Note: Page references followed by an “f” indicate figure.
Abington House, 91
ABNY. See Association for a Better New York
abstract space (Lefebvre, also called dominant space or representations of space), 175, 257n53
Abyssinian Development Corporation, 13, 30, 39–40
Adams, Michael Henry, 26, 29–30
advertising
branding and, 171–72
New York Times supplement, 1–2
affordable housing
AMI and, 23, 101, 121, 126–27, 132, 161, 163, 218–19, 222–23
Bloomberg and, 50, 109, 118–27, 153, 212, 239
in Coney Island, 153–54, 161–63
crisis, 118–20, 210–12, 216, 230
de Blasio and, 212–25, 230–33, 239, 277n64
in Harlem, 18–20, 23–24, 30, 32–35, 252n79
inclusionary zoning programs and, 101, 121, 125–27, 132, 153, 161–62, 210
in Manhattan, 49–50
micro-apartments, 236
Mitchell-Lama program for, 32, 34, 162, 269n64
PlaNYC 2030 and, 118–25
rezoning and, 101, 118–27, 230
Section 8 vouchers for, 148, 154, 210, 220, 231–32
unsustainable housing and, 120–24
African Americans
in Harlem, 4–6, 8–9, 13, 16–17, 24, 28–30, 36–37
AMI. See area median income
amusement industry
Coney Island, 142–48, 143f–144f, 150–58, 152f, 155f, 157f, 160–66, 267n26
Luna Park, 142–43, 143f, 156–60, 157f, 165
Steeplechase, 145–46, 165, 267n11
Apollo Theater, 5–6, 5f, 8–9, 15, 39
area median income (AMI)
affordable housing and, 23, 101, 121, 126–27, 132, 161, 163, 218–19, 222–23
defined, 218
Association for a Better New York (ABNY), 182, 188, 271n45
Atlantic Yards, 66, 74, 92, 100, 112, 125, 212
Avella, Tony, 20
“back to the city” movement, 52, 81, 92
Bailey, Nellie Hester, 23–24
banking industry, 50, 54, 188, 193, 203, 236
city producers and, 63–64, 70–71, 74
collapse of, 46
MAC and, 55
Bank of Coney Island, 140f, 141
Barron, Charles, 20
Bartle Bogle Hegarty, 195, 196f
Battery Bridge, 97f
Bedford-Stuyvesant, 33, 48, 136f, 223
Bennet, Tony, 270n10
BID. See Business Improvement District
black gentry, 28. See also gentrification
Black Nationalism movement, 6
blaxploitation movies, 13, 13f–14f
Bloomberg, Michael R.
appointments by, 70–74
branding under, 189–203, 196f, 206–7
career of, 103–4
Coney Island and, 146, 150–51, 160, 166, 168
creative destruction by, 52
election of, 104
Harlem and, 2–3, 15, 17–26, 30, 33, 35
homelessness and, 231
income inequality under, 237
“luxury city” strategy of, 122, 191–92, 202, 210–11
rezoning by, 3, 50, 52, 69, 79, 93, 103–27, 107f–108f, 114f, 130–33, 135, 138, 146, 150–68
small businesses and, 227
as super-wealthy, 88–89
Blumstein’s Department Store, 25–26, 249n7
boardwalk, Coney Island, 168
Boro Hotel, 38
borough presidents, 69, 72, 221–22, 259n19
bourgeoisie hegemony, 270n10. See also Gramsci, Antonio
branding
advertising and, 171–72
under Bloomberg, 189–203, 196f, 206–7
for city consumers, 56, 174–75
corporate, of cities, 175–79, 189–203, 196f
governance and, 206
history of, 179–89, 180f, 183f
image cleansing and, 181–83, 183f
of mayors, 187
overdone, 205–7
power and, 174–79
rebranding, 257n57
socioeconomic restructuring behind, 184–89
symbolic space produced by, 256n47
tax breaks and, 202–3
Times Square, 186
tourism and, 186, 194–206, 205f
World Trade Center, 183, 183f, 186–89, 190f, 201–3
Brash, Julian, 264n39, 264n42, 273n83
Bratton, William, 185, 213, 233
Brexit, 240
broken windows theory, 185
Bronx, 100, 112, 179, 179f. See also specific neighborhoods
Bronx Terminal Market, 112, 139
income inequality and, 85
luxury real estate, 197
MIH plan rejected by, 221–22
planned shrinkage in, 48
tourism, 204
Brooklyn. See also specific neighborhoods
income inequality in, 237
luxury real estate in, 122, 197
rezoning, 91–92, 109, 112, 127, 132, 134–35, 134f, 137, 156, 218, 223–25
tourism, 204
“Building Blocks!” program, 50
Bullard, Horace, 146
Burden, Amanda
Coney Island and, 151, 164, 267n26
rezoning by, 25, 32, 71, 106, 112–15, 125–26, 151, 164
Bushwick, 223
business climate, 67–69
Business Improvement District (BID), 10, 15, 250n28
CAI. See Central Amusement International
campaign finance laws, 263n23
Campaign for One New York, 73, 215
capital, 174–75
foreign, 65–66
penetration of, 60–61, 128–29, 226, 237
capitalism
disaster, 166
hegemony of, 174
system of, 237–38
capitalist urbanization
creative destruction by, 50–52, 255n25
gentrification and, 59–61
as global process, 44
history of, 45–50
introduction to, 43–45
of New York City, 44, 46–52, 55–57, 60–61
politics of, 44–45
production and consumption of cities in, 52–61
rezoning and, 93
space in, 43–46, 51–53, 56–58, 60, 254n4
urbanism in, 254n4
