From the reverent to the far out and fictional, here are some words that will explain how certain religious terms and mythological mysteries evolved into English.

Abbot

An abbot is the head of an abbey, a religious monastery or convent. The word traces its roots to the Aramaic term abba, meaning “father.” Aramaic is an ancient Middle Eastern language and was spoken by Jesus, the founder of Christianity.

Altar

Many temples and churches have an altar—a raised platform where sacrifices, offerings, or ceremonies are performed during religious services. “Altar” is a derivative of the Latin adjective altus, meaning “high.”

On September 15, 1853, Antoinette Brown became the first American woman to be ordained a minister. Her church was the First Congregational Church in South Butler, New York.

Amen

This is a Hebrew word meaning “truth” or “certainty.” Originally used in the Bible at the beginning of a statement, it referred to a truth stated by another person. In Jewish tradition, however, “amen” was never used at the beginning of a thought, but rather at the end of prayers. In the Christian gospels, a double or triple amen was used on several occasions as a preface to stern sayings of Jesus. Christians expanded the custom, gradually closing every prayer with “amen,” as a way of saying “thus it is” or “so be it” or “may it be so.”

Ankh

The Egyptian word ankh refers to the hieroglyph the ancient Egyptians used to symbolize life on earth and in the afterlife. In form, the ankh resembles the letter “t” with a loop at the top. In temple and tomb paintings, Egyptian gods are often represented holding an ankh. Through the centuries, various organizations and groups have incorporated it into their own symbols. The Coptic Christian Church uses the ankh as a cross.

Apostle

“Apostle” comes from the Greek noun apostolos, meaning a “person sent forth.” If we trace the roots of apostolos, we find it derives from the Greek verb apostellein, which is a combination of apo, meaning “from,” and stellein, meaning “to send.”

Atlas

According to Greek mythology, Zeus, the king of gods and men, waged war against his father, Kronos, for control of the kingdom. The battles were long and furious. Finally, Zeus and his allies triumphed. To prevent another such war, Zeus punished his enemies. Some he confined in the underworld. Others, he assigned very difficult tasks. The gigantic Atlas, for example, was sentenced to hold the world forever on his shoulders. In the 16th century, the Flemish geographer Mercator used an illustration of Atlas holding up the world in his book of maps. This book soon came to be called an atlas. In time, Atlas’s name was used to label any book that illustrated the world through maps.

Baptize

The ancient Greeks used their verb baptein, meaning “to dip in a dye solution,” to form another verb baptizein, meaning “to immerse.” As Christianity spread around the Mediterranean world, Latin altered baptizein to baptizare and used it to refer to the religious ceremony where water symbolizes the cleansing or purifying of an individual and his or her entry into the Christian faith.

Christianity is the world’s largest religion, with more than two billion members. Its branches include Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant churches.

Belfry

During the Middle Ages, when rulers preferred to settle their differences on the battlefield, “berfrey” was an everyday word in England. At first, it referred to a moveable siege tower, then later to a fixed watchtower. One of the duties of the tower’s watchman was to sound the alarm when an enemy attacked. To make sure all would hear the watchman’s call, it became the practice to hang a bell in the tower. The close association of bell and tower resulted in a change of pronunciation from “berfrey” to “belfry.” In time, “belfry” came to denote only a bell tower, especially the type attached to churches.

The Middle Ages was a period in European history that lasted almost 1,000 years. It began with the decline of the Roman Empire in a.d. 476 and ended with the growth of the Renaissance. See also Renaissance.

Bible

The ancient Greeks used the word biblia to refer to a collection of books. The word was actually a derivative of their word biblos, which meant “book.” Biblos also meant “papyrus,” a plant whose stem was used to make an early form of paper. Widely used throughout the ancient Greek world, the paper quickly came to be known as “papyrus.” At the time, the Phoenician city of Byblos (in present-day Lebanon) imported and exported great quantities of papyrus. Thus, the Greeks began to use the name biblos as their word for “book”—the product of using many sheets of papyrus. In the second century b.c., Greek-speaking Jews used biblos to refer to their sacred writings. In the third and fourth centuries a.d., scholars of the Eastern Orthodox Church referred to their sacred writings as the Biblos—the “book of books.” In time, Biblos became “Bible.”

