Language: Volume 5

INDEX

Page numbers in boldface refer to articles.

Abihka, 98
Abrahams, Roger, 203
Acadia, 9, 61
Acadians, 49, 62
Accent. See Pronunciation

Adai, 83
Address terms, 175
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (Twain), 152
African American English, 7, 14–16, 29–35, 45, 47, 159;
- discourse features of, 123
African Americans: speech of, 1, 2, 19, 22, 49, 118, 129, 136, 148, 156, 190;
- names, 20, 124–27, 197, 206;
- signers, 41–42;
- in Liberia, 91–92;
- and creolization, 130;
- and literary dialect, 153;
- and public speaking, 161, 163
African American Vernacular English (AAVE), 29–35, 92, 138, 139, 140
Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect (Turner), 15, 206
African languages, 15, 34, 47, 55, 70, 206
Afro-Seminole Creole, 12, 36–37, 80
Afro-Seminoles, 71
Akansa, 107
Alabama, 11, 17, 23, 42, 75, 132, 142, 144, 151, 164, 172, 175, 190;
- indigenous languages in, 5, 80, 82, 95, 97, 107;
- Confederates from, 58;
- Spanish in, 110;
- name of, 173;
- preachers in, 181
Alabama Indians, 5, 94, 95
Alexandria, La., 49
Alexandria, Va., 117
Algonquian languages, 3, 5, 6, 38–40, 50, 78, 79, 80, 82, 107
Alston, Charlotte Blake, 201
American Dialect Society, 135
American Indian Pidgin English, 80
American Language, The (Mencken), 155
American Linguistic Atlas Project, 11, 23, 26, 142, 147, 148, 149, 154, 206
American Negro Folktales (Dorson), 200, 204
American Revolutionary War, 51
American Sign Language, 7, 40–42
Amish, 9, 67
Anadarko, Okla., 47
Andy Griffith Show, The, 196
Anglicists, 30–31, 33
Anglophone Caribbean Creoles, 29, 30, 31
Angola, 11, 53
Annotated Bibliography of Southern American English, The, 22
Apache, 6, 36
Appalachee, 5, 94
Appalachia, 2, 14, 18, 31, 85, 105, 106, 135, 139, 182, 190
Appalachian English, 42–45, 93, 140
Appalachian Mountains, 1, 6, 11, 138, 159, 184, 186, 197
Arabs, 100
Argentina, 109
Arikara, 47
Arkansas, 11, 23, 132, 142, 151, 191;
- indigenous languages in, 6, 47, 82, 107;
- Ozark English in, 105;
- Spanish in, 110;
- name of, 173
Arkansas Traveler, 196
Arnold, Kokomo, 203
Aron, Bill, 90
Atakapa, 6, 82, 83–84
Atali, 86
Athapaskan, 6
Athens, Ga., 77

Atlanta, Ga., 17, 75, 76, 77, 89, 186, 202, 203
Atwood, E. Bagby, 22
Augusta County, Va., 67
Austin, Tex., 204
Austria, 66, 115
Avoyelles Parish, La., 63

Bahamas, 2, 15, 36, 57
Bahamian Creole English, 45
Bahamian English, 45–47
Bailey, Guy, 31–32, 33, 34
Baltimore, Md., 89, 117
Bambara, 53
Banner Elk, N.C., 200
Bantu, 70
Barbadian Creole, 70
Barbados, 15, 53, 69, 70
Bassa, 92
Baton Rouge, La., 49, 77
Beaumont, Tex., 76
Belize, 15, 100
Bell, Ed, 200
Benin, 53
Béranger, Jean, 83
Bermuda, 46, 57
Beverly Hillbillies, The, 21, 196
Biebuyck, Brunhilde, 200
Bilingualism. See Education: bilingual

Biloxi, 3, 107–8, 172
Biloxi, Miss., 60
Birmingham, Ala., 17, 77
Blue, Chief Sam, 51
Blue, Louise, 51
Blue Collar TV, 200
Blues(music), 29, 203, 204
Body language, 123
Bracketville, Tex., 36, 37
Braggs, Okla., 98
Brantford, Ontario, 108
Brazil, 2, 10, 58–59, 75, 206, 207
Britain, 10, 11, 14, 15, 30, 168
British English, 26, 31, 32, 46, 47, 57, 58, 93, 104, 190, 211
Bronner, Simon J., 204
Brooks, Cleanth, 12, 26
Brown, Joseph, 161
Brunvand, Jan Harold, 198
Bush, George W., 18