Carmel Place, 236
Carrión, Adolfo, 100
Cautela, Giuseppe, 143
CBs. See community boards
Center for an Urban Future, 119, 139
Central Amusement International (CAI), 157–59
Central Harlem, 10, 18, 20, 24, 32, 34
western corridor of, 250n13
Cestero, Rafael E., 73
chain stores (large retail, corporate retail)
increase in, 68–69
Chelsea, 235
Chetrit Group, 237
Chinatown, 76
Chinese investors, 65–66
CIDC. See Coney Island Development Corporation
citizen participation, in rezoning, 125–26, 161. See also community-based plans
City Beautiful Movement, 142
City Broadcasting firm, 9
city consumers
capitalist urbanization and, 57–61
city reshaped for, 59–61, 93, 104–7, 113–14, 257n57, 258n58
defined, 58
elite, 235–41
gentrification and, 59–61
global class of, 236
influential groups of, 76–89
marketing and, 172–73
new urban classes as, 77–79
production of space and, 52–53, 256n47, 257n57, 258n58
resident-consumers, 79–82
super-wealthy, 85–89
urban tourists, 82–85
City Council, 72, 150, 212, 222, 260n23, 263n9
city marketing. See also advertising; branding
city consumers and, 172–73
“Destination Harlem” campaign, 16, 202
expansion of, 171–72
“Get More NYC: Lower Manhattan” campaign, 201
“I ♥ New York” campaign, 15, 184, 188, 271n47
“New York Stronger Than Ever” campaign, 188
“NYC I Do” campaign, 199
Sex and the City and, 172, 172f
symbolic space produced by, 256n47
“This is New York” campaign, 195–96, 196f, 200
“Welcome to New York” campaign, 171, 203–4, 205f
city marketing agencies
in local government, 75
NYC & Company, 15–16, 75, 186, 192–95, 198–200, 202, 204–6
Permanent Host Committee, 190–91
City Planning Commission (CPC), 19, 94, 133, 263n9
community-based plans and, 99–100
in local government, 72
MIH and, 222
PlaNYC 2030 and, 116
city producers
banking industry and, 63–64, 70–71, 74
branding strategies and, 56, 175
capitalist urbanization and, 53–61
consumers as, 58
corporate industry as, 67–69
defined, 56
gentrification and, 59–61
influential groups of, 63–76
local government as, 69–76
power of, 236–37
production of space and, 52–53, 256n47, 257n57, 258n58
real estate industry as, 63–67
urban regime theory and, 55–56, 256n46
Clinton, Bill, 11
Clinton, Hillary, 211–12
Columbia University, 18, 28–29
commercial development. See also chain stores (large retail, corporate retail)
gentrification and, 3, 9–12, 35–40, 38f–39f
in Lower Manhattan, 201
in mixed-use development, 18, 37, 101, 115, 127–28
Commissioner’s Plan for Manhattan, 4, 94–96
commodification (as in Marx), 257n49
commodification, of space, 57, 206, 257n49
community-based groups, 76
community-based plans (197-a), 99–100
community boards (CBs), 99–100, 125
East Harlem, 24
in local government, 75–76
MIH rejected by, 221–22
origin of, 262n8
community participation in local politics, 75–76, 99, 125–26
Community Preservation Corporation, 73
Coney Island
affordable housing in, 153–54, 161–63
amusement parks, 142–48, 143f–144f, 150–58, 152f, 155f, 157f, 160–66, 267n26
Bloomberg and, 146, 150–51, 160, 166, 168
boardwalk, 168
citizen participation and, 161
DCP and, 150–51
Hurricane Sandy in, 123, 162, 165–66
luxury real estate, 142, 150, 162
Moses and, 144
preservation and, 75, 158, 164, 268nn43–47, 269n50
public housing in, 144–45, 148
rezoning, 83, 125, 135, 137, 139, 141, 144–45, 150–65, 152f, 267n28, 269n60
Save Coney Island and, 159, 161, 165, 244, 269n50, 269n60
small businesses in, 148–49, 159, 163, 166
Coney Island Development Corporation (CIDC), 150
Consultas del Barrio, 226. See also East Harlem
consumption (as general term), 57
consumption, of cities, 52–61, 258n58. See also city consumers
contextual zoning, 128
corporate branding, of cities, 175–79, 189–203, 196f
corporate chain retail. See chain stores
corporate industry, as city producer, 67–69
corporate sponsorships, 193–94
CPC. See City Planning Commission
creative class theory, 77–78, 178
creative destruction
by capitalist urbanization, 50–52, 255n25
new kind of, 241
creative economy, 78
crisis
affordable housing crisis, 118–20, 210–12, 216, 230
financial crisis of 1973, 46, 55, 272n50
financial crisis of 2007/2008, 70, 122
fiscal crisis of New York City in 1975 (crisis regime), 55, 65, 102, 179–82, 181
crony capitalism, 238
Cuomo, Mario, 123, 232, 278n81
Curran, Winifred, 134
Cyclone roller coaster, 147, 158, 164–65, 268n45
Daly, Herman, 124
DCP. See Department of City Planning
“dead” uses, in new developments, 20–22
