Department of State, April 2003, appendix H, p. 161. International terrorism refers to “terrorism involving citizens or the territory of more than one country” (p. xiii). In other words, it involves terrorist incidents “in which terrorists go abroad to strike their targets, stay at home but select victims because of their connections to a foreign state (e.g., diplomats or the executives of foreign corporations), or attack international lines of commerce (e.g., airliners). It excludes the considerable amount of terrorist violence carried out by terrorists operating within their own country against their own nationals and in many countries by governments against their own citizens.” (Brian Michael Jenkins, International Terrorism: The Other World War, Rand Corp, R-3302-AF, November 1985, p. 4.) Domestic terrorist incidents are now combined with international ones in the annual US government statistics on terrorism, bringing the numbers to staggering totals. For example, the number of terrorist incidents in 2011 was 10,283! See Country Reports on Terrorism: 2011, United States Department of State, National Counterterrorism Center: Annex of Statistical Information, July 2012, p. 2.

15. Spaaij, “Enigma of Lone Wolf Terrorism,” p. 862; Hewitt, Understanding Terrorism in America, p. 80.

16. Ramon Spaaij, Understanding Lone Wolf Terrorism: Global Patterns, Motivations, and Prevention (New York: Springer, 2012), pp. 27–33.

17. Ibid., p. 31.

18. Lone-Wolf Terrorism, COT, Instituut voor Veiligheids- en Crisismanagement, Final draft, June 7, 2007, Case Study for Work Package 3, p. 80, http://www.scribd.com/doc/34968770/Lone-Wolf-Terrorism (accessed June 10, 2011).

19. Michael Schwirtz, “Norway's Premier Vows to Keep an Open Society,” New York Times, July 27, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/28/world/europe/28norway.html (accessed August 2, 2011).

CHAPTER 8. A LOOK TOWARD THE FUTURE

1. See, for example, Marvin J. Cetron and Owen Davies, 55 Trends Now Shaping the Future of Terrorism (n.p.: CreateSpace, 2008); Report of the Future of Terrorism Task Force, Homeland Security Advisory Council, January 2007; Harvey W. Kushner, ed., The Future of Terrorism: Violence in the New Millennium (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998); Max Taylor and John Horgan, eds., The Future of Terrorism (London: Routledge, 2000); Jon Meacham, ed., Beyond bin Laden: America and the Future of Terror (New York: Random House, 2011).

2. Jeffrey D. Simon, The Terrorist Trap: America's Experience with Terrorism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), pp. 347–73.

3. David C. Rapoport, “The Four Waves of Modern Terrorism,” in Attacking Terrorism: Elements of a Grand Strategy, ed. Audrey Kurth Cronin and James M. Ludes (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2004), pp. 46–73.

4. Brian Michael Jenkins, Al Qaeda in Its Third Decade: Irreversible Decline or Imminent Victory? (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2012), p. 16.

5. EU Terrorism Situation and Trend Report (TE-SAT) 2012, Europol, 2012, p. 4.

6. Nic Robertson and Paul Cruickshank, “Sources: Saudi Counterterrorism Work Broke up New AQAP Plane Plot,” CNN, May 9, 2012, http://www.cnn.com/2012/05/09/world/meast/al-qaeda-plot/index.html (accessed May 10, 2012).

7. “Russia Foils 2014 Winter Olympics Terror Plot, State Media Reports,” CNN, May 10, 2012, http://www.cnn.com/2012/05/10/world/europe/russia-terror-plot/index.html (accessed May 10, 2012).

8. Allan Hall, “Germans Fear Rise in Left-Wing Terrorism after Seven Petrol Bombs Found in Berlin Rail Tunnel,” Dailymail, October 11, 2011, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2047791/Germans-fear-rise-left-wing-terrorism-seven-petrol-bombs-Berlin-rail-tunnel.html (accessed May 8, 2012).

9. Valentina Soria, “Not Welcome Here: The Resurgence of Far-Right Wing Extremism in Europe,” Royal United Services Institute, January 9, 2012, http://www.rusi.org/analysis/commentary/ref:C4F0AD7935C9BD/ (accessed May 9, 2012).

10. “Dungannon Man Patrick Carty Charged over ‘Iraq-Style IED,’” BBC News, February 13, 2012, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-17013837 (accessed May 11, 2012).

11. There have, however, been “low level” types of cyber attacks by many governments in recent years.

12. Richard J. Danzig, A Policymaker's Guide to Bioterrorism and What to Do about It, Center for Technology and National Security Policy, National Defense University, December 2009, p. 10.