Caliph

A derivative of the Arabic term khalifa, meaning “successor,” “caliph” is the title given to the successors of Muhammad, the prophet of Islam. These successors are considered the religious heads of Islam. From 1517 to 1924, the Ottoman rulers claimed the title of caliph.

Muhammad was born in Mecca in the year a.d. 570 and was orphaned before he was eight years old. Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s closest friend and strongest supporter, succeeded him in 632.

Cemetery

All humans die. The most common final resting place throughout the world is burial in a cemetery. The root of the term is the Greek koimeteron, meaning “a sleeping place.”

Christian

A Christian is a follower of Jesus, whose teachings form the basis of the Christian religion. Scholars believe he was born about 4 b.c. in Bethlehem, in Judea (present-day Israel), and died in the year 30. The area where Jesus lived, preached, and died is often referred to as the Holy Land. “Christian” comes from the Greek christos, meaning “the anointed.”

The New Testament, one of two principal divisions of the Christian Bible, consists of 27 books. The oldest known surviving fragments date to about the years a.d. 120–130.

Cloister

A cloister is a place where a person may lead a life removed from the world, especially a monastery or convent. The word’s history can be traced back to the French clostre, to the Medieval Latin claustrum (meaning “enclosed place”), and to the Latin claudere (meaning “to close”).

Congregation

“Congregation” is derived from the Latin prefix con, meaning “with,” and the verb gregare, meaning “to gather” or “to collect in a flock.” Gregare traces its roots to the Latin noun grex, meaning “a herd” or “a flock.” Today it commonly means a group of people gathered for religious worship.

Convert

When a person decides to turn from one way of thinking to another, he or she is called a convert. Usually, this refers to someone who has changed religious affiliation. The history of “convert” shows that it was coined from two Latin terms— the preposition cum, meaning “with,” and the verb vertere, meaning “to turn.”

Crusade

In the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries, thousands of Christians marched east from western Europe. Their official goal was to retake Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the Muslims. To let everyone know that they believed in Jesus, who had died on the cross, they wore a red cross on their tunics and shouted as they marched into battle, “Take the cross!” In Latin, the term crux (the plural is cruces) meant “cross.” Medieval Latin used crux to form the verb cruciare, meaning “to take the cross.” Gradually, the words “Crusades” and “Crusaders” evolved to represent the Christian military expeditions and the individuals who participated in those marches.

When designing a coat of arms, Crusaders and knights used objects to symbolize qualities they admired or claimed to possess. For example, a castle expressed strength; a lion, pride; an eagle, swiftness; and a deer, grace and speed.

Days of the Week

The ancient Greeks and Romans named the days of the week after the sun, the moon, and the planets, which they had already named for their gods. The Germanic and Norse peoples adopted this practice and simply replaced the Roman gods’ names with those of similar deities. Six of the seven names for the days of the week trace their roots to Old Norse, an ancient Scandinavian language. In Old Norse, Sunday is sunnudagr, which means “sun’s day.” Monday is manadagr, “moon’s day.” Tuesday, tyrsdagr, comes from the name of the god Tyr, who is related to Tiw, the Anglo-Germanic god of war. Wednesday, othinsdagr, is connected to Woden, the chief Germanic god who is associated with Odin. Thursday, thorsdagr, is named for Thor, the god of thunder. Friday, frjadagr, pays homage to Frigga, Odin’s wife. The exception is Saturday, named for the Roman god Saturn. The Old Norse name is laugardagr, “washing day.”

The sources for Norse mythology are two books from Iceland that were compiled in the 13th century: the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda. The first consists of poems about the myths and legends. The second is a more complete account of the myths, compiled by Icelandic statesman Snorri Sturluson.

Fate

According to Greek mythology, three goddesses—Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos—were believed to spin, measure, and cut the thread of life for each individual. In Latin, the idea of fate is usually found expressed by the term fata, the plural form of fatum, meaning “spoken.” The Romans also used fatum as a noun meaning “a prophetic declaration” or “message from the gods.” A frequently used Latin expression was si fata sinant (“if the fates allow”). Thus, “fate” traces its roots to the noun fatum. In art, Clotho is usually represented with a spindle; Lachesis, with a scroll or a globe; and Atropos, with a pair of scales or scissors.