The Death and Life of Great American Cities (Jacobs), 98
de Blasio, Bill
about-face of, 239–40
achievements of, 229–30, 278n81
affordable housing and, 212–25, 230–33, 239, 277n64
African Americans and, 226, 230
appointments by, 71–74, 213–15
approval ratings of, 230–31
Campaign for One New York of, 73, 215
capitalist system under, 237–38
as councilman, 212
creative destruction by, 52
as development pragmatist, 213
gentrification under, 33–35, 219–20
homelessness and, 231–33
“Housing New York: A Five-Borough, Ten-Year Plan” and, 216–26, 277n64
income inequality under, 210, 230, 237–39
luxury real estate and, 212, 220–21, 236
as public advocate, 72, 209, 211, 215, 227, 259n19
rezoning by, 3, 50, 52, 69, 79, 93, 130, 207, 214, 217–19, 223–28, 230, 239
small businesses and, 226–29, 277n74
deindustrialization, 54, 82, 132–33
demolitions, 18, 26, 38f, 135, 146, 158–59
Department of Buildings (DOB), 94, 260n20
Department of City Planning (DCP), 94, 103, 129, 250n28, 260n20
appointments to, 69, 214, 260n22
capitalist urbanization and, 48, 50
citizen participation and, 125
Coney Island and, 150–51
in local government, 71–72
Department of Homeless Services, 233
Department of Housing Preservation and Development (HPD), 17, 163, 260n20
appointments to, 69–70
as landlord, 48
in local government, 73
Department of Small Business Services (SBS), 17, 229, 260n20
Department of Transportation (DOT), 17, 113, 260n20
deputy mayor for economic development and rebuilding (now deputy mayor for housing and economic development), 70–71, 106
deregulation, financial, 85, 238
Desmond, Matthew, 120
“Destination Harlem” campaign, 16, 202
developer-driven planning, 102–3
developer’s blight, 111
development. See green development; urban development
Diaz, Ruben, 221–22
Dinkins, David, 49–50, 184–85, 209, 211
disaster capitalism, 166
displacement. See also evictions
gentrification and, 130–32, 219
in Harlem, 7, 18, 23–24, 31–35
homeownership and, 34
of manufacturing, 132–35, 134f
by rezoning, 130–39, 153–54, 219
of small businesses, 135–39, 136f–137f, 163
social and economic costs of, 130–31
Dixon, Fred, 204
DOB. See Department of Buildings
Doctoroff, Daniel L., 70, 106–8, 111–12, 193
dominant space. See abstract space
Donovan, Shaun, 73
DOT. See Department of Transportation
drummers, in Marcus Garvey Park, 30
Du Brul, Paul, 55
CB, 24
in “Housing New York: A Five-Borough, Ten-Year Plan,” 218–19, 225–26
East Harlem Alliance of Responsible Merchants, 37
East Harlem Media Entertainment and Cultural Center, 18
East River waterfront, 108, 112
economic development, 49, 68, 81, 106, 113, 212, 260n20. See also deputy mayor for economic development and rebuilding; New York City Economic Development Corporation
Economic Development Corporation (EDC), 47–49. See also New York City Economic Development Corporation
EFCB. See Emergency Financial Control Board
elite
business elite (city producers), 55, 181
city engineered for, 61, 89, 114, 131, 192, 235–41
Emergency Financial Control Board (EFCB), 55, 102
eminent domain, for private developers, 37, 111
Empire State Development Corporation (ESDC), 111, 188, 203
entrepreneurial city, 45–47, 78–82, 173–76, 182
entrepreneurial governance, 46–47, 78
entrepreneurial policy toolkit, 79
ESDC. See Empire State Development Corporation
Evicted (Desmond), 120
evictions
residential, 32, 120, 138, 159, 219–20, 224, 231, 235
Fainstein, Susan, 254n11, 255n15, 261n58
family-friendly marketing campaigns, 199, 274n112
FAR. See floor-to-area ratio
Far West Side, 108–9. See also Hudson Yards
FCR. See Forest City Ratner
Federal Home Loan Bank Board, 253n111
Federal Housing Act, 6–7
Fertitta, George A., 195, 197, 273n97
finance, insurance, and real estate (FIRE) industry, 49, 77, 79, 133
financial industry, 49, 77, 79, 85, 133, 210–11. See also banking industry; Wall Street
Five Borough Economic Opportunity Plan, 106
floor-to-area ratio (FAR), 93, 98
Florida, Richard, creative class theory of, 77–78, 178
Ford, Gerald, 46
foreign investors, in real estate, 65–66, 86–87
Forest City Ratner (FCR), 66–67, 91, 110–11, 214
421-a tax abatement program, 49, 65, 222, 255n17, 259n4, 279n19
Fox, Stanley “Stan,” 142
franchises. See chain stores
General Ulysses S. Grant Houses, 7
gentrification
“back to the city” era and, 52
capitalist urbanization and, 59–61
commercial, 3, 9–12, 35–40, 38f–39f
under de Blasio, 33–35, 219–20
defined, 60
of Harlem, 2–4, 9–14, 16–17, 24, 28–40, 38f–39f, 250n13, 252n79
of Hell’s Kitchen, 109