Cherokee, 5, 6, 8, 43, 51, 82, 83, 85–88, 97, 98, 172
Cherokee, N.C., 88
Cherokee Phoenix, 87
Chesapeake, Va., 117
Chesapeake Bay, 63, 79
Chesapeake Bay Islands, 1, 11, 104, 138;
- English, 54–57
Chesnutt, Charles W., 152
Chicago, Ill., 16, 109, 207
Chickasaw, 5, 47, 80, 94–95, 96, 97, 172
China, 10, 75, 76
Chinese, 72, 75, 76–77, 202
Chitimacha, 6, 82, 83, 84
Choctaw, 5, 6, 8, 47, 61, 80, 94–95, 96–97, 99, 172
Chopin, Kate, 152
Civil War, 51, 58–59, 62, 141, 151, 162, 185, 195, 198
Clemson, S.C., 77
Clerc, Laurent, 40
Cleveland, Ohio, 16
Clinton, Bill, 1
Clower, Jerry, 200
Cockney, 55–56, 57
Code-switching, 111, 113–14
Cogswell, Mason, 40
Cold Mountain (film), 194
Collins, Arthur, 199
Colombia, 109, 114
Colquitt, Ga., 201
Columbia, S.C., 17
Comanche, 6
Comecrudo, 6
Conch, 2, 57–58
Confederados, 58–59
Confederate English, in Brazil, 58–59
Congo-Angola, 70
Conroy, Pat, 154
Conversation, 19, 56, 123, 127–29, 177
Correctness, of language, 164, 167
Côte des Allemands, 66
Cothran, Kay L., 198
Cotoname, 6
Country Bumpkin, 196
Coushatta, 95, 100
Creek, 5, 6, 8, 36, 80, 82, 83, 94, 95–97, 98, 172
Creole, 36–37, 49, 61–65, 69, 70, 100
Creole languages, 29, 47, 61–62, 69–71, 129
Creole society, 62
Creolists, 30, 33
Creolization, 129–31
Criswell, W. A., 181
Croatia, 100
Cubans, 8, 36, 57, 75, 100, 109, 113, 115
Cukor-Avila, Patricia, 33
Curry, Ben, 203
Cusabo, 82
Czechoslovakia, 115

Da Cruz, Daniel, 48
Dallas, Tex., 180
Dalton, Ga., 110, 202
Dalton Messenger, 110
Davis, Donald, 201
Decreolization, 71
De la Salle, Robert Cavelier, 60
Delaware language, 40
Demopolis, Ala., 62
Designing Women, 193
De Soto, Hernando, 85, 95
Detroit, Mich., 32, 179
Dictionary of American Regional English (DARE), 6, 23, 131–33, 135, 148, 159
Dictionary of Smoky Mountain English, 135
Dill Scallion, 195
Dixon, Thomas, 153
Dominican Republic, 15, 32
Dorgan, Howard, 182
Dorsey, James Owen, 107–8
Dorson, Richard, 200, 204
Douglass, Frederick, 161
Down in the Holler (Randolph), 106, 191
Dozens. See Toasts and dozens

Drawl, southern, 3, 17, 18, 22, 26, 55, 59, 136, 167, 192–93
Driving Miss Daisy, 195
Duckert, Audrey R., 131
Ducloux, Delphine, 84

Dukes of Hazzard, The, 21, 196
Dundes, Alan, 203
Duralde, Martin, 83, 84

East Indians, 75
Ebonics, 14, 34–35, 126. See also African American Vernacular English
Education, 5, 9, 20, 40, 57, 76–77, 97, 110, 112, 121, 141–42, 205, 210;
- bilingual, 112, 113. See also Schools
Efik, 53
Einaudi, Paula F., 108
Eleutheran Adventurers, 57
Eliason, Norman, 149
Elizabethan English, 11, 19, 42, 55, 104, 105, 191
Elizabeth City, N.C., 205
Ellison, Ralph, 129
El Salvador, 75
Elton, La., 95
Encyclopedia Americana, 150
England, 10, 11, 19, 26, 44, 104, 117, 118, 137
English, 7, 10–14, 62, 171;
- African American, 14–18;
- influence of on other languages/shift to, 64–65, 69, 89, 113;
- proficiency in, 111, 112;
- as official language, 112. See also Southern English
English as a Second Language, 112
English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL), 201–2
Ervin, Sam, 21
Etowah, Ga., 85
Evans, David, 204
Ewe, 7, 53

