Index

Note: Page numbers followed by f and t refer to figures and tables, respectively.

• A
• Abrasive blasting, 318–319
• Acids, 256, 283–286
• Active stainless steel, 272–273, 272f
• Adhesives, 303
• Admiralty Bronze, xi, 33
• Admiralty Metal, 54–55, 194
• Aich's Metal, 33
• Akmose, 173–174
• Alloys, 31–78. See also specific types and alloys by name
  • art applications, 26–30
  • attributes of, 29–31, 175–176, 337–339
  • blending colors and finishes of, 84–86
  • cast, 66–78, 206t
  • chemical etching of, 131–132, 132f
  • coefficient of linear expansion, 157, 157t
  • colors of, 8–11, 8f, 84–86
  • corrosion of, 260, 261
  • cutting, 220–226
  • designation systems, 34, 35t, 345–346
  • elements used in, 33–34
  • for extrusions, 186, 187t
  • for flat rolled products, 177, 179
  • history of, 17–18, 31–33, 175
  • long‐term performance of, 251–252
  • machineability, 227, 228t
  • melted copper alloy surfacing, 136–137, 136f
  • for mesh, 201
  • Mill surface of, 80–81
  • names for, 32–33, 32t
  • oxidation and patinas on, 110, 112f, 161–162, 326–328
  • protecting new surfaces of, 296–328
  • shaping, 217–220, 217f
  • spinning, 244–245
  • surface categories for, 286–293
  • tempers, 36–37
  • for tubes and pipes, 194
  • welding, 236–240
  • in wire form, 196–197, 197t
  • wrought, 38–66
• Aluminum
  • attributes, 7f, 337–339
  • copper alloys with, 33, 227, 264, 276
• Aluminum brasses, 274
• Aluminum–bronze alloys, 58–60
  • corrosion and, 264, 278, 297
  • natural color, 82, 83f
  • spinning of, 244, 245
  • surface finish, 80
  • welding of, 240
  • yield strength, 218f, 219
• American Heritage Center and Art Museum (Laramie, Wyoming), 103, 103f
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 98, 341–343
• Amino acids, 335
• Ammonia, 274–279, 334
• Ammonium chloride, 117, 118
• Ammonium hydroxide, 283
• Ammonium sulfide, 96
• Angel Hair® finish, 86, 87f
• Anisotropy, 155, 212, 214
• Annealing, 37, 184, 185
• Anodes, 21, 268–272
• ANSI, see American National Standards Institute
• Antimicrobial properties, xii, 25–26, 26f
• Antiqued brass, 97, 98
• Antiqued patinas, 115t
• Antlerite, 9, 13t, 266t
• Appearance variables, surface, 139–171
  • for cast forms, 167
  • changes in, over time, 167–171
  • exposure and surface durability, 139–143
  • flatness, 155–160
  • initial oxidation on alloys, 161–162
  • naturally changing appearance, 154–155
  • prepatination, 164–166
  • sealants and, 166–167
  • in situ patination, 163–164
  • statuary finish, 95
  • textured surfaces, 160
  • unchanged appearance, 143–154
• Architectural Bronze, see C38500 alloy
• Architectural metals, 29–30, 337–339
• Arsenical Brass, 54–55
• Arsenic and copper alloys, 34
• Artificial patinas, 108–113, 289–291

• “As fabricated” finish, 37, 80

• Atacamite, 9, 13, 13t, 254, 254t, 265, 266t
• Aurichaleite, 266t
• Aztec Indians, 25
• Azurite, 13t, 17, 20, 266t

• B
• Bars, 194–196, 195f, 196f
• Bases, interaction with, 283–286
• Bearing bronze, 278
• Beeswax, 329, 330
• Bending, 215, 215f
• Benzotriazole (BTA)
  • in handling and packaging, 322
  • in organic coatings, 331, 332. See also Incralac®
  • as oxide inhibitor, 151–152, 151f
  • surface preparation with, 144–145, 145f
  • test with, 300, 301f
• Berkeley Pit (Butte, Montana), 22
• Beryllium and copper alloys, 31
• BHMA, see Building Hardware Manufacturing Association
• Billet, 187
• Bimetallic corrosion, see Galvanic corrosion
• Biomining, 22
• Biotic ligand model (BLM), 23
• Bird waste, removing, 301–303, 302f–304f
• Birmingham, England, 18, 33, 38
• Blackbird (Young), 121, 121f
• Black patinas, 101–103, 102f, 103f
  • chemical compounds creating, 115t
  • from hot patination, 121
  • niello, 92, 92f
• Blanking, 221
• Blasting, abrasive, 318–319
• Blister copper, 21
• BLM, see Biotic ligand model
• Blue green patinas, 115t
• BNIM, 103
• BOORA Architects, 170f
• Bornite, 12, 13t
• Børsen (Copenhagen, Denmark), 106, 106f, 107
• Boston Museum of Fine Arts (Boston, Massachusetts), 173–174
• Bowling Alley wax, 330
• Box extrusions, 189, 190f
• Brasses. See also specific types
  • color of, 8, 9f, 82
  • cutting of, 223f, 227
  • forms of, 184
  • galvanic corrosion with, 272
  • history of, 213
  • maritime applications, xi
  • Mill surface, 81
  • patinas on, 143
  • preserving unchanged appearance of, 149, 150f
  • under‐film oxidation, 293–294, 294f
  • welding of, 237–239
• Brass leaf, 185
• Brazing, 231–232, 234–236, 234f
• Brazing fillers, 234, 234t
• Brindisi, Italy, 17
• Brochantite, 8, 9, 13t, 253, 254, 254t, 266t
• Bronze, 40–41. See also specific alloys
  • art applications, 26–27, 66
  • bird waste on, 302, 302f
  • forms of, 204–205
  • galvanic corrosion with, 272
  • history of, 17, 18, 20f, 213
  • Mill surface, 81
  • oxidation of, 11, 13
  • patinas on, 92, 122, 290–291, 292f
  • preserving unchanged appearance for, 149, 150f
  • surface appearance variables for, 167
  • welding, 239–240, 239f
  • yield strength, 219
• Bronze disease, 11, 274–275, 295, 331
• Brown patinas, 115t, 122, 123f
• BTA, see Benzotriazole
• Buffing, 90–91, 90t, 329
• Building Hardware Manufacturing Association (BHMA), 98
• Burning into core, 243t
• Burning into sand, 243t
• Büro modularbeat, 83f
• Butchers wax, 330