Genie

“Genie” is the English transliteration of the Arabic word jinni, meaning “a demon.” In Muslim folklore, a jinni is represented as a supernatural spirit that can take a human form and even influence human affairs. Perhaps the most familiar genie is the one that rushes forth from inside a special lamp, ready and eager to fulfill the owner’s request.

To “transliterate” is to represent a word or phrase using the letters of another alphabet. To “translate” a word or phrase is to express the words in another language or in simpler terms.

Guru

In Hinduism, a guru, or spiritual leader, is a very important and revered individual. Because the Hindu religion is generally learned from a teacher rather than from books, the teacher becomes the focal point. A guru can help a person find the true nature within himself or herself. Today, people throughout the world use “guru” to refer to an intellectual or religious leader or advisor. Its root is the Sanskrit word guruh, meaning “venerable” or “heavy.”

There are more than 750 million Hindus around the world. Hindus can worship anywhere. Hindu temples are not built as places for groups to worship, but rather as homes for Hindu deities.

Halcyon days

In Greek and Roman mythology, a king named Ceyx once ruled Thessaly, an area to the far north of the Greek peninsula. One day, he decided to brave the storms of winter to go to consult the famous oracle of the sun god, Apollo, at Delphi. Ceyx sought divine help, for his country had been beset by many evils for some time. His wife, Alcyone, begged him to wait until spring and better seas, but his sense of duty made him ignore her pleas. As the days passed and Ceyx did not return, Alcyone grew fearful. Hearing her prayers, the gods granted that Ceyx’s shipwrecked body be carried home by the waves. Dreaming that her husband was dead, Alcyone ran from the palace and prepared to throw herself into the sea. Just then, she saw his body moving toward the shore. As she jumped to meet it, she felt herself change into a bird and saw that Ceyx’s body was changing as well. The Greeks then adapted Alcyone’s name to halcyon and the birds the couple became were thereafter known as halcyon birds (modern-day kingfishers). Alcyone’s father, Aeolus, also wanted to honor his daughter. As the powerful god of the winds, he decreed that during the seven days before and after the winter solstice, no storms would stir the waters of the seas. This calm period would allow the halcyon birds to mate and bear their young. In time, the phrase “halcyon days” came to signify any calm and peaceful period.

Heretic

By definition, a heretic is a person, usually a church member, who opposes the beliefs and teachings of a particular religion. The English form of the word traces it roots to the Greek noun haeresis, meaning “a taking for oneself” or “a choice.” Haeresis, in turn, is a derivative of the Greek verb hairein, meaning “to take” or “to choose.” Hence, a heretic is one who chooses to take his or her own path. Heresy is the denial or deviation from orthodox religious beliefs.

Icon

Derived from the Greek word eikon, meaning “image,” “icon” refers to a representation or image of a person, usually in the form of a portrait. The term is frequently used in the Eastern Orthodox Church, where it refers to a painting, mosaic, or bas-relief (never a statue) of Jesus, his mother, Mary, or a saint. An iconoclast is a person who opposes the use of images to represent religious figures. Iconoclasts (from the Greek word klastes, meaning “one who breaks”) often broke such images. They would substitute geometric patterns, plant and wildlife scenes, or Christian symbols such as a cross instead. Today, the word “icon” also refers to a picture logo on a computer screen. Click on the icon and a program opens.

“Iconoclasts” was a name originally given to followers of Leo III, emperor of the eastern Roman Empire, who forbade the worship of icons in the year 728. His decree led to the Iconoclastic Controversy.

Immortal

This word traces its roots to the Latin prefix im (“not”) and the Latin noun mors (“death”), or mortis (“of death”). “Immortal” is used to refer to someone who will never die. It also means “lasting a long time” or “having lasting fame.”

Islam

Islam is the name of the religion practiced by the followers of Muhammad, who are called Muslims. “Islam” is actually the Arabic noun form of the verb aslama, meaning “to surrender.” Muslim people believe an individual is at peace only after he or she has surrendered to Allah, the Muslim name for God.

Islamic history and its calendar date from July 16, 622, the date of the hegira—when Muhammad, the founder of Islam, fled from Mecca to Medina.