Faulk, John Henry, 200
Faulkner, William, 133, 152, 153, 168, 179
Fayetteville, Ark., 77
Ferris, William, 199, 204
Filipinos, 100
Films, southern speech in, 21, 42, 189, 193–97
Fixin’ to, 18, 29, 59, 113, 116, 133, 133–34, 138
Florida, 3, 11, 22, 23, 132, 142, 147, 149, 172;
- indigenous languages in, 5, 6, 79, 80, 82, 83, 94, 95, 96, 97, 120;
- Spanish in, 7, 8, 73, 78, 109, 110, 172;
- German in, 9;
- Afro-Seminoles in, 36;
- school for the deaf in, 40;
- Conch in, 57–58;
- French in, 63–64, 73;
- Gullah in, 69, 71;
- Cubans in, 75, 113, 115;
- Chinese in, 77;
- Haitians in, 77–78;
- bilingual education in, 112;
- name of, 172
Florida Keys, 2, 57
Florida Seminole, 5, 94
Folklore, 135, 187
Folk speech, 21, 134–37
Folktales, 19, 97, 197. See also Storytelling
Ford, Benjamin Francis, 199
Forrest Gump, 193, 196
Fort Clark, Tex., 36
Fort Nicholas, Tex., 36
Foxworthy, Jeff, 200
France, 75, 100
Franklin, Aretha, 180
Franklin, Benjamin, 187
Franklin, C. L., 179
Frederick County, Va., 67
Fredericksburg, Va., 117
Freedmen, 36
French, 7, 8–9, 12, 43, 49, 50, 60–65, 73, 77, 98, 129, 168, 171, 181
French and Indian War, 51
French Creole, 72, 73. See also Louisiana French Creole
French Huguenots, 53, 60
Fried Green Tomatoes (film), 195

Gaelic, Scottish, 7, 9–10
Gallaudet, Thomas Hopkins, 40
Gambia, 53, 70
Gatshet, Albert S., 83, 84, 107
Geechee, 7, 52, 69. See also Gullah
Georgetown, S.C., 69
Georgia, 1, 7, 11, 22, 23, 42, 91, 92, 129, 132, 142, 144, 147, 149, 151, 189, 198;
- indigenous languages in, 5, 6, 79, 82, 83, 98, 120;
- Spanish in, 8, 110, 202;
- German in, 9, 68;
- Gullah in, 29, 36, 37, 45, 52, 69, 70, 71, 125, 206;
- school for the deaf in, 40;
- illiteracy in, 141–42;
- name of, 172

Georgia Scenes (Longstreet), 151
German, 7, 9, 43, 65–69, 115, 168, 181
Germany, 53, 60, 66, 75, 89, 100, 115
Get Your Ass in the Water and Swim Like Me (Jackson), 204
Giardina, Denise, 154
Glasgow, Ellen, 127
Gold Coast, 70
Gone with the Wind (film), 195
Gonzales, Ambrose, 153
Good Ole Boys, 196
Gordon, John B., 161
Gordon, Sally Brown, 51
Gordon County, Ga., 111
Gore, Al, 18
Graham County, N.C., 86
Grammatical features, 12, 16, 17, 18, 22, 23, 26, 133, 171, 176;
- of AAVE, 29, 32, 33, 34;
- of indigenous languages, 38–39;
- of Appalachian English, 44;
- of Bahamian English, 47;
- of Charleston English, 53;
- of Cajun French and Louisiana Creole, 64;
- of Gullah, 70–71;
- of Cherokee, 87–88;
- of Lumbee English, 93;
- of Outer Banks English, 104;
- of Texas English, 116;
- of folk speech, 135;
- changes in, 137–40
Grand Ole Opry, 199
Grebo, 92
Greeks, 100
Greenville, Miss., 203
Guale, 82
Guess, George, 87
Guinea Coast Creole English, 70
Guinea Neck, Va., 119
Gullah, 7–8, 15–16, 29, 30, 33, 36, 37, 45, 46, 47, 52, 53, 54, 69–72, 125, 129, 130, 205, 206–7
Guyana, 15