• C
• C10100 alloy, 40, 182–184
• C10200 alloy, 40
• C10300 alloy, 40
• C10400 alloy, 40
• C10500 alloy, 40
• C10700 alloy, 40
• C10800 alloy, 40
• C11000 (ETP copper) alloy, 38–39, 38f, 85f, 89f
  • benzotriazole test with, 300, 301f
  • cuprous oxide on, 141f
  • Dirty Penny finish, 99, 100f, 101f
  • elongation percentage and temper, 245, 246t
  • extrudability, 187t
  • heat‐generated color, 91f
  • laser cutting of, 225, 225f
  • machineability of, 228t
  • naturally‐changing surface of, 154–155, 155f
  • patinas on, 101–103, 102f, 103f, 115, 116f, 142, 143
  • perforated sheets, 203f, 204f
  • plating of, 134f, 135
  • spinning of, 244
  • surface appearance, 152, 152f
  • surface finishes, 96, 96f, 97, 97f
  • tubes from, 194
  • v‐cutting of, 215
  • welding of, 237f
• C12200 (DHP copper) alloy, 39, 40, 183
• C14500 alloy, 40
• C18200 alloy, 40
• C18700 alloy, 40
• C21000 (Gilding Metal) alloy, 41, 41t, 42
  • extrudability, 187t
  • machineability of, 228t
  • welding of, 238
  • yield strength, 218, 218f
• C22000 (Commercial Bronze) alloy, 41t, 42–43, 44f
  • engraving, 132, 133f
  • etching, 130, 131f
  • laser cutting, 224–225, 224f
  • machineability of, 228t
  • melted copper alloy surfacing, 136, 136f
  • plating, 133, 134f
  • surface appearance, 152, 152f
  • surface finishes, 86–88, 87f, 88f, 93–97, 94f, 95f, 97f
  • tubes from, 194
  • waterjet cutting, 222, 222f, 223f
  • welding, 237, 237f, 238
  • yield strength of, 218f, 219
• C23000 (red brass) alloy, 41t, 43, 45, 187t, 194, 228t, 238
• C24000 (low brass) alloy, 41t, 45–46, 187t, 228t
• C26000 (Cartridge Brass) alloy, 41t, 46–47, 47f
  • corrosion, 260, 260f
  • dealloying of, 275, 276f
  • durability of, 142
  • effect of acids on, 283, 283f
  • etched, 130, 130f, 131, 131f
  • forms of, 184
  • machineability of, 228t
  • plating of, 133–135, 134f
  • removing oxides from, 316–318, 317f
  • restoring patina on, 327–328
  • tubes from, 194
  • welding, 238
• C27000 (yellow brass) alloy, 8, 41t, 48, 194
• C27200 alloy, 194
• C27400 alloy, 194
• C27450 alloy, 48
• C28000 (Muntz Metal) alloy, 8, 41t, 48–49, 49f
  • C38500 alloy vs., 175t
  • C46400 alloys and, 55, 56
  • cold forming of, 215
  • dealloying of, 276
  • machineability of, 228t
  • melted copper alloy surfacing, 136, 136f
  • and spinning, 244
  • surface finishes, 84, 84f, 86, 95f
  • tubes from, 194
  • under‐film oxidation, 293–294, 294f
  • welding of, 238
  • yield strength, 218–219, 218f
• C33000 alloy, 50–51, 50t, 194
• C33200 alloy, 194
• C35300 alloy, 50t, 51–52, 227–230, 228t, 229f–231f
• C36000 alloy, 50t, 52
• C37000 alloy, 50t, 53, 53f, 194, 228t
• C38500 (Architectural Bronze) alloy, 50t, 53–54, 54f
  • C28000 alloy vs., 175t
  • dealloying of, 276
  • extrusions of, 186, 187t, 193, 193f
  • machineability of, 49–50
  • welding and, 238
• C38600 alloy, 67
• C44300 (Admiralty Metal) alloy, 54–55, 194
• C44400 (Admiralty Metal) alloy, 54–55
• C44500 (Admiralty Metal) alloy, 54–55
• C46400 (Naval Brass) alloy, xi, 55–56
  • machineability of, 228t
  • melted copper alloy surfacing, 136, 136f
  • preventing dezincification with, 276
  • and spinning, 244
  • yield strength, 218–219, 218f
• C48200 (Leaded Naval Brass) alloy, 55–56, 80
• C51000 alloy, 56–57, 218f, 219, 228t
• C54400 alloy, 56, 57, 218f, 219
• C61000 alloy, 58, 59, 60f
  • machineability of, 228t
  • oxidation of, 154
  • tarnish resistance of, 82, 264
  • yield strength, 218f, 219
• C61300 alloy, 58, 59, 154, 219, 264
• C61400 alloy, 58, 59, 154, 219
• C61500 alloy, 58, 59, 82, 132, 133f, 264
• C65500 alloy (Everdur^TM), 60–61, 67
  • extrudability of, 187t
  • machineability of, 228t
  • patina color, 74
  • red patinas, 104, 104f
  • v‐cutting of, 218f, 219
• C67500 alloy, 276
• C70600 alloy, 62t, 63, 64, 218f, 219, 228t
• C71500 alloy, 62t, 63–64
• C75200 alloy, 62–66, 62t, 63f, 66f
  • engraved, 132, 133f
  • machineability of, 228t
  • melted copper alloy surfacing, 136, 136f
  • oxidation of, 154
  • yield strength of, 218f, 219
• C77000 alloy, 62, 62t, 64–66
  • machineability of, 228t
  • oxidation and, 154
  • yield strength of, 218f, 219
• C79800 alloy, 228t
• C83600 alloy, 68t, 69, 70f
  • chemical cleaning of, 314–316, 314f–317f
  • machineability of, 228t
• C83600 (Gunmetal) alloy, 18, 20f, 120
• C83600 (Leaded Gunmetal) alloy, 67, 205
• C84400 alloy, 68t, 69–70, 228t
• C85200 alloy, 68t, 71, 228t
• C85400 alloy, 68t, 71
• C85800 alloy, 68t, 73, 326–328, 327f
• C86300 alloy, 68t, 73, 228t
• C87200 alloy, 68t, 73–74
• C87300 alloy, 68t, 74
  • blending of, with other alloys, 86
  • cast forms, 67, 205, 207f
  • patinas of, 120
  • welding of, 239
• C87500 alloy, 68t, 74–75
• C87600 alloy, 68t, 75–76, 120, 205
• C87610 alloy, 68t, 75–76, 258f
• C87610 alloy (Herculoy), 67
• C90300 alloy, 68t, 76, 228t
• C97300 alloy, 68t, 77, 78, 228t
• C97600 alloy, 62, 68t, 77, 78
• C97800 alloy, 68t, 77, 78
• C99700 alloy, 68t, 78
• Candelilla wax, 330
• Carbonates, 255t, 266t
• Carbonell, Manuel, 123f
• Carnauba wax, 329, 330
• Cast alloys, 66–78
  • manganese–bronze, 78
  • nickel–silver, 77–78
  • preserving unchanged appearance of, 146
  • red brasses, 69–70
  • silicon–bronze, 73–76
  • tin–bronze, 76
  • UNS designation, 34, 35t, 68t
  • welding and, 238–239
  • yellow brasses, 71–72
• Casting, 241–244
  • of bronze, 26–27
  • cast forms, 204–210
  • cross‐section of, 177, 177f
  • die, 205, 206f, 209–210
  • history of, 213
  • investment/lost‐wax method, 26–27, 205, 206f, 208–209, 210t, 241–242
  • maintenance issues for cast forms, 324–326, 326f
  • permanent mold, 205, 206f, 209, 210t
  • sand, 205–208, 206f–208f, 210t, 241, 242f
  • surface appearance variables, 167
  • surface maladies with, 242, 243t
• Cathodes, 268–272
• CCS, see Circumscribing circle size
• CDA, see Copper Development Association
• Cellini, Benvenuto, 11, 11f
• Cellulose‐based lacquers, removing, 307–311
• CEN, see European Committee for Standardization
• Centrifugal casting, 205, 206f
• Chalcanthite, 266t
• Chalcocite, 13t
• Chalconatonite, 266t
• Chalcopyrite, 12, 22
• Chasing, 124, 125f
• Chemiabsorption, 331
• Chemical cleanliness, 311–320, 312f
  • abrasive blasting, 318–319
  • dissolving oxides, 313–318
  • electropolishing, 318, 319f
  • laser ablation, 319–320, 320f
  • pickling, 319
  • procedure, 320t
• Chemical etching (chemical milling), 131–132, 132f
• China, 62, 205
• Chlorides
  • and active stainless steel, 272–273
  • as corrosion products, 255t, 257–259, 258f
  • and environmental exposure, 285, 285f, 286f
  • in natural patina, 264–267, 266t
  • types of corrosion associated with, 274–275, 290
• Chorier, N., 62
• Christ Church (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), 251, 252f
• Circuit boards, 184
• Circumscribing circle size (CCS), 189
• Cire perdue, see Lost‐wax casting method (investment casting)
• Citric acid, 313–315
• Claraite, 266t
• Cleaning
  • chemical cleanliness, 311–320
  • and corrosion, 261, 262
  • electrocleaning, 318
  • as maintenance, 171, 333–334
  • mechanical cleanliness, 320–326
  • of new copper surface, 168
  • physical cleanliness, 296–311
  • to prevent bronze disease, 275
• Cleaning solutions, 280, 281f, 297, 298f, 333–334
• CNC texturing, see Computer numerical control texturing
• Coated metal, 291–293
• Coefficient of linear expansion, 157, 157t
• Coils, 177, 178f, 182–184
• Cold extrusion, 185
• Cold forming, 213–215
• Cold patination, 115, 117–118, 118f, 119f
• Cold rolled products, 36t, 37, 80–81, 214
• Cold saws, 221
• Cold shut, 243t
• Color
  • alloy selection based on, 175
  • of architectural metals, 338
  • blending alloy, 84–86
  • coatings that enhance differences in, 153–154, 153f
  • of copper and alloys, xi, 1, 6–11
  • natural, 82–84, 86f
  • from oxidation and chemical reactions, 91–123, 257, 266t
• Color matching, 97–99, 240
• Colossus of Rhodes, 17
• Commercial Bronze, see C22000 alloy
• Commercially pure copper, 38–40
• Computer numerical control (CNC) texturing, 127, 129f, 130
• Condensation, galvanic corrosion and, 270, 271
• Conductivity, 4, 4t
• Contemporary Patination (Young), 139
• Conversion coatings, 117
• Copper
  • atomic structure of, 1–6, 3f
  • characteristics of, 1–6, 211–213
  • color of, 6–11
  • exposure to water, 23–24, 140, 141f
  • and glass, 137–138, 137f, 234f
  • health and safety concerns, 24
  • history of, 13–18, 15f, 213
  • modern production of, 19–22
  • sustainability, environmental, and hygienic concerns with, 22–23
  • tin‐coated, 135
  • welding, 237
• Copper–aluminum alloys, 33, 227, 264, 276
• Copper chloride, 304, 305
• Copper Development Association (CDA), 34, 36, 345
• Copper leaf, 185, 186f
• Copper minerals, 12–13, 13t, 14f
  • and corrosion products, 253–255, 254t, 255t
  • and patina colors, 266t
• Copper mining, 12, 12t, 15–16, 20, 22–23
• Copper–nickel alloys, 34, 61–66, 218f, 219, 227, 274
• Copper salts, 270, 334–335
• Copper stains, removing, 334–335
• Copper sulfate, 107, 266
• Copper sulfide, 101
• Corbin, Tom, 147f
• Core, casting, 241, 244, 325–326, 326f
• Core blow, 243t
• Corpus Christi, Texas, 257, 259f
• Corrosion, 140–142, 251–293
  • and alloy surface categories, 286–293
  • categories of, 260–279, 261t
  • chemical cleaning to prevent, 312–313
  • crevice, 261t, 278
  • due to acids and bases, 283–286
  • and environmental exposures, 279–282
  • erosion, 261t, 277–278
  • fatigue, 261t, 278–279
  • fretting, 261t, 277–278
  • galvanic (bimetallic), 159, 261t, 267–274
  • intergranular, 261t, 278
  • and long‐term performance of alloys, 251–252
  • and moisture, 323–324
  • patina and, 11, 252–254
  • pitting, 261t, 274
  • products of, 255–259
  • and soldering/brazing, 235
  • stress corrosion cracking, 261t, 276–277
  • under‐film, 296, 298–301
  • uniform, 261t, 263–264
• Corrosion resistance, xii
• Cracks and cracking
  • in castings, 243t
  • from cold forming, 215, 218
  • and cutting process, 215, 221
  • stress corrosion cracking, 261t, 276–277
  • in surface patina, 107, 266
  • in wax coatings, 170, 330
  • from welding, 240
• Crevice corrosion, 261t, 278
• Cupric oxide
  • color of, 103
  • as corrosion product, 256, 257f
  • darkening due to, 118, 143, 169, 313f
  • dissolving, 313, 314
  • exposure to water/moisture and, 24, 140
  • initial oxidation with, 161, 161f, 162f, 263, 264t
• Cuprite, 13, 13t, 20, 92, 138, 266t
• Cuprous oxide
  • color of, 104
  • as corrosion product, 255, 256, 256f
  • dissolving, 313–316
  • and environmental exposure, 279
  • exposure to water/moisture and, 24, 140, 141f
  • initial oxidation with, 161, 161f, 162, 263, 264t, 297
  • and natural patination, 265–266
• Custom perforation, 203–204
• Cut‐and‐color buffing, 90
• Cutdown buffing, 90
• Cutting
  • copper alloys, 220–226
  • free‐cutting alloys, 227, 228t
  • laser, 131, 131f, 220, 221f, 224–225, 224f, 225f
  • plasma, 220, 221f, 226, 226f
  • saw, 221–222, 221f
  • shearing and blanking, 220–221
  • v‐cutting, 215–220, 216f
  • waterjet, 131, 131f, 132, 133f, 221f, 222–224, 222f, 223f