Janus-faced

In Roman mythology, Janus was the god of beginnings and endings and of doorways. In ancient Rome, there was a temple dedicated to Janus. The doors were kept open in time of war to symbolize the help he gave. They were closed in peacetime. In art, Janus was always pictured with two heads, one facing forward to the future and the other facing backward to the past. “January” traces its roots to the name of this god, since January is the month that looks forward to the new year, but with memories of what has passed. In English, the expression “Janus-faced” has come to mean something deceitful and denotes facts that have a double meaning.

Jubilee

A tradition among the ancient Jews (and still practiced by some Jews today) was the year-long celebration held every 50 years. This jubilee year came after seven sets of seven-year periods, followed by a sabbatical year (from the Hebrew word shabbath, meaning “to rest”). By custom, all those bound to a master and toiling his lands were set free, all mortgaged lands were returned to their rightful owners, and the land was left unplanted in the Jubilee. A blow on a ram’s horn used as a trumpet signaled the start of the sabbatical year. In Hebrew, the word yabel means “ram.” “Jubilee” came into English as the term for an anniversary celebration, in particular for the 25th or 50th. See also sabbatical.

“Hebrew” refers to the language used in ancient Israel and in the Old Testament. It was replaced by Aramaic beginning in the third century b.c., but continued to be used as a religious and literary language. Hebrew was revived as a spoken language in the 1800s and is the written and spoken language of present-day Israel.

Juggernaut

The Sanskrit term jagannatha, meaning “world protector,” refers to Krishna, an incarnation of the god Vishnu, and to the images made of Krishna. Every year, in the town of Puri in eastern India, followers of Krishna drag a huge wheeled cart supporting a jagannatha through the streets. For centuries, many worshipers believed that whoever met death beneath the cart’s wheels would join the god in his or her next life. On occasion, worshipers threw themselves beneath the wheels. The British, who occupied India from the 1700s through 1947, witnessed this ritual. They borrowed the term to form “juggernaut,” which refers to a huge, overpowering, and destructive force or to something that requires blind devotion.

The god Vishnu is one of the Trimurti (Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva), considered the three principal divine forces of Hinduism. Vishnu is the preserver. He enters the world when evil threatens to overpower good.

Libation

In ancient Greek, the verb leibein means “to pour.” The Romans adapted the form to libare and used it to mean “to taste” or “to pour.” English then adapted the Latin form to “libation,” meaning a ritual that involves pouring wine or oil as a sacrifice to a god. Today it also refers to an alcoholic beverage.

Magic

Persia was the ancient name for much of the area known as Iran today. In the Persian language, magus meant “priest,” “fire worshiper,” or “magician.” The ancient Greeks adapted the term to magos, to represent a person skilled in the art of sorcery or magic, and then coined magikos, meaning “magical.”

Mass

In the early days of the Catholic Church, the priest would dismiss those attending the service that included Holy Communion with the Latin phrase, Ite, missa est, meaning “Go, the meeting is sent or dismissed.” In time, people began referring to the church service using only the word missa (“sent” or “dismissed”). Centuries later, missa entered Old English as masse, the root of “mass.” Today, priests end the church service with the phrase “the mass is ended.”

Missionary

This term traces its roots to the Latin verb mittere, meaning “to send,” and its participle missus, meaning “having been sent.” Throughout history, a missionary has been a religious individual sent to help the people in a foreign land and to convert them to his or her religion.

Christian missionary societies have existed since the era of European expansion in the early 16th century. Scottish missionary and African explorer David Livingstone was employed in Africa by the London Missionary Society. Although he made few converts, he actively opposed the slave trade.

Monastery

This noun and the name given to men living in a monastery—monks—trace their roots to the same Greek verb, monazein, meaning “to live alone.” Monazein, in turn, comes from another Greek term, monos, meaning “alone.” Usually, each monk has a very simple and plain cell-like room where he sleeps and prays alone within the walls of the monastery.

The Italian monk Benedict founded the Benedictine monastery at Monte Cassino, Italy, in the year 529.