Ibibio, 53
Idioms, in New Orleans, 101–2
Illinois, 80, 132
Illiteracy, 141–42
Immigrant languages, recent, 72–78
Inagua, 45
Indiana, 67, 68, 132
Indian Territory, 5, 36, 95, 96, 98, 120
Indian trade languages, 78–82

Indigenous languages, 3–7, 82–85. See also individual languages and language families
Indirectness, in speech, 123, 130, 131, 138, 176–77, 187, 195
Intruder in the Dust (Faulkner), 133, 168
Iran, 10, 75
Iraq, 10, 75
Ireland, 9, 14, 15, 30, 43, 53, 100, 104, 137, 168
Iroquoian, 3, 5, 50, 78, 79, 82, 85–88, 108, 172
Isleños, 8, 100
Italy, 75, 100, 115

Jackson, Andrew, 95, 174
Jackson, Bruce, 204
Jackson, Jesse, 21, 180
Jackson County, N.C., 86
Jakes, T. D., 180
Jamaica, 15, 29, 30, 36, 46, 69
Jamaican Creole, 70
Jamestown, Va., 38, 117
Japan, 58
Jasper, Ark., 105
Jasper County, Miss., 141
Jefferson, Thomas, 173
Jefferson Parish, La., 100
Jewish English, 20, 88–90
Jewish language, 88–90
Johnson, Lonnie, 203
Jones, Little Hat, 203
Jonesborough, Tenn., 200

Kansa, 107
Karankawa, 6
Kentucky, 11, 23, 42, 75, 147, 171, 178, 198;
- school for the deaf in, 40;
- name of, 173
Kenya, 10, 75
Key West, Fla., 57
Kidman, Nicole, 194
KiKongo, 206
Kimbundu, 206
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 163, 180
Kiowa, 6
Kituwha, 86
Klao, 92
Koasati, 5, 83, 94, 95, 99
Korea, 75
Kosciusko, Miss., 200
Kretzschmar, William A., Jr., 149
Krio, 207
Kru, 70
Kurath, Hans, 22, 23, 26, 147, 148, 149, 154, 155
Kwa languages, 70

Labov, William, 31–32, 157, 158
Ladino, 7, 88–89
Lake Charles, La., 49
Laos, 10, 75
Larry the Cable Guy, 200
Last of the Ofos, The (Hobson), 108
Latinos, 109–15, 160
Lawson, John, 50
Lederer, John, 108
Lee, Harper, 169
Lewis, Henry Clay, 151
Liberia, 2, 32, 70, 91
Liberian Settler English (LSE), 91–92
Lieber, Francis, 150
Linguistic Atlas of New England (Kurath), 147
Linguistic Atlas of the Gulf States (LAGS), 23, 135, 139, 140, 142–46
Linguistic Atlas of the Middle and South Atlantic States (LAMSAS), 22, 135, 147–49, 155
Linguistic Atlas of the North-Central States, 26, 155
Linguistic Atlas of the United States and Canada, 149
Linguistic Atlas Project. See American Linguistic Atlas Project

Linguists and linguistics, 149–50;
- university having academic program in, 150
Lipan, 6, 36
Literary dialect, 150–54, 189, 194
Livingston, Tex., 95

London, 19, 118, 119
Longstreet, Augustus Baldwin, 151
Louisiana, 11, 23, 132, 142, 144, 151, 171, 175, 189;
- indigenous languages in, 6, 47, 80, 82, 83, 95, 98, 108;
- French in, 7, 8–9, 12, 49, 50, 60–65, 73, 81, 129, 172;
- Spanish in, 8, 78;
- Cajun English in, 12, 49–50;
- black signers in, 42;
- Acadians in, 49;
- German in, 66;
- Vietnamese in, 75;
- New Orleans English in, 100–103;
- storytelling in, 158–59;
- name of, 173
Louisiana Creole, 61–65, 130
Louisiana French Creole, 8, 37, 65, 100, 152
Louisville, Ky., 202
Lowcountry, 11, 129, 130, 194
Lower South, 11, 17, 18, 19, 23, 42, 59, 92, 116, 185
Lowman, Guy, 147
Lucayan Indians, 46
Luling, Tex., 200
Lumbee English, 93–94, 160
Lutherans, 9, 66, 67