• D
• Daeyang Gallery and House (Seoul, Korea), 104–105, 105f
• Dairy Bronze, 62. See also Nickel–silver alloys
• Darkening
  • of artificial patinas, 289
  • due to cupric oxide, 118, 143, 169, 313f
  • edge, 331–332
  • and protective coatings, 293
• Dealloying (dezincification), 261t, 262, 275–276, 276f, 277f, 295
• Deep drawing, 245–246
• Deep hammering, 125, 127f
• Degreasing, 116, 311
• Deicing salts, 271, 285, 286f, 303–305, 304f–306f
• Deoxidized high phosphorus (DHP) copper, 39, 40, 183
• Dew point, 281, 282f
• De Young Museum (San Francisco, California)
  • alloys used, 39f
  • corrosion of uncoated metal, 287f, 288
  • embossing and perforating for, 246–247, 247f, 248f
  • forms used, 182f
  • initial oxidation at, 161–162, 161f, 162f
  • natural color of panels, 84, 85f
  • surface appearance, 140, 141f
  • texturing of panels, 127, 129f, 130
  • v‐cutting of panels, 215, 216f
• DHP copper, see Deoxidized high phosphorus copper
• Die casting, 205, 206f, 209–210
• Diffusion, 236
• Directional bias, 213–214
• Directional solidification, 73
• Dirty Penny finish^TM, 99–101, 100f, 101f, 225, 225f, 290
• Dissimilar metals, 268
• Double die casting, 210
• Dow, 146
• Drift copper, 4, 15
• Drinking water, 23, 24
• Dross formation, 206
• Dry ice blasting, 318, 319
• Dual phase alloys, 215, 238, 276
• Ductility, 16, 211–213
• DuPont, 67, 74