Monseigneur

In French, monseigneur is used as a title of respect when addressing a ranking member of the court. This term, which is actually a compound of two French words, mon (“my”) and seigneur (“lord”), traces its roots to the Latin adjectives meus (“my”) and senior (“older”). In English, the title “monseigneur” (or “monsignor”) is a religious title for a member of the Catholic clergy ranking above a priest but below an archbishop.

Monster

“Monster” is derived from the Latin noun monstrum, used to signify an important supernatural event. Monstrum was itself a derivative of the Latin participle monitum, meaning “having been warned,” since the Romans believed that the gods created monsters to punish humans for their wrongdoings.

Mummy

The ancient Egyptians believed the spirits within a person lived on after death. Because these spirits had to be able to recognize the body, it was important to preserve the body and keep it from decaying. To do this, the Egyptians developed the process of mummification. “Mummy” is derived from the Arabic word mumiya, meaning “bitumen,” a mineral pitch first believed to be the cause of the black pitch-like appearance of mummified bodies. Studies have shown, however, that bitumen was used in the embalming process only in late Egyptian history. Instead, the black look of the skin is believed to result from the oxidized resin (natural organic matter) used to coat the embalmed body and its wrappings. Nevertheless, “mummy” has continued to be used to refer to dead bodies that have been preserved by drying.

Muslim

This term means “one who submits to God” and refers to anyone who accepts and follows the teachings of Islam. The prophet Muhammad founded Islam. He was born around the year 570 in Mecca, in Arabia (present-day Saudia Arabia). His teachings, including his chief precept that Muslims should live in complete submission to God’s will, are written in the Qur’an. The holy city of Islam is Mecca. See also Islam.

Myth

“Myth” has changed only slightly from its Greek form, mythos, which means a “story” or “legend.” Originally, a myth was based on some historical event and its author was unknown. Gradually, the definition changed to denote a tale about gods and goddesses. Today, its meaning is even broader and refers to any tale involving supernatural and/or exceptional happenings.

Greeks had no central collection of sacred texts, such as the Bible or the Qur’an. For them, this role was filled by an extensive collection of myths and stories about gods, heroes, and monsters.

Nemesis

The ancient Greeks believed in fate and worshiped a goddess who avenged extraordinary misdeeds and punished those who willfully and unjustly hurt others. In time, her name, “Nemesis,” came to represent any person or act that avenges a grievous wrongdoing. According to Greek mythology, Nemesis was able to take many forms. Once, she changed herself into a fish to avoid Zeus. Today, “nemesis” describes a source of downfall or ruin or an unbeatable enemy.

Nirvana

The literal translation of this Sanskrit word is “the act of putting out or extinguishing.” Buddhists use nirvana to denote the state of existence that occurs when an individual attains complete peace by ending all worldly desires and personal feelings. In recent centuries, the English language adopted the term to represent a goal that appears unattainable. English also uses “nirvana” to represent a state of mind or place where individuals have no cares and are completely happy.

To Hindus, nirvana symbolizes the extinction of the flame of life through reunion with Brahma. Buddhists see nirvana as enlightenment, a state of perpetual blessedness achieved through the extinction of all desires and passions. To Jains, nirvana is a state of eternal, blissful repose.

Noon

This term traces its origins directly to the Latin adjective nona, which was used to refer to the ninth hour of the day. Since the Romans set daytime hours as those from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m., the ninth hour was actually 3 p.m. As the influence of the early Christian church spread across the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea, it adopted Latin as its language, the most widely spoken tongue at the time. To name the order of the prayers read by priests around 3 p.m., the church leaders chose the term nones, a variation of the Latin nona (hora), meaning “ninth hour.” When the church leaders moved the time for the special prayers back to 12 p.m., they did not change the term nones because it was too closely associated with the prayers. In time, nones began to signify both the prayers and the time of day. Later, its form became “noon.”

Omen

An omen is an occurrence that foreshadows some future event. The adjective “ominous” has a more sinister meaning, as it usually refers to the foreshadowing of something evil. “Omen” came into English without a change in spelling or meaning from Latin.