Malinke, 53
Mandarin Chinese, 77
Mande, 70
Mandingo, 53, 206
Mandinka, 7
Marion, Francis, 60, 173
Marksville, La., 107, 108
Marshallese, 75
Maryland, 54, 55, 91, 104, 132
Maryland in Africa, 91
Maskogo, 36
Mayaguana, 45
McDavid, Raven I., Jr., 23, 147, 148, 149, 150, 154–56
McDavid, Virginia G., 156
McMillan, James B., 149
McPherson, James Alan, 154
Mecklenburg County, N.C., 67, 111
Media, 21, 34, 45, 63, 114, 193, 210
Melnar, Lynette, 48
Memphis, Tenn., 77, 89, 202, 203
Mencken, H. L., 155, 191
Mende, 7, 53
Mennonites, 9, 67
Metaphors, 43, 135
Mexico, 10, 36, 58, 75, 109, 114, 202
Miami, Fla., 113
Miami, Okla., 107
Michigan, 164
Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil (film), 195, 196
Mikasuki (Miccosukee), 5, 83, 94, 95
Mirvis, Tova, 90
Mississippi, 3, 11, 23, 73, 92, 100, 132, 142, 144, 151, 198, 199;
- indigenous languages in, 5, 6, 82, 95, 97, 98, 107, 108;
- school for the deaf in, 40;
- name of, 173
Mississippi Delta, 198
Mississippi in Africa, 91, 92
Missouri, 105, 132, 151, 191, 204
Mithun, Marianne, 108
Mobila, 82
Mobile, Ala., 60, 80
Mobilian Jargon, 6, 37, 60, 80–82, 94
Mohawk, 85
Mongolia, 10, 75
Monrovia, Liberia, 91
Monterrey, Mexico, 202
Montgomery, Ala., 89
Montgomery, Michael, 26
Moneton, 107, 108
Mooney, James, 87
Moravians, 9, 66
Morgan, Gib, 201
Morocco, 100
Mosopelea, 108
Mules and Men (Hurston), 129
Murfree, Mary, 152
Muscogee Creek, 120
Muskogean languages, 3, 5, 6, 50, 78, 80–81, 82, 83, 94–97, 98, 172
Muskogee, 5, 79, 94

Nacimiento, Mexico, 36
Names. See Personal names; Place-names

Nantahala, N.C., 85

Narrative, 156–59. See also Storytelling
Nashville, Tenn., 17, 21, 77, 186, 202
Nassau, 45
Natchez, 6, 82, 98–99
Natchez, Miss., 90, 129
Natchitoches, La., 60
National Storytelling Festival, 200
New Braunfels, Tex., 9, 68
New Brunswick, 9, 49, 61
New Orleans, La., 2, 12, 49, 60, 65, 89, 129, 137, 204;
- English, 100–103
Newport News, Va., 117
New Providence, 46
New York, 5, 40, 45, 85, 109, 147
New York (City), 32, 90, 209
Ngola, 7
Niger-Congo, 7, 34, 92, 207
Nigeria, 10, 53, 70, 75, 207
No Time for Sergeants, 196
Nolan, Charles F. M., 151
Norfolk, Va., 117, 118
North Carolina, 7, 11, 22, 33, 42, 44, 91, 92, 104, 132, 139, 149, 159–60, 171, 189, 190;
- indigenous languages in, 5, 6, 38, 50, 51, 82, 85, 86, 107;
- Spanish in, 8, 109, 110, 111, 202;
- Moravians in, 9;
- Gaelic in, 10;
- English in, 10;
- school for the deaf in, 40, 41;
- German in, 66, 67;
- Gullah in, 69;
- Asians in, 75–77;
- Lumbee Indians in, 93;
- name of, 172
North Carolina Language and Life Project (NCLLP), 159–60
Nottoway, 85
Nova Scotia, 2, 9, 15, 32, 49, 61
Nutt, Grady, 200