• E
• ED copper foil, see Electrodeposited copper foil
• Edge darkening, 331–332
• EDTA, 335
• Egypt, ancient, 17, 92, 173–174
• Electrical conductivity, 4, 4t
• Electrical potential, in seawater, 267–268, 267t
• Electrocleaning, 318
• Electrodeposited (ED) copper foil, 184, 185
• Electroless plating, 133
• Electrolytes, 271
• Electrolytic tough pitch (ETP) copper, see C11000 alloy
• Electromotive force, 262
• Electron beam welding, 240t
• Electron flow, corrosion and, 262
• Electroplating, 133
• Electropolishing, 316–318, 317f, 319f
• Electrowinning, 21, 22
• Elements, 2f, 33–34, 262
• Elongation percentage, 245, 246t
• El Teniente mine (Chile), 20
• Embossing
  • custom, 204, 204f, 246–250, 247f, 248f
  • embossed forms, 89f, 201, 204, 204f
  • and flatness, 160, 160f
  • hold‐down clearance for, 248, 249f
  • process of, 125–126, 128f
  • roll, 247, 248, 249f
• Engraving, 130–132, 131f, 133f
• Environmental exposure, 139–143, 262, 279–282, 279t
• Environmental issues, 22–23, 112
• Eriochalcite, 254, 254t
• Erosion corrosion, 261t, 277–278
• Escondida mine (Chile), 20
• Etching, 130–132, 130f–133f
• Ethyl acetate, 308
• ETP (electrolytic tough pitch) copper, see C11000 alloy
• European Committee for Standardization (CEN), 345, 346
• Everdur^TM, see C65500 alloy
• Expanded metal, 199–201, 199f, 200f
• Export‐grade lumber, 284, 284f
• Extrusions, 185–193
  • cross‐section design, 189–193
  • designing shape for, 188–189
  • flatness of, 159
  • process, 187–188

• F
• Fabrication process, 211–250
  • casting, 241–244
  • and characteristics of copper work, 211–213
  • custom embossing and perforating, 246–250
  • cutting copper alloys, 220–226
  • deep drawing, 245–246
  • ensuring mechanical cleanliness in, 322
  • forming, 213–215
  • machining, 227–231
  • soldering and brazing, 231–236
  • spinning, 244–245
  • stretch forming, 246
  • v‐cutting, 215–220
  • welding, 236–240
• Face‐centered cubic structure, 1, 3f
• Faraday's law, 272–273
• Farmland Industries building, 97, 97f
• Fatigue corrosion, 261t, 278–279
• Fiber lasers, 224
• Fingerprints
  • physical removal of, 144, 298, 298f, 299f
  • under protective coatings, 152, 168, 293
  • and tarnish, 169, 279–280, 280f
• Finishes, see Surface finishes
• Firemen's Memorial sculpture (Corbin), 147f
• Flatness, 155–160
• Flat rolled products, 177–185
  • coils, 177, 178f, 182–184
  • foil, 177, 184–185
  • leaf, 185, 186f
  • plate, 177, 179–181
  • sheet, 177, 181–182
  • strips, 177, 184
• Flattened expanded metal), 200
• Fluidity, 73, 205
• Flux, 233, 235, 283
• Foil, 177, 184–185
• Formed expanded metal, 199, 200
• Forming, 213–215, 246
• Forms of copper and copper alloys, 173–210
  • attributes of alloys, 175–176
  • bar and rod, 194–196
  • cast, 204–210
  • extrusions, 185–193
  • flat rolled products, 177–185
  • history of, 173–175
  • mesh and expanded metal, 199–201, 199f, 200f, 202f
  • perforated and embossed, 201–204
  • pipe and tube, 193–194
  • wire and wire rope, 196–198, 197t, 198f, 198t
  • wrought, 176–204
• Fountains, 120–121, 146, 308
• Free‐cutting alloys, 227, 228t
• Free machining, 49
• Freezing point depression, 304
• French brown patina, 122, 123f
• Fretting corrosion, 261t, 277–278
• Fuga (Hendrix), 134f, 224–225, 224f
• Fusion stud welding, 159, 160, 240, 240t