of Lower East Side, 49
new urban classes and, 79
PlaNYC 2030 and, 118
positive sides of, 252n79
rezoning as blueprint for, 130–39, 134f, 136f–137f, 219
social transformations and, 257n57
super-gentrification, of Manhattan, 86–87
“Get More NYC: Lower Manhattan” campaign, 201
capitalist urbanization and, 50
125th Street and, 10
policing and, 10, 30, 184–85, 213
socioeconomic restructuring under, 184–87
tourism and, 82
welfare-to-work initiative of, 185, 272n63
Glaser, Milton, 188
Glen, Alicia, 71, 75, 217, 220
de Blasio hiring, 213–14
small businesses and, 226, 228, 277n74
globalization, 92, 105, 133, 177
Goldman Sachs’ Urban Investment Group, 71, 213
Gotham, Kevin Fox, 258n59
government. See local government
Gramsci, Antonio, 174
Great Depression, 6
Greater New York Coordinating Committee for Employment, 249n7
Greenberg, Miriam, 184, 194, 207
green development
business as usual hiding behind, 123–25
green gentrification, 118
greenwashing, 117
PlaNYC 2030 and, 116–18, 123–25, 207
Greenspun, Jonathan, 215
Greenwich Lane, 221
Grove Street, 42f
growth machine thesis, 54–55, 256n36
Hall, Stuart, 175
Harlem. See also 125th Street; specific neighborhoods
affordable housing in, 18–20, 23–24, 30, 32–35, 252n79
African American population of, 4–6, 8–9, 16–17, 24, 28–30, 36–37
Bloomberg and, 2–3, 15, 17–26, 30, 33, 35
Columbia University and, 18, 28–29
conflict in, 29–30
corporate chain retail in, 38–40, 43
“Destination Harlem” campaign and, 16, 202
displacement in, 7, 18, 23–24, 31–35
gentrification of, 2–4, 9–14, 16–17, 24, 28–40, 38f–39f, 250n13, 252n79
homeownership in, 34
media interest in, 14–15
Occupy Harlem movement in, 235
Olympics and, 109
Open House Expo, 1
planned shrinkage in, 48
public housing in, 6–7, 7f, 30, 32–34
real estate, 1–2, 4, 6, 8–11, 19, 24–27, 27f, 30–40
Second Renaissance of, 16
tourism, 14–16, 82–83, 200–201
whites in, 28–29
Harlem Community Development Corporation (HCDC), 13
Harlem Tenants Council, 23–24
Harlem Visitors and Convention Association (HVCA), 15
Harvey, David, 43, 46–47, 55, 254n4
HCDC. See Harlem Community Development Corporation
hegemony, 174, 270n10. See also Gramsci, Antonio
heroin epidemic, 8
hipsterization, 78
hipsters, 60, 78, 118, 137, 223
historical buildings, demolition of, 158–59, 196
historic preservation. See preservation
History Channel, 194
rising number of, 184–85, 231–33
shelters, 8, 31–32, 122, 217, 231–33
homeownership, in Harlem, 34
HOME-STAT, 233
housing. See also affordable housing; Department of Housing Preservation and Development; public housing
discrimination and segregation, 6–7, 119, 253n111
legislation, 6–7, 45–46, 52, 96
NYCHA and, 7, 210, 217, 225–26, 231
125th Street rezoning influencing, 23–24
poverty and, 239
subsidized, 32–34
unsustainable, 120–24
Housing Act of 1949, 45–46, 52, 96
“Housing New York: A Five-Borough, Ten-Year Plan”
East Harlem in, 218–19, 225–26
introduction to, 216
lack of alternatives to, 220–21
New Yorkers rejecting, 221–23
rezoning in, 223–28
small businesses and, 226–29
HPD. See Department of Housing Preservation and Development
HR&A Advisors, 214
Hudson Yards
development of, 74, 82, 91, 107f, 108, 110, 125, 138
Hurricane Sandy, 123, 162, 165–66, 202
HVCA. See Harlem Visitors and Convention Association
Hyra, Derek S., 28
ICIB. See Industrial and Commercial Incentives Board
IDA. See Industrial Development Agency
Ikea, 138
“I ♥ New York” campaign, 15, 184, 188, 271n47
image cleansing, of New York City, 181–83, 183f
Imagine Coney, 164
Immerso, Michael, 143
inclusionary zoning programs
affordable housing and, 101, 121, 125–27, 132, 153, 161–62, 210
as mandatory, 210, 212, 218, 221–25
as voluntary, 125–26, 161–62, 210
income inequality, 85, 210, 230, 237–39
Industrial and Commercial Incentives Board (ICIB), 48
Industrial Development Agency (IDA), 67
in-rem buildings, 8–9
international corporations, 44, 58, 64, 68–69
interurban competition, 54, 78, 176
Jackson, Robert, 19
Jacobs, Jane, 46, 98–99, 98f, 113
James, Letitia, 222
Japanese investors, 65–66
J-51 tax abatement, 49, 255n18
Jones, David, 263n28
Jost, Gregory, 226
Katz, Melinda, 221
Kaufman, Norman, 145
Kim, Sung Soo, 228
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 8
King Kong, 194
Klein, Naomi, 166
Klinenberg, Eric, 79
Koch, Ed, 67, 183–84, 186, 220, 272n54
capitalist urbanization and, 48–50
community-based plans and, 99
Coney Island and, 145
“Redevelopment Strategy for Central Harlem” of, 9
La Guardia, Fiorello, 7