Oakland, Calif., 14, 34
O’Cain, Raymond K., 156
Occaneechi, 79, 107, 108
O’Connor, Flannery, 133
Odum, Howard W., 203
Ofo, 107, 108
Ohio, 67, 68, 132, 147
Okefenokee Swamp, 198
Oklahoma, 132;
- as Indian Territory, 5, 36, 98, 120;
- indigenous languages/peoples in, 5, 6, 38, 47, 71, 80, 86, 95, 96, 97, 107
Oklahoma Creek (Muskogee), 5, 94
Oklahoma Seminole, 5, 94
Old English, 26
Oliverio, Giulia R. M., 108
Omaha, 107
Ontario, 85
Orangeburg, S.C., 66, 206
Oratorical themes, 161–63
Orleans Parish, La., 100, 103
Osage, 48, 81, 107
Oto, 81
Outer Banks (islands), 1, 11, 19, 94, 138, 139, 159
Outer Banks English, 104–5, 159, 160
Ozark English, 42, 105–6
Ozark Folklore (Randolph), 191
Ozark Folksongs (Randolph), 191
Ozark Mountain Folks (Randolph), 191
Ozarks, 1, 11, 105, 138, 144, 189, 191–92, 197, 199
Ozarks, The (Randolph), 191
Ozark Superstitions (Randolph), 191

Page, Thomas Nelson, 128, 153
Pakistan, 10, 75
Pamlico, 79
Pardo, Juan, 50
Pareja, Francisco, 83
Parks, Suzan-Lori, 154
Pascagoula (language), 82
Paul, Benjamin, 84
Pawnee, 47
Peck, Gregory, 196
Pederson, Lee, 23, 142, 149
Pendleton County, W.Va., 67
Pennsylvania, 11, 23, 38, 209;
- German in, 9, 65–68
Pennsylvania Dutch, 67
Perryman, Rufus, 203
Personal names, 15, 20, 83, 136, 168–71;
- of African Americans, 124–27, 130–31, 206
Philadelphia, Miss., 95

Philadelphia, Pa., 31, 117, 203
Philippines, 10, 75
Phonology, 40–41
Pidgin Powhatan, 79
Piedmont, 11, 50, 79, 158, 189
Pissing in the Snow (Randolph), 191
Pittsburg, Kans., 191
Place-names, 3, 6, 7, 8, 20, 83, 85, 118, 119, 125, 136, 171–74;
- of states, 172–73
Plantation Society French, 62–63, 64
Plaquemines Parish, La., 65, 100
Pleasantness, of language, 164, 167, 168
Point Coupee Parish, La., 63
Poland, 115
Politeness, 19, 138, 174–77, 195
Ponca, 107
Ponce de León, Juan, 171
Poor Richard’s Almanac (Franklin), 187
Poor White Trash, 196
Port Arthur, Tex., 76
Portsmouth, Va., 117
Portugal, 89
Portuguese, 58, 59
Powhatan, 5, 6, 38–39, 79
Powhatan Renape Nation, 40
Preaching style: black, 178–80;
- white, 181–84
Prince Edward Island, 49
Pronunciation, 12, 17, 18–19, 22, 23, 29, 31, 133, 167, 194–95;
- archaic, 26;
- of Appalachia, 44–45;
- of Cajun English, 50;
- of Charleston English, 54;
- of Chesapeake Bay English, 55;
- of Conch, 58;
- of Cherokee, 87;
- of New Orleans English, 102–3;
- of Outer Banks English, 104;
- of Texas English, 116;
- of Tidewater English, 118–19;
- of fixin’ to, 134;
- of folk speech, 135;
- changes in, 184–86
Pronunciation of English in the Atlantic States (Kurath and McDavid), 23, 155
Proto-Muskogean, 99
Proverbs, 19, 43, 130, 136, 187–89

Qualla Cherokee, 86, 88
Quapaw, 107, 108

R, 1, 17, 18, 55, 58, 59, 116, 118, 156, 186, 189–90, 194–95, 196
Rabbit Foot Minstrel Show, 200
Raleigh, N.C., 40, 113, 115, 186
Randolph, Vance, 106, 136, 191–92, 199
Rankin, Robert, 107, 108
Rankokus, N.J., 40
Rap music, 123, 204
Raven, Nancy, 98
Rawls, Lou, 180
Ray brothers, 200
Reconstruction, 138, 153, 161–62
Red Thunder Cloud, 51
Richmond, Va., 17, 89, 117, 186
Ritter, William, 41
Robertson, Lexie Dean, 152
Robertson, Pat, 181
Robeson County, N.C., 93
Rock Hill, S.C., 51
Rockingham County, Va., 67
Roots (Haley), 124
Russian, 72