• G
• Galvanic cell, 268–269, 268f
• Galvanic corrosion (bimetallic corrosion), 159, 261t, 267–274
  • electrical potential in seawater and, 267–268, 267t
  • electrolyte effects, 271
  • environmental exposure and, 281
  • factors in, 270–271
  • process of, 268–270
  • ratio of areas and, 271–274
  • temperature effects in, 271
• Gas holes, 243t
• Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), 237, 238, 240, 240t
• Gas shielded arc welding, 239
• Gastinger Walker Harden Architects, 119f
• Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), 237–240, 240t
• Gensler Architects, 54f
• Georgeite, 266t
• Gerhardtite, 254t
• German Silver, 62. See also Nickel–silver alloys
• Gilding Metal, see C21000 alloy
• Glass, 137–138, 137f, 234f
• GMAW, see Gas metal arc welding
• Gold, 1, 6–7, 7f
• Gold patinas, 121, 121f
• Gordin, Sidney, 195, 196f
• Graffiti, 321–322, 321f
• Graham, Robert, 121, 121f
• Great Pyramid of Giza, 17
• Green patinas
  • artificial, 108–113, 109f–111f
  • chemical compounds for, 115t
  • natural, 105–108, 106f, 265f, 266
• Grither, Earnst August, 62
• GTAW, see Gas tungsten arc welding
• Gunmetal, 18, 20f, 120

• H
• H80 temper, 50
• Hammering
  • for art applications, 28, 29f, 212f, 213f
  • deep, 125, 127f
  • ductility and, 211–213
  • surface finish with, 124–125, 126f, 127f
• Hands of Man (Zahner), 226f
• Hardening, 211–213, 217
• Hardness, 175, 321t
• Hard soldering, see Brazing
• Hardware finishes, 97–99
• Heartland Harvest (Kansas City Board of Trade), 29f, 119f, 152, 152f
• Heat conductivity, 4
• Hemminger brothers, 62
• Hendrix, Jan, 133, 134f, 224–225, 224f
• Herculoy, 67, 74
• Herzog & de Mueron, 85f, 96f, 129f, 141f, 246–247, 247f, 248f
• High‐copper alloy, 31
• Hildesheim Cathedral (Hildesheim, Germany), 251, 252, 253f
• Hoffman, Reilly, 222f
• Hold‐down clearance, 248, 249f
• Hollow extrusion, 188, 188f
• Horizontal continuous cast method, 177
• Hot extrusion, 186–188
• Hot patination, 115, 118–122, 123f
• Hot rolled temper designations, 37, 37t
• Humidity, 117, 146, 262, 263
• Hydroxide, 255t
• Hygienic environments, 22–23

• I
• IACS, see International Annealed Copper Standard
• INCRA, see International Copper Research Association
• Incralac®
  • application of, 146, 147f, 148
  • benzotriazole in, 151–152, 331
  • color differences accentuated by, 153f, 154
  • corrosion under, 300, 300f, 301
  • for fountains, 308
  • old lacquers vs., 307
  • over cold patinas, 118
  • preserving natural color with, 83–84, 87
  • protecting restoration with, 316
• Indoor environments, corrosion in, 279, 280
• Innovations Campus der Wolfsburg AG (Wolfsburg, Germany), 200–201, 200f
• Inorganic coatings, 296, 332–333
• In situ patination, 163–164, 163f
• Interference oxides, 142f, 143
• Intergranular corrosion, 261t, 278. See also Stress corrosion cracking
• Interlocking lap seam, 235f, 236
• International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS), 40
• International Copper Research Association (INCRA), 83, 146, 300
• International Standards Organization (ISO), 279, 279t, 345, 346
• Inverted Seam®, 85f
• Investment casting, see Lost‐wax casting method
• Iron, 7, 34
• Irving Convention Center (Las Colinas, Texas), 203, 203f
• ISO, see International Standards Organization

• J
• Jones, Ilza, 195f

• K
• Kansas City Life Insurance Company (Kansas City, Missouri), 70f
• Kerf, 226
• Keweenaw Mines, Michigan, 14, 15
• Kingdon, Rungwe, 79
• Kirkland, Larry, 53f, 227, 229f–231f, 230
• KME, 26f, 83, 83f, 135f, 178f, 200f

• L
• Labja, John, 101, 102f, 180f, 181
• Lacquers. See also Incralac®
  • benzotriazole in, 151–152
  • and corrosion products, 257
  • enhancing color differences with, 153
  • maintaining surfaces with, 171
  • old, removing, 307–311
  • preventing deicing salt corrosion with, 305
  • as protective coatings, 331–332
  • for unchanged surface appearance, 145–148, 145f
  • under‐film corrosion for, 298–299
• Laponite®, 334
• Laser ablation, 319–320, 320f
• Laser cutting, 220, 221f
  • process, 224–225, 224f, 225f
  • surface after, 131, 131f
• Laser etching, 132, 133f
• Laser welding, 240t
• Lead and copper alloys, 33, 227, 238–239
• Lead‐coated copper, 135
• Leaded brasses, 49–54
• Leaded Gunmetal (LG), 67, 205
• Leaded Naval Brass, 55–56, 80
• Leaded solders, 232, 232t
• Lead‐free solders, 232, 233t
• Lead sweat, 243t
• Leaf, copper and brass, 185, 186f
• Length, sheet, 181, 181t
• LG, see Leaded Gunmetal
• Libeskind, Daniel, 44f, 94f
• Linseed oil, 333
• Liquidus point, 73
• Liver of sulfur, see Potassium sulfide
• Los Angeles Cathedral (Los Angeles, California), 121, 121f
• Los Angeles Police Department Memorial to Fallen Officers (Los Angeles, California), 54f
• Lost‐wax casting method (investment casting), 26–27
  • other methods vs., 205, 206f, 208–209, 210t
  • process of, 241–242
• Low brass, 41t, 45–46, 187t, 228t
• Low‐zinc brasses, 274
• Luster, 6
• Luster buffing, 90