Oracle

In Greek and Roman times, certain areas were sacred to particular gods. Some sites were believed to be inhabited by the patron god or goddess. The ancients often traveled to these sites to ask the deity’s advice. Trained priests and priestesses lived at or near the sites, and one of their religious duties was to interpret the wishes of the deity to anyone who came seeking advice. The Romans used the noun oraculum to refer to both the site and the methods that the god or goddess used to make known his or her wishes. English adapted oraculum to “oracle” and kept the same meaning.

The famous oracle at Delphi in central Greece was sacred to Apollo, the sun god. The “words” of the god were uttered by a priestess known as the Pythia.

Pagan

The Romans used the adjective paganus to refer to someone who lived in the village, such as a rustic or a peasant. They also used it to refer to non-military people, or civilians. The early Christians considered themselves “soldiers” of Christ, so they referred to anyone who was not a Christian as a paganus. Today, pagan still refers to non-believers, but more specifically to followers of ancient gods and goddesses that no longer exist.

Pali

Pali was the language used by Theravada Buddhists about 2,000 years ago. The Theravadins used it for their sacred writings and commentaries. “Pali” is a Sanskrit term meaning “row,” “line,” or “sacred writing.” The language is no longer spoken. Theravada is one of two major schools of religious thought in Buddhism. It stresses that sorrow and suffering can be avoided only by ignoring desire. The other school is Mayayana, which stresses idealism, disinterested love, and relief of suffering of others.

Paradise

“Paradise” traces its roots to the Greek noun paradeisos, meaning “a park” or “a pleasure garden.” To form this word, the Greeks borrowed an old Persian word pairidaeza, which represented the final resting place of those faithful to their religious beliefs.

Pastor

The word “pastor” is derived from the Latin verb pascere, meaning “to feed.” Thus, a pastor is, literally, an individual who spiritually feeds his or her congregation.

Phoenix

In Egyptian mythology, the phoenix is a beautiful bird that lives in the Arabian Desert. Every 500 to 600 years, it sets itself on fire, and then rises from the ashes and begins life anew. Etymologists believe the word traces its roots directly to the Egyptian bnw (perhaps pronounced boinew), which is a type of heron sacred to the ancient Egyptians.

Pilgrim

Across medieval Europe to the Middle East, thousands of Christians made their way to visit the sites sacred to Christianity in the Holy Land. Such an individual was called a pelegrin. The roots of pelegrin can be traced to the Latin noun peregrinus, meaning “a foreigner” or “traveler from foreign lands.” Peregrinus, however, was itself a derivative of two Latin words: per, meaning “through,” and ager, meaning “field.” In English, pelegrin later became “pilgrim,” a term still used today to refer to anyone who travels in foreign lands, particularly to a shrine or holy place. Pilgrimage is used to refer to the journey made by a pilgrim.

The Pilgrims were a group of Separatists from the Church of England who left Europe to found a colony where they would have the freedom to practice their religious beliefs. They arrived in the area known today as Plymouth, Massachusetts, in November 1620.

Polytheism

Polytheism is the belief in many gods. It derives from the Greek adjective polys, meaning “many,” and the Greek noun theos, meaning “god.” Monotheism, which is the belief in one God, traces its roots to the Greek adjective monos, meaning “single” or “alone.”

Priest

Presbys is the Greek adjective for “old.” Its comparative form presbyteros means “older” and was used to refer first to the older members in a community and then to the older members in a church community. As centuries passed, speakers of Latin changed the Greek presbyteros to presbyter, but kept its meaning the same. Presbyter then traveled to France and became prestre. This French word then crossed the English Channel to England where it became “priest,” an individual with the authority to perform religious rites. The French word also forms the base of presbyterian, meaning “a government of presbyters,” or “rule by the community.”

Reincarnation

A key Buddhist belief is that living beings, at the time of death, enter into a process of being reborn into a new body. “Reincarnation,” the English word used to denote this process, is a combination of three Latin terms: the prefix re, meaning “again”; the preposition in, meaning “into”; and the noun carnis, meaning “body” or “flesh.”

The Buddha’s footprints are a common design symbol. They represent the continued presence of the Buddha’s teachings after his death.