St. Bernard Parish, La., 100
St. Charles Parish, La., 100
Saint Domingue/Haiti, 62
St. James Parish, La., 100
St. John the Baptist Parish, La., 100
St. Martin Parish, La., 63
St. Marys, Ga., 69
St. Simons, Ga., 69
St. Tammany Parish, La., 100
Sam, Watt, 98
San Antonio, Tex., 75, 76, 77, 114
Sanchez, Sonia, 154
Sandy Island, S.C., 69
Sapir, Edward, 120
Saponi, 79, 107, 108
Sarasota, Fla., 67
Savannah, Ga., 17, 77, 89, 90, 137
Sawokli, 82
Saxe Gotha Township, S.C., 66
Schools, 5, 12, 14, 29, 34, 40, 52, 62, 63, 75, 76, 77, 86, 88, 112, 141, 175, 201–2, 210. See also Education

Scotch-Irish, 11, 19, 26, 43, 44
Scotland, 9, 10, 14, 19, 30, 31, 53, 137
Scots, 9, 105, 181
Sea Islands, 1, 8, 37, 69, 71, 129, 138, 206
Sea Island Creole (SIC), 36–37, 69. See also Gullah
Seminole, 5, 6, 80, 94, 95, 96, 97
Seneca, 85
Senegal, 53
Senegambia, 11, 70
Sephardic Jews, 53, 88–90, 100, 168
Sequoyah, 5, 87
Sermons. See Preaching style

Settlers, Liberian, 91–92
Shakespearean English, 11, 26, 42, 43, 55, 105, 118
Shawnee, 38–39, 79
Shawnee, Okla., 38
Shenandoah Valley, 67
Shiminol, 36
Siebert, Frank T., 50
Sierra Leone, 2, 53, 70, 207
Siler City, N.C., 113
Silva-Corvalán, Carmen, 113
Simmons, Donald C., 203
Simms, William Gilmore, 151
Sinoe County (Mississippi in Africa), 92
Siouan languages, 3, 5, 50, 78, 79, 80, 82, 106–9, 120, 172
Slavery/slave trade, 3, 7, 36, 61–63, 69–70, 138, 183
Sling Blade, 196
Smith, John, 6
Smith, Lee, 154
Smitherman, Geneva, 182
Smith Island, Md., 55
Smokey and the Bandit, 196
Snowbird Cherokee, 86
Solsberry, Ind., 200
Somalia, 75
Sound and the Fury, The (Faulkner), 179
South, as a speech region, 2–3, 12
South Carolina, 1, 7, 11, 22, 23, 42, 91, 92, 129, 132, 149, 189;
- indigenous languages in, 3, 5, 50, 51–52, 107;
- Spanish in, 8, 110;
- German in, 9, 66, 67, 68;
- English in, 10;
- Gullah in, 29, 36, 37, 45, 46, 70, 71, 125, 130, 206;
- Charleston English in, 52–54;
- and work of McDavid, 147, 148, 154, 156;
- name of, 172
Southeastern Conference on Linguistics (SECOL), 150
Southern Belle, 195–96
Southern drawl. See Drawl, southern

Southern English: formation of, 10–11;
- changes in, 16, 17, 137–40, 184–87, 207–10;
- perceptions of, 164–68;
- in television and film, 193–97
Southern Journal of Linguistics, 150
Southern shift, 17, 19, 32
Southern White Vernacular English, 92
South Korea, 10
Spain, 89, 100, 109
Spanish, 7, 8, 12, 37, 38, 43, 68, 72, 78, 83, 88, 109–15, 115–16, 168, 171, 202
Speck, Frank, 51
Springdale, Ark., 75
Sranan, 70
Starkville, Miss., 77
Staunton, Va., 40, 67
Steel Magnolias, 196
Stewart, Cal, 199
Storytelling, 19, 43, 131, 156–59, 197–201
Stuart, Jesse, 152
Stuart, Ruth McEnery, 152
Sudan, 75
Sugar Land, Tex., 77
Suggs, James Douglas, 200