• M
• Machado Silvetti (firm), 97f
• Machining, 221f, 227–231, 229f
• Maillechort, 62. See also Nickel–silver alloys
• Maillot, RE, 62
• Maintenance of surface, 295–336
  • chemical cleanliness, 311–320
  • cleaning copper surfaces, 333–334
  • deteriorating patinas, 335–336
  • mechanical cleanliness, 320–326
  • over time, 167–171
  • physical cleanliness, 296–311
  • to preserve unchanged appearance, 148
  • protecting existing surfaces, 328–333
  • protecting new alloy surfaces, 296–328
  • removing copper stains from other substances, 334–335
  • repairing patinas, 326–328
• Malachite, 13t, 17, 20, 266t
• Manganese and copper alloys, 33
• Manganese–bronze alloys, 78
• Marquardt, Joel, 119f
• Mass, of architectural metals, 338
• Materials and Finishes (ANSI/BHMA), 98
• Matte copper, 20
• Mechanical cleanliness, 320–326, 321f, 323f
• Mechanical surface finishes, 81–91
  • blending of alloy colors/finishes, 84–86
  • with natural color, 82–84
  • polishing and buffing, 90–91
  • satin and mirror finishes, 86–89
• Melaconite, 20
• Melted copper alloy surfacing, 136–137, 136f
• Mesh, 201, 202f
• Mesh count, 201
• Miami International Airport (Miami, Florida), 288, 288f
• Michelangelo, 230
• Microcrystalline waxes, 330
• Midland Theatre (Kansas City, Missouri), 85f
• Mill forms, 21f, 176
• Milling, chemical, 131–132, 132f
• Mill printing, 303, 304f
• Mill surface, 79, 80–81
• Mineral salts, 331
• Mineral spirits, 306, 309, 311
• Mirror finish, 47f, 89
• Moisture, corrosion and, 323–324
• Mold, sand casting, 208, 208f
• Monel, 334, 335f
• Moore, Henry, 121–122, 122f
• Morenci mine (Arizona), 20
• Münster 07 sculpture exhibition information center (Münster, Germany), 83f
• Muntz, George Fredrick, 49
• Muntz Metal, see C28000 alloy
• Muntz's Patent Metal Company, 49
• Muse of the Missouri (Williams), 120f, 149, 150f, 307–311, 308f–310f
• Museum of the Bible (Washington, DC), 53f, 227, 229f–231f, 230

• N
• Nantokite, 13, 13t, 254, 254t, 266t
• National Museum of the American Indian (Washington, DC)
  • bar and rod forms at, 195, 195f, 196f
  • cold patination for, 115
  • patina colors, 103, 114, 114f
  • wire rope at, 197, 198f
• National Underground Railroad Freedom Center (Cincinnati, Ohio), 170f
• Native copper, 19
• Natural patinas
  • as corrosion, 264–267
  • green, 105–108, 106f, 265f, 266
• Naval Brass, see C46400 alloy
• Nickel
  • copper–nickel alloys, 34, 61–66, 218f, 219, 227, 274
  • yield strength and, 218f, 219
• Nickel plating, 133–135, 134f
• Nickel–silver alloys, 61–66
  • characteristics of, 77–78
  • machining, 227
  • natural color of, 82, 82f
  • welding, 240
  • yield strength of, 218f, 219
• Niello, 92, 92f, 107
• Nikolaj Contemporary Art Center (Copenhagen, Denmark), 106, 106f, 107

• 9/11 Memorial (Overland Park, Kansas), 132, 133f, 136, 136f, 300f

• Nitrates, 255t

• O
• O. M. Architekten BDA, 200–201, 200f
• Ohio Holocaust and Liberators Memorial (Columbus, Ohio), 44f, 93–94, 94f
• Ohio Supreme Court Building (Columbus, Ohio), 191, 192f
• Oils, as protective coatings, 333
• Oil canning, 155, 156
• Oil‐rubbed bronze, 97, 98, 149
• Ontonagon Boulder, 15, 16f
• Orange patinas, 115t
• Orange peel texture, 246
• Organic coatings, 296, 331–332. See also Lacquers

• Ötzi, 173

• Outdoor environments, corrosion in, 280–286
• Oxidation. See also Patinas
  • color from, 91–123
  • in galvanic corrosion, 269–270
  • initial, 161–162, 263–264
  • limiting, 144
  • mill surface, 80, 81f
  • statuary finishes, 93–97
  • under‐film, 293–294, 294f, 331–332
• Oxidation–reduction reaction, 269–270
• Oxides
  • as corrosion products, 255t, 256–257, 256f–258f, 289–290
  • dissolving, 313–318
  • and environmental exposure, 279, 280
  • interference, 142f, 143
  • patina colors associated with, 146, 266t
  • removal of, 116–117
  • uniform corrosion by, 263–264, 264t
• Oxide inhibitors, 144–145, 145f, 151–152, 151f, 332. See also Benzotriazole (BTA)
• Oxy‐fuel welding, 239, 240t
• Oxygen, galvanic corrosion and, 271