13. Jeffrey D. Simon, “Technological and Lone Operator Terrorism: Prospects for a Fifth Wave of Global Terrorism,” in Terrorism, Identity, and Legitimacy: The Four Waves Theory and Political Violence, ed. Jean E. Rosenfeld (London: Routledge, 2011), pp. 58–59.

14. Ibid., p. 60.

15. Country Reports on Terrorism: 2011, United States Department of State, July 2012, p. 269.

16. Paul Avrich, Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), p. 206.

17. Jeffrey D. Simon, “Misunderstanding Terrorism,” Foreign Policy 67 (Summer 1987): 111.

18. Ibid.

19. Katharine Q. Seelye and Elisabeth Bumiller, “Bush Labels Aerial Terrorist Attacks ‘Acts of War,’” New York Times, September 13, 2001, http://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/13/national/13BUSH.html (accessed May 14, 2012).

20. Scott Wilson and Al Kamen, “‘Global War on Terror’ Is Given New Name,” Washington Post, March 25, 2009, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/24/AR2009032402818.html (accessed May 14, 2012).

CONCLUSION

1. Albert Einstein, “The World as I See It,” Forum and Century 84 (1931): 193–94.

2. Rory O'Connor, Friends, Followers, and the Future: How Social Media Are Changing Politics, Threatening Big Brands, and Killing Traditional Media (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 2012), p. 264.

3. David Willman, The Mirage Man: Bruce Ivins, the Anthrax Attacks, and America's Rush to War (New York: Bantam Books, 2011), p. 297.

APPENDIX

1. Alex Schmid, Political Terrorism: A Research Guide to Concepts, Theories, Data Bases, and Literature (Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1984), pp. 119–58.

2. Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2003, United States Department of State, April 2004, p. xii (italics added). The State Department's reports on terrorism are published during the subsequent year, so that the 2003 report on terrorism was issued in 2004, the 2004 report on terrorism was issued in 2005, and so forth. The title of the reports were changed from “Patterns of Global Terrorism” to “Country Reports on Terrorism” in April 2005, when the State Department issued its report for 2004. The new title has stayed in effect for subsequent reports.

3. Country Reports on Terrorism: 2004, United States Department of State, April 2005, p. 1.

4. Country Reports on Terrorism: 2003, United States Department of State, April 2004, p. xii (italics added).

5. Country Reports on Terrorism: 2004, United States Department of State, April 2005, p. 1 (italics added).

6. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld used the term “dead-enders” to describe the initial violent attacks against US troops in Iraq. See Donald Rumsfeld, “Remarks as Delivered by Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld,” San Antonio, TX, Monday, August 25, 2003, to the Veterans of Foreign Wars, US Department of Defense, http://www.defenselink.mil/speeches/speech.aspx?speechid=513 (accessed June 3, 2008). President Bush, however, preferred to use the term “terrorists.” In October 2003, Bush said that “the best way to describe the people who are conducting these attacks are cold-blooded killers, terrorsts [sic]. That's all they are. They're terrorists.” See George W. Bush, “President Bush, Ambassador Bremer Discuss Progress in Iraq,” White House Press Release, October 27, 2003, http://merln.ndu.edu/merln/pfiraq/archive/wh/20031027-1.pdf (accessed June 3, 2008).

7. Terrorism in the United States: 1994, Terrorist Research and Analytical Center, National Security Division, US Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, p. 24.

8. Ibid., p. 26.

9. Terrorism in the United States: 1995, Terrorist Research and Analytical Center, National Security Division, US Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, p. ii.

10. Terrorism in the United States: 1999, Counterterrorism Threat Assessment and Warning Unit, Counterterrorism Division, US Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, p. ii.

11. Ibid., p. 26. The FBI report used the spelling “Amil Kanzi.” The name has also been spelled as “Aimal Kasi” and “Aimal Kansi” in many other references.

12. Patricia Davis and Maria Glod, “CIA Shooter Kasi, Harbinger of Terror, Set to Die Tonight,” Washington Post, November 14, 2002, http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A55638-2002Nov14 (accessed July 9, 2010).

13. Greg Krikorian, “No Link to Extremists in LAX Shootings,” Los Angeles Times, April 12, 2003, p. B3.

14. Jeffrey D. Simon, The Terrorist Trap: America's Experience with Terrorism, 2nd ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001), pp. 49–51.

15. Walter Laqueur, The Age of Terrorism (Boston: Little, Brown, 1987), p. 70.

16. Benjamin Weiser, “A Guilty Plea in Plot to Bomb Times Square,” New York Times, June 22, 2010, p. A2.