landlords
HPD as, 48
mismanagement and neglect by, 33–34, 209–10
landmark laws, 25–26
Landmarks Preservation Commission, 75, 158, 168, 262n6, 268n44
land use, 47–48, 70–72, 76, 106, 115–19. See also rezoning; zoning
Le Corbusier. See modernist planning
Lefebvre, Henri, 43, 51–52, 174–75, 257n53, 271n29
LGBT tourism, 199
Lhota, Joe, 211
Lieber, Robert C., 70
lifestyle, lifestyle preferences (of city consumers), 58, 77, 85, 137, 172–75, 177
LINC. See Living in Communities
Listening to Harlem (Maurrasse), 252n79
Living in Communities (LINC), 232
LMDC. See Lower Manhattan Development Corporation
local government, New York City
branding and, 206
city council, 72
city marketing agencies, 75
as city producer, 69–76
community-based groups and, 76
community boards, 75–76
CPC, 72
DCP, 71–72
deputy mayor for economic development and rebuilding, 70–71
HPD, 73
Landmarks Preservation Commission, 75
luxury real estate encouraged by, 49, 65, 87–89, 91, 122
mayor, 69–70
multiscalar nature of, 256n46
NYCEDC, 73–75
Loew’s Victoria Theater, 5–6, 26, 251n64
Logan, John, 54
Long Island City, 103, 112, 197, 218
Lower East Side
gentrification of, 49
planned shrinkage in, 48
Lower Manhattan, 186, 200–201, 273n74
Lower Manhattan Development Corporation (LMDC), 106–7, 188, 203, 273n74
Lowry, Tom, 206–7
Luna Park, 142–43, 143f, 156–60, 157f, 165
“luxury city” strategy, 122, 191–92, 202, 210–11
luxury real estate
Bloomberg and, 122, 191–92, 202, 210–11
Bronx, 197
de Blasio and, 212, 220–21, 236
Harlem, 1–2, 24–25, 26–27, 27f, 31, 35, 40
incentives to, 49
local government encouraging, 89
in Manhattan, 1–2, 24–25, 26–27, 27f, 31, 35, 40, 86–89, 91, 137f, 138, 221
PlaNYC 2030 and, 120–25
Queens, 122
rezoning and, 120, 135, 137f, 138
Staten Island, 197
super-wealthy buying, 86–89
tax breaks for, 49, 65, 87, 203, 241, 279n19
MAC. See Municipal Assistance Corporation
mandatory inclusionary housing (MIH), 210, 212, 218, 221–25
Manhattan. See also specific neighborhoods
affordable housing in, 49–50
Commissioner’s Plan for, 4, 94–96
office building development boom in, 48–49
residential architectures, 62f
in Sex and the City, 172
suburbanization of, 139
super-gentrification of, 86–87
manufacturing, displacement of, 132–35, 134f
manufacturing industry (industrial sector), 48, 92, 132–35, 134f
marketing. See city marketing
Mark-Viverito, Melissa, 19–20, 72, 228
Marx, Karl, 57, 173–74, 255n25
MAS. See Municipal Art Society
Maurrasse, David J., 252n79
mayors. See also specific mayors
branding of, 187
in local government, 69–70
megaplans, megaprojects, 54, 71, 73
Atlantic Yards development plan, 66, 74, 92, 100, 112, 125, 212
Hudson Yards development plan, 74, 82, 91, 107f, 108, 110, 125, 138
Olympic Plan, 107–12, 107f–108f, 115–16
stadiums, 100, 108–10, 146, 203
Metropolitan Transit Authority (MTA), 110
micro-apartments, 236
middle class
in New York City, 2, 28, 30, 45, 47, 120, 180, 210, 215–16, 231, 236
MIH. See mandatory inclusionary housing
Mitchell-Lama program, 32, 34, 162, 269n64
mixed-use development, 18, 37, 101, 115, 127–28
mixed-use rezoning, 64, 110, 127, 139
modernist planning, 52, 96–98, 112, 144
Molotch, Harvey, 54
mom-and-pop stores. See also small businesses
independent businesses, 36, 129, 135–39
Moody, Kim, 49
Moses, Robert, 50, 52, 92, 109
backlash against, 112–13
Coney Island and, 144
in zoning history, 96–99
Moss, Jeremiah, 227
Movement for Justice in El Barrio, 226
MTA. See Metropolitan Transit Authority
Municipal Art Society (MAS), 164–65
Municipal Assistance Corporation (MAC), 55
municipal government. See local government
Murray, James and Karla, 227
National Urban Summit, 49–50
natural disasters, development and, 166
neighborhood character, rezoning influencing, 25–26
neoliberalism, lassez-faire economics, 85, 176, 185, 216, 237–38
neoliberal urban planning, 216, 237
Newfield, Jack, 55
New Housing Marketplace Plan (NHMP), 73, 118–22, 207
new urban classes, 58, 77–79, 120
New York City. See specific boroughs and neighborhoods
New York City Economic Development Corporation (NYCEDC), 102, 193, 260n20
CIDC of, 150
in local government, 73–75
restructuring of, 106
road shows of, 190–91
subsidy agreements by, 67
New York City government. See local government, New York City
New York City Housing Authority (NYCHA), 7, 210, 217, 225–26, 231
New York City Marketing (NYCM), 192–94
New York City Partnership (NYCP), 68, 182, 187–88, 271n43
New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), 68, 203, 274n122