• P
• Packaging, 322, 323f
• Paktong, 62
• Paraffin waxes, 330
• PARALOID B‐44^TM, 146, 151
• Paris Metal, 62. See also Nickel–silver alloys
• Pashupatinath Temple (Kathmandu, Nepal), 17
• Patinas, 79
  • antiqued, 115t
  • artificial, 108–113, 289–291
  • black, 92, 92f, 101–103, 102f, 103f, 115t, 121
  • blue green, 115t
  • for bronze sculptures, 149, 150f
  • brown, 115t, 122, 123f
  • changes in appearance of, 154–155
  • coated metal with, 291–293
  • colors of, 8–9, 10f, 114–115, 257, 266t, 338
  • deteriorating, 335–336
  • environmental exposure and, 142–143, 289–291
  • on etched surfaces, 130
  • formation of, 111, 113f
  • gold, 121, 121f
  • green, 105–113, 106f, 109f–111f, 115t, 265f, 266
  • mechanical cleaning of surfaces with, 322
  • natural, 105–108, 106f, 264–267, 265f
  • orange, 115t
  • and oxides, 146
  • red, 104–105, 104f, 105f, 115t
  • removing stains from, 284
  • repairing, 326–328
  • yellow, 115t
• Patination, 91. See also Prepatination
  • cold, 115, 117–118, 118f, 119f
  • colors achieved with, 114–115, 115t
  • and corrosion, 252–254
  • as corrosion, 264–267
  • hot, 115, 118–122, 123f
  • preparing surface for, 116–117
  • in situ, 163–164, 163f
• PAW, see Plasma arc welding
• Pepi I of Egypt, 175
• Perforations, 201–204
  • custom, 246–250, 247f, 248f
  • with Dirty Penny finish, 101, 101f
• Periodic table of elements, 2f
• Permanent mold casting, 205, 206f, 209, 210t
• Perseus with the Head of Medusa (Cellini), 11, 11f
• Phosphates, 255t
• Phosphor–bronze alloys, 56–57, 240, 244, 245
• Phosphorus and copper alloys, 34
• Physical cleanliness, 296–311
  • bird waste removal, 301–303
  • deicing salt removal, 303–305
  • fingerprint removal, 298, 299f
  • old lacquer removal, 307–311
  • old wax removal, 306–307
  • procedure, 309, 311, 311t
  • tarnish removal, 297–298
  • under‐film corrosion, removal of, 298–301
• Pickling, 319
• Piercing, 226, 248, 250
• Pipes, 193–194
• Pitted surface, 243t
• Pitting corrosion, 261t, 274. See also Bronze disease
• Plasma arc welding (PAW), 240t
• Plasma cutting, 220, 221f, 226, 226f
• Plastic deformation, 124, 245, 245f, 246t
• Plastic–strain ratio, 244, 245
• Plates, 177, 179–181
• Plating, 132, 134f, 135
• Pliny the Elder, 25
• Plug‐type dealloying, 275
• Polished surfaces, 49f, 87–91, 88f
• Pollen, Jason, 225, 225f
• Porosity, 324–326
• Porphyry deposits, 12
• Potassium sulfide, 96, 101, 117, 121, 291
• Prada store (Tokyo, Japan), 238f, 323f
• Predock, Antoine, 99n1, 102f, 103
• Prepatination, 91, 291f
  • art and architecture applications, 108–113, 109f–113f
  • corrosion and, 259, 259f, 289–291
  • in situ patination vs., 164–166, 165f
  • for unchanged surface finish, 143
• Price Tower (Bartlesville, Oklahoma), 117, 119f, 163
• Profile, extrusion, 188–193, 188f–189f
• Protection of surface
  • new alloy surfaces, 296–328
  • with protective plastic films, 81–82
• Protective coatings, 138
  • and corrosion, 262, 291–293
  • for new copper alloy surface, 296
  • to preserve unchanged appearance, 144
  • removing, to remove stains, 324–325, 325f
  • types of, 328–333
• Pseudomalachite, 13t
• Pyramid of Khufu of Giza, 17

• R
• RA copper foil, see Rolled annealed copper foil
• Rain screen panels, 182
• Ramses III, 173–174
• Ratio of areas, 271–274
• Recycleability, 339
• Red brasses, 41t, 43, 45, 69–70
  • extrudability, 187t
  • forms of, 194
  • machineability, 228t
  • welding of, 238
• Red patinas, 104–105, 104f, 105f, 115t
• Reduction, 269–270
• Reflectivity, 6–7, 7f, 338
• Religious totemic items, 18, 19f
• Repoussé, 28, 28f, 124, 125f, 211, 212
• Revere Copper Products, 67
• RMJM & Hillier, 203, 203f
• Robert Hoag Rawlings Public Library (Pueblo, Colorado), 101, 102f
• Rods, 194–196, 196f
• Rolled annealed (RA) copper foil, 184, 185
• Roll embossing, 247, 248, 249f
• Roller leveling, 158
• Rolling Mill, 177, 178f
• Rome, ancient, 16, 16f, 19, 20, 92, 107
• Roofing
  • chlorides on, 257, 259f
  • corrosion/durability of, 251–253, 252f, 253f
  • and fretting corrosion, 277–278
  • soldered joints in, 233f
  • uncoated surfaces, 287–289, 287f
• Roofing copper, 182–183, 183f
• Rope, wire, 196–198
• Rosasite, 266t
• Rouges, 89–91, 90t

• S
• Sacrificial metal, 269, 269f
• Safety, 24, 115
• Sand casting, 205–208, 206f–208f, 210t, 241, 242f
• Sand wash, 243t
• San Francisco Bay area (California), 23–24
• Satin finish, 86–90
• Saw cutting, 221–222, 221f
• Scabs, 243t
• Scotch‐Brite pads, 87, 88t
• Scratch removal, 321–322, 321f
• Sealants, 166–167
• Seawater, electrical potential in, 267–268, 267t
• Selective electropolishing, 318
• Semihollow extrusion, 188, 189f
• Shearing, 220–221, 221t
• Sheets, 177, 181–182, 201–204, 235f
• Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), 239, 240, 240t
• Shinto shrine (Japan), 253f
• Shrinkage, with casting, 205, 206
• Silanes, 333
• Silicon and copper alloys, 33
• Silicon–bronze alloys, 60–61, 73–76
  • for casting, 205
  • corrosion resistance of, 274
  • spinning of, 244, 245
  • welding of, 167, 239–240, 239f
• Siloxanes, 333
• Silver, 7f, 34. See also Nickel–silver alloys
• Silver plating, 133–135, 134f
• Simple lap seam, 235–236, 235f
• Six and Seven Flowers (Surls), 302, 303f
• SMAW, see Shielded metal arc welding
• Smelting, 20–21
• Sodium benzotriazole, 299–301. See also Benzotriazole (BTA)
• Sodium hydroxide, 103
• Soldering, 231–236, 232t, 233f, 233t, 235f, 283
• Sol‐gel, 307
• Solid extrusion, 188, 189f
• Solid inclusions, 243t
• Solidus point, 73
• Spertinite, 266t
• Spinning, 244–245, 244f
• Spot price, of copper, 29–30, 30f
• Spot welding, 240t
• Stains, from sealants, 166–167, 166f
• Stainless steel
  • active, 272–273, 272f
  • comparative attributes, 337–339
  • and galvanic corrosion, 269, 269f, 272
  • reflectivity of, 7, 7f
• Stain removal, 334–335
  • of copper stains, 334–335
  • as maintenance issue, 324–325, 325f
  • removing old lacquer for, 308–309, 310f
  • from surfaces with patinas, 284
• Standard expanded metal, 199, 200
• Statuary bronze, 93–97
• Statuary finishes, 93–97, 99
  • chemical cleaning before, 316, 317f
  • enhancement of color differences by, 153
  • protecting, 138
  • for unchanged surface finish, 143, 144
  • welding and, 237, 238
• Statue of Liberty (New York, New York), 9, 10f, 254, 254f
• Steel, 281, 282f, 324, 324f, 325f
• Steven Holl Architects, 105f
• Stiffeners, 159–160
• Stress corrosion cracking, 261t, 276–277
• Stress–strain curve, 211, 212f
• Stretcher leveling, 158
• Stretch forming, 246
• Sulfates, 255t, 266t
• Sulfides, 255t, 264–267, 285, 290
• Sulfuric acid, 20–21
• Sumerians, 231
• Surface finishes, 79–138
  • alloy surface categories, 286–293
  • ANSI and US codes for, 341–343
  • for bars and rods, 195
  • characteristics, 79–80
  • color from oxidation and chemical reactions, 91–123
  • copper and glass, 137–138
  • and corrosion products, 257
  • durability of, 139–143
  • for extrusions, 191, 193
  • mechanical finishes, 81–91
  • melted copper alloy surfacing, 136–137
  • mill surfaces, 80–81
  • protecting, 138, 296–333
  • textures, 123–135
  • tin‐coated copper, 135
• Surface preparation, 116–117, 144–145
• Surls, James, 302, 303f
• Sustainability, 22–23
• Swansea, Wales, 18, 33
• Sweden, 140