Religion

Only the letter “n” distinguishes “religion” from religio, the Latin word from which it is derived. Even the meaning of the two words is basically the same. The Romans defined religio as “reverence for the gods.” “Religion” is a belief in a divine or superhuman power (or powers) to be obeyed and worshiped as the creator and ruler of the universe. Digging a little deeper, the Latin religio is itself a derivative. It traces its roots to the Latin prefix re (“back”) and the Latin verb ligare (“to bind”). Thus the Romans saw religio as something that binds or ties a person to a defined set of principles. The same may be said of “religion.” The world’s religions with the largest numbers of followers are Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism.

Sacrifice

The Latin term sacer means “set apart, holy, sacred.” To refer to the act of offering something to the gods in petition or thanksgiving, the Romans combined sacer with facere (“to make”) and formed the noun sacrificium. In English, “sacrifice” means “the yielding or giving over of one thing to gain another.”

In ancient Rome, an appropriate sacrificial offering for Vulcan, the god of fire, was a red calf or boar. For Mercury, the messenger god, it was a male goat. For Diana, the goddess of the hunt, it was a young cow.

Sarcophagus

Upper-class ancient Greeks called their limestone coffins lithos sarcophagos, which literally means “stone that eats flesh.” The phrase was coined because it perfectly described what happened to a dead body after it was laid to rest in such a casket. The chemical properties of limestone react with the human body and dissolve it. In time, the word lithos was eliminated and just sarcophagos was used. Today, limestone is no longer used for making coffins. Even so, the English language continues to use “sarcophagus,” the Latin spelling of the Greek term, to denote a stone coffin.

The Egyptians also buried their dead in limestone coffins. On the walls of the coffins they would carve magic spells and prayers. According to the Egyptians, if the deceased recited these magic spells and prayers, the journey to the next world would be less strenuous.

Satan

This biblical term, which is used often in English to represent the devil, is actually a Hebrew word meaning “an enemy” or “an opponent.” In the Talmud, a collection of writings that guide every aspect of Jewish life, Satan was an archangel who was cast from heaven because of disobedience and pride.

Swami

Swami is a title granted to respected Hindu religious teachers. The word traces its origins to the Sanskrit term svamin, meaning “master” or “owner.” In English, the word also sometimes is used to refer to someone in authority who uses critical judgment in a particular situation.

Temple

Many etymologists believe that “temple” traces its roots to an unknown ancient word, the base of which was ten, meaning “to stretch.” Ten traces its roots to the so-called Indo-European family of languages from which so many European and Asian languages, including Latin and English, are derived. The Romans used templum to designate an area in the sky that a soothsayer (a person who uses signs to predict the future) considered sacred by stretching out his arms. He then looked for signs appearing in this section in order to predict the future. As the decades passed, soothsayers and priests began using the same method to mark certain areas of land as sacred. Thus, the Romans began to call the building constructed on such a site a templum. English borrowed the term and changed it to “temple.”

Greek temples are identified according to the style of their columns. The earliest and simplest column was the Doric, followed by the Ionic, and then the Corinthian.

Tree of life

A stylized tree is often found represented in ancient Sumerian, Assyrian, and Babylonian friezes. This tree, referred to as the Mesopotamian tree of life, is believed to have symbolized longevity and fertility. As a religious symbol, the use of a tree to represent life has continued throughout history. It has also been used to refer to the tree in the Garden of Eden, whose fruit offered everlasting life. Today botanists and gardeners use the Latin term for “tree of life,” arborvitae, to refer to several species of evergreens and conifers of the cypress family. These trees are long-lived, retain their green needles year round, and produce abundant pine cones.

Whetstone

Whetstones are usually made of quartz and are used to sharpen knives or other cutting tools. According to Norse mythology, whetstones were made of pieces of the giant Hrungnir’s club. In a duel with Thor, the Norse god of thunder and storms, Hrungnir threw his club at Thor at the same time that Thor hurled his thunderbolt hammer at the giant. The weapons met in midair. Hrungnir’s club shattered into 1,000 pieces and fell to the earth, where they are mined in quarries to make whetstones.

Yoga

Yoga is a set of mental exercises and physical practices that originated in India. By following this training, students learn to remove themselves mentally from the world and unite themselves with the Absolute One. In Sanskrit, the word yoga means “union.”

The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is a Hindu classic that includes thoughts and practices with respect to yoga. Yoga became popular in the west as a means of relaxation, self-control, and enlightenment after 1950.