“New York Stronger Than Ever” campaign, 188
New York Times advertising supplement, 1–2
Next-Gen program, 225–26
NHMP. See New Housing Marketplace Plan
9/11 terrorist attacks, 271n47
World Trade Center and, 83–84, 105–6, 187–88, 201–3
NYC2012, 107–9
NYC & Company
creation of, 271n44
international offices of, 198–99
marketing by, 15–16, 75, 186, 192–95, 198–200, 202, 204–6
NYC Business Solution, 229
NYCEDC. See New York City Economic Development Corporation
NYCHA. See New York City Housing Authority
“NYC I Do” campaign, 199
NYCM. See New York City Marketing
NYCP. See New York City Partnership
NYSE. See New York Stock Exchange
Occupy Wall Street (OWS), 235
office building development, in Manhattan, 11, 36, 48–49, 98, 101, 184
Office of Long-Term Planning and Sustainability (OLTPS), 116, 260n20
Olympics
branding and, 191
megaplans and, 107–12, 107f–108f, 115–16
rezoning and, 107–12, 107f–108f, 115–16
One57 condominium, 67, 87, 279n19
197-a plans. See community-based plans
125th Street
Apollo Theater on, 5–6, 5f, 8–9, 15, 39
Blumstein’s Department Store on, 25–26, 249n7
changes in, 2–4
gentrification of, 35–40, 38f–39f
Lenox Lounge on, 38–39, 250n30
Loew’s Victoria Theater on, 5–6, 26, 251n64
as main street of American franchise, 40, 43
neighborhood character of, 25–26
representations of, 13–17, 13f–14f
rezoning of, 3–4, 17–26, 21f–22f, 29–30, 35–40, 82–83, 115, 125, 137, 250n28
sidewalk vendors of, 8–10
One World Trade Center, 83–84
Orwell, George, 53
Owens, Susan, 124
OWS. See Occupy Wall Street
Pan-Africanism movement, 6
Parachute Jump, 142, 147, 154, 158, 164, 268n47
Partnership for New York City, 68
Patchett, Robert, 74–75
Paterson, David, 19
Paul, Brian, 117
PDC. See Public Development Corporation
Peck, Jamie, 78
Perello, Joseph, 192–93
PEREs. See private equity real estate investing firms
Permanent Host Committee, 190–91
permanent tourists, 77, 260n34
physical space, 52, 56, 60, 255n33, 256n47, 257n57
physical upgrading, 130, 257n57
Picture the Homeless, 233
Pinsky, Seth, 74
planned shrinkage, 48
PlaNYC 2030
affordable housing crisis and, 118–25
gentrification and, 118
green development and, 116–18, 123–25, 207
rezoning by, 115–25
sustainability and, 116–25
plazas, 83, 98, 103, 113–14, 116
policing
Giuliani and, 10, 30, 184–85, 213
small businesses and, 229
stop-and-frisk, 30, 203, 210, 213, 230
post–World War II era, 45–47, 96–97
poverty, 49, 85, 178–79, 223, 237–39. See also homelessness
criminalization of, 184
socioeconomic restructuring and, 184–85
statistics, 148
UNEP and, 124
Powell, Adam Clayton, Jr., 26, 249n7
preservation
Coney Island and, 75, 158, 164, 268nn43–47, 269n50
Landmarks Preservation Commission and, 75, 158, 168, 262n6, 268n44
of neighborhood character, 25–26
rezoning and, 128
ZQA and, 222
presidential election, 2016, 212, 239–40
private equity real estate investing firms (PEREs), 66
privatization, 57, 85, 149, 235
production, of cities, 52–61, 235–41, 258nn58–59. See also city producers
production of space (Lefebvre), 43, 52, 174–75
professional services and information sector, 78–79
profit-driven urbanization, 43–45, 51–53, 57–60, 117
projects. See public housing
public advocate
de Blasio as, 72, 209, 211, 215, 227, 259n19
Public Development Corporation (PDC), 47–49, 73, 102
public housing
end of, 47
homelessness and, 231
urban renewal and, 46
Public Plaza program, 113–14
quality of life, 58, 113, 118, 184–87, 272n54
Queens, 108. See also specific neighborhoods
branding in, 197
income inequality in, 237
luxury real estate in, 122
MIH plan rejected by, 221
tourism, 204
Quinn, Christine, 72, 211, 227
Rangel, Charles, 11, 19, 251n45
Real Affordability for All, 222, 225
real estate. See also luxury real estate
dynasties, 64
foreign investors in, 65–66
Harlem, 1–2, 4, 6, 8–11, 19, 24–27, 27f, 30–40
industry, as city producers, 56, 59, 63–67, 181, 256n47
micro-apartments, 236
rezoning unlocking, 128–30
Real Estate Board of New York (REBNY), 1, 64–65, 103, 221
real estate investment trusts (REITs), 65–66
REBNY. See Real Estate Board of New York
rebranding, 257n57
Recchia, Domenic, 268n33
recession, 2008–2010
Bloomberg’s reelection after, 104
chain stores and, 25, 36, 38, 69, 139
Harlem real estate and, 31, 38–39
luxury real estate and, 87
small businesses and, 25, 36, 38, 69, 135, 139
“Redevelopment Strategy for Central Harlem,” 9
Red Rooster, 2–3
re-engineering, 50
of communities, 61, 114, 120, 129, 131, 192, 237, 239
of physical, social, and symbolic space, 56, 239, 256n47
regime. See urban regime
Register of Historic Places, 158, 268n43
REITs. See real estate investment trusts
rental housing
cost of, 32, 34, 64, 69, 91, 120, 122, 130, 134, 153–54, 162, 231–32, 237
planned shrinkage and, 48
rent control, 33, 65, 228, 277n74
rent decontrol, expiration of rental stabilization or rent control, 32, 118, 122, 154, 162
renters, tenants
eviction of, 32, 120, 138, 159, 219–20, 224, 231, 235
landlord harassment against, 24, 32–33, 131, 224
rent gap, 129
Rent Guidelines Board, 215, 253n97
rent regulation, 33, 228, 253n97
rent stabilization, 23, 122, 215, 219, 226
resident-consumers, 79–82
residential architectures, 62f
residential development, 97, 135
affordable housing and, 23, 119–21, 162
luxury residences, 25, 27, 109, 125, 127, 134, 135, 137f, 142, 197, 279n19
in mixed-use development, 18, 37, 101, 115, 127–28
residential security maps, 253n111
rezoning
affordable housing and, 101, 118–27, 230
by Bloomberg, 3, 50, 52, 69, 79, 93, 103–27, 107f–108f, 114f, 130–33, 135, 138, 146, 150–68
Brooklyn, 91–92, 109, 112, 127, 132, 134–35, 134f, 137, 156, 218, 223–25
Burden and, 25, 32, 71, 106, 112–15, 125–26, 151, 164
capitalist urbanization and, 93
categories, 115
chain stores and, 81–82, 138–39
citizen participation in, 125–26, 161
city reshaped for consumers by, 104–7
Coney Island, 83, 125, 135, 137, 139, 141, 144–45, 150–65, 152f, 267n28, 269n60
creative destruction by, 52
death by, 160
by de Blasio, 3, 50, 52, 69, 79, 93, 130, 207, 214, 217–19, 223–28, 230, 239
defined, 92
displacement by, 130–39, 153–54, 219
flexibility of, 93
as gentrification blueprint, 130–39, 134f, 136f–137f, 219
in “Housing New York: A Five-Borough, Ten-Year Plan,” 223–28
Long Island City, 103
Lower East Side, 115, 135, 136f–137f
luxury real estate and, 120, 135, 137f, 138
mixed-use development and, 101, 115, 127–28
neighborhood character influenced by, 25–26
official narratives of, 125–28
Olympics and, 107–12, 107f–108f, 115–16
of 125th Street, 3–4, 17–26, 21f–22f, 29–30, 35–40, 82–83, 115, 125, 137, 250n28
PlaNYC 2030, 115–25
preservation and, 128
process of, 93–94
real estate unlocked by, 128–30
slogans vs. reality of, 125–28, 160–61
small businesses influenced by, 24–25
Times Square, 101–3
Williamsburg, 112, 127, 132, 134–35, 134f, 137
zoning history and, 94–103, 95f, 97f–98f
Rhodes-Pitts, Sharifa, 24
Riverside Park Community, 7f
Rivington House, 63
Rose, Joseph B., 102–3
Rubinstein, Dana, 212
Rudin, Bill, 221
Rybolovlev, Dmitry, 87
safety-box apartments, 87–88
Saltz, Jerry, 235
Samuelsson, Marcus, 2
Save Coney Island, 159, 161, 165, 244, 269n50, 269n60
Save Harlem Association, 37
SBJSA. See Small Business Jobs Survival Act
SBS. See Department of Small Business Services
Schley, Craig, 24
Section 8 vouchers, 148, 154, 210, 220, 231–32
Senator Robert F. Wagner Sr. Houses, 7
September 11, 2001. See 9/11 terrorist attacks
Sex and the City, 172, 172f, 198–99
Shaw, Randy, 184–85
shopping
alpha, beta shoppers, 80, 261n47
sidewalk vendors, of 125th Street. See street vendors
Sigfeld Group, 36
Sitt, Joseph J., 155–56, 159, 268n33
skyscrapers, history of, 95, 95f
Slater, Tom, 131
small businesses
Bloomberg and, 227
Coney Island, 148–49, 159, 163, 166
displacement of, 135–39, 136f–137f, 163
policing and, 229
rezoning influencing, 24–25
tax rates for, 69
vacant storefronts and, 227
Small Business First, 229
Small Business Jobs Survival Act (SBJSA), 227–28
Snapple, 193–94
social inequalities, 131, 175, 178, 185, 213, 238
social re-engineering, 131
social segregation, 6–7, 59, 253n111
social space, 53, 56, 255n33, 256n47, 257n57
social transformations, 257n57
socioeconomic restructuring, of New York City, 184–89
SoHo, 99
Somerset Partners, 237
South Bronx, 32, 100, 109, 112, 139
planned shrinkage in, 48
space
in capitalist urbanization, 43–46, 51–53, 56–58, 60, 254n4
commodification of, 57, 206, 257n49
dominant, 175
physical, 52, 56, 60, 255n33, 256n47, 257n57
production and consumption of, 52–53, 256n47, 257n57, 258n58
representations of, 173–75, 178, 271n29
social, 53, 56, 255n33, 256n47, 257n57
symbolic, 52, 56, 173, 255n33, 256n47, 257n57
“special purpose” zoning districts, 94, 101–2, 152–53
speculation, property speculations, 33, 144–45, 160, 184, 227
Spinola, Steven, 221
sponsorships, corporate, 193–94
starchitectures, 83–84
Starr, Roger, 48
Staten Island, 218
luxury real estate, 197
tourism, 204
Steel, Robert, 70–71
Steeplechase Park, 145–46, 165, 267n11
stop-and-frisk policing, 30, 203, 210, 213, 230
street vendors, 8–10
St. Vincent’s Hospital, 221
subsidies agreements, 67–68
subsidized housing, threats to, 32–34
super-gentrification, 86–87
super-wealthy, as city consumers, 58, 85–89, 198, 236
sustainability
gold standard of, 123–25
of housing, 120–24
PlaNYC 2030 and, 116–25
Syfy’s 31 Days of Halloween, 206, 275n134
symbolic space, 52, 56, 173, 255n33, 256n47, 257n57
tax breaks
branding and, 202–3
421-a program, 49, 65, 222, 255n17, 259n4, 279n19
for luxury real estate, 49, 65, 87, 203, 241, 279n19
after 9/11 terrorist attacks, 188
revision of, 210
small businesses and, 69
tax-delinquent buildings. See in-rem buildings
Taylor, Gilbert, 233
Theater District, 101
“This is New York” campaign, 195–96, 196f, 200
Thor Equities, 67, 155–56, 158–60, 268n44
Thunderbolt roller coaster, 146, 267n14
Tilyou, George C., 267n11
Times Square
branding, 186
pedestrianization of, 83
rezoning, 101–3
Torres-Springer, Maria, 74
tourism
branding and, 186, 194–206, 205f
Bronx, 204
Brooklyn, 204
Coney Island, 148–50, 149f, 267n5
Giuliani and, 82
LGBT, 199
Queens, 204
Staten Island, 204
tourists
urban, 82–85
“Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication” (UNEP), 124
“towers in the park” aesthetics, 46, 92, 98, 262n6. See also modernist planning
Townsend, Kenneth, 124
Treyger, Mark, 168
Trinity Real Estate, 214
Trump, Donald J., 240
Trump, Fred, 145
UCC. See Uptown Chamber of Commerce
UDC. See Urban Development Corporation
ULURP. See Uniform Land Use Review Procedure
UMEZ. See Upper Manhattan Empowerment Zone
unaffordable housing
affordable housing crisis and, 118–20, 210–12, 216, 230
AMI and, 23, 101, 121, 126–27, 132, 161, 163, 218–19, 222–23
de Blasio and, 212–25, 230–33, 239, 277n64
rezoning and, 101, 118–27, 230
sustainability and, 120–24
UNEP. See United Nations Environment Program
Unified Bulk Program, 103–4
Uniform Land Use Review Procedure (ULURP), 94, 99, 263n9
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), 124
unsustainable housing, 120–24
Upper Manhattan Empowerment Zone (UMEZ), 11, 13, 15, 35, 250n19
Uptown Chamber of Commerce (UCC), 14–15
Uptown Magazine, 16–17
urban development. See also green development
“dead” uses in, 20–22
mixed-use, 18, 37, 101, 115, 127–28
natural disasters and, 166
office building, 48–49
production and consumption of space linked to, 256n47, 258n58
rationales for, 53–54
Urban Development Corporation (UDC), 48–49
urban entertainment destinations, 84
Urban Investment Group, Goldman Sachs’, 71, 213
urbanism, 254n4
urbanization. See capitalist urbanization
urban policy, social space produced by, 46–47, 82, 176, 181, 256n47
urban regime
CEOs of, 238–41
of city producers and city consumers, 55–56, 238–41, 256n46
urban renewal
creative destruction by, 52
Moses and, 50, 52, 92, 96–99, 109, 112–13, 144
urban tourists, 82–85
Urry, John, 82
vacant storefronts, 8, 36–39, 64, 227. See also warehousing
Vance, Cyrus, 215
Vanishing New York blog, 227
Vision 2020: NYC Comprehensive Waterfront Plan, 123
Vornado Realty Trust, 66, 251n45
Vote—Voices of the Everyday People, 24
Wagner, Robert F., 262n8
Wall Street
financial industry, elite, 85–89, 104, 107, 184, 191, 236
Occupy, 235
super-wealthy of, 85–89
Walsh, Scott, 214–15
warehousing, 64
Weber, Rachel, 51
“wedding cake” skyscraper, 96
“Welcome to New York” campaign, 171, 203–4, 205f
welfare-to-work initiative, 185, 272n63
West Village, 42f, 98–99, 98f, 221
White City, 142
whites
downzoning and, 115
flight of, 179
in Harlem, 28–29
in Lower East Side, 49
Whole Foods, 40
Williamsburg
mixed-use zoning in, 101
rezoning, 112, 127, 132, 134–35, 134f, 137
Wilpon, Fred, 146
Wilpon, Jeff, 267n14
Wonder Wheel, 140f, 142, 158, 164–65, 268n46
working class, 133, 143, 148, 226, 229, 236
districts, 3, 24, 46, 50–52, 115, 121, 125–26, 130, 239, 257n57
low-income households, 18, 45, 120, 125, 216, 219
World Trade Center
branding, 183, 183f, 186–89, 190f, 201–3
9/11 terrorist attacks and, 83–84, 105–6, 187–88, 201–3
Wyly, Elvin, 259n62, 265n78, 266n115, 266n121
zoning. See also inclusionary zoning programs; rezoning
contextual, 128
developer-driven, 102–3
history of, 94–103, 95f, 97f–98f
mixed-use, 18, 37, 101, 115, 127–28
1916 Zoning Code, 95–97
1961 resolution, 97, 99–102, 104–5, 133, 262n5
revisions, 99–102
“special purpose,” 94, 101–2, 152–53
zoning for quality and affordability (ZQA), 218, 222–23
Zukin, Sharon, 14