• T
• Tailing ponds, 22
• Tao Te Ching, 211
• Tarnish
  • and antimicrobial property, 25
  • color of, 6
  • and environmental exposure, 279, 281
  • on newly exposed surfaces, 80, 154, 169
  • physical cleaning to remove, 297–298, 297f
  • preventing, 81–83
  • as uniform corrosion, 260, 260f, 263–264
• Tarshish mines, Anatolia, 174–175
• TECU Gold, 83, 83f
• TECU Patina Mesh, 200f
• Temperature
  • for cold patination, 117
  • dimensional changes due to, 155–158, 156f
  • and galvanic corrosion, 271
  • of pour, 206
• Tempers, 36–37, 36t, 37t
  • of bars and rods, 195
  • of cast alloys, 67t
  • and elongation percentage, 245, 246t
• Tenorite, 13t, 266t
• Textured surfaces, 123–135
  • appearance of, 160
  • CNC texturing, 127, 129f, 130
  • embossing, 125–126, 128f
  • etching and engraving, 130–132, 130f–133f
  • hammering, 124–125, 126f, 127f
  • plastic deformation, 124
  • plating, 132, 134f, 135
  • repoussé and chasing, 124, 125f
• Thermal contraction, 158
• Thermal expansion, 157–158
• Thickness, 159, 159f, 179, 185t
• Thoreau, Henry David, 295
• Throwing in the Towel (Wickerson), 209f
• Time, appearance variables over, 167–171
• Tin, 33, 276
• Tin brasses, 54–56
• Tin–bronze alloys, 76, 278
• Tin‐coated copper, 135, 135f
• Tin sweat, 243t
• Titanium, 337–339
• Todaiji Temple (Japan), 17, 18f
• Tombasil, 75
• Tonal differences, 153–154, 154f, 165–166
• Town Hall (Munich, Germany), 27, 27f
• Toxicity, 23–24
• Trewax®, 316
• Trisodium phosphate, 116
• True brasses, 41–49, 41t
• Tubes, 193–194
• Two Piece Mirror Knife Edge (Moore), 121–122, 122f

• U
• Unchanged appearance, preserving, 143–154
  • with benzotriazole, 151–152
  • coatings for, 145–150
  • and color differences, 153–154
  • surface preparation for, 144–145
• Uncoated surfaces, 167–171, 287–289
• Under‐film corrosion, 296, 298–301
• Under‐film oxidation, 293–294, 294f, 331–332
• Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys (UNS), 34, 35t, 68t, 345, 346
• Uniform, 261t, 263–264
• United States
  • corrosion tests, 141f
  • hardware finish codes, 341–343
• US Environmental Protection Agency, 23, 25
• University of Southampton, 25
• University of Toronto, 165f
• UNS, see Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys

• V
• Valence electrons, 1, 4, 5f
• V‐cutting, 215–220, 216f
• Venus, xii
• Vertical direct‐chill cast method, 177
• Vertical surfaces, 181, 182, 261, 287–289, 287f

• W
• Walker Art Building (Brunswick, Maine), 97f, 152, 152f
• Walnut shell blasting, 318, 319
• Water, exposure to, 23–24, 140, 141f
• Waterjet cutting, 222–224
  • applications, 222f, 223f
  • engraving with, 131, 131f, 132, 133f
  • other cutting methods vs., 221f
• Waxes
  • applying, 328–329
  • deterioration of, 257
  • maintaining surfaces with, 170–171
  • old wax removal, 304f, 306–307, 307f
  • over Incralac, 146–148, 151–152
  • preventing corrosion with, 305
  • as protective coating, 138, 146–148, 149f
  • types of, 329–331
• Weak structure, as casting issue, 243t
• Weaponry, 14, 213, 241
• Weathering steel, 337–339
• Weight, sheet and plate, 180t
• Weight thickness, 183, 184t
• Welding, 237f–239f
  • of cast bronze sculptures, 167
  • fusion stud, 159, 160, 240, 240t
  • processes used, 236–240, 240t
• WHO, see World Health Organization
• Wickerson, Michael, 209f
• Width
  • plate, 179, 180t
  • sheet, 181, 181t
• Williams, Wheeler, 120f, 149, 150f, 307–311, 308f–310f
• Wire, 196–198, 197t, 198f, 198t, 201
• Wire rope, 39f, 196–198
• World Health Organization (WHO), 24
• Wormy surface, 243t
• Wright, Frank Lloyd, 117, 119f, 163
• Wrought alloys, 38–66
  • aluminum–bronze alloys, 58–60
  • commercially pure copper, 38–40
  • copper–nickel alloys, 61–66
  • leaded brasses, 49–54
  • phosphor–bronze alloys, 56–57
  • silicon–bronze alloys, 60–61
  • tin brasses, 54–56
  • true brasses, 41–49
  • UNS designation, 34, 35t
• Wrought forms, 176–204
  • bar and rod, 194–196
  • extrusions, 185–193
  • flat rolled products, 177–185
  • maintaining, 323
  • mesh and expanded metal, 199–201, 199f, 200f, 202f
  • perforated and embossed, 201–204
  • pipe and tube, 193–194
  • wire and wire rope, 39f, 196–198, 197t, 198f, 198t
• Wu, Kwan, 307f

• X
• X‐ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis, 326, 327, 328f

• Y
• Yellow brasses, 8, 41t, 48, 71–72, 194, 278
• Yellow patinas, 115t
• Yemma, John, 173
• Yield strength, 217–219, 218f
• Young, Larry, 121, 121f
• Young, Ron, 139

• Z
• Zahner, L. William, 226f
• Zinc, 337–339
• Zinc and copper alloys, 33. See also specific alloys
  • colors of, 8
  • dealloying of, 275–276, 276f, 277f, 295
  • welding of, 236
  • yield strength and, 217–219, 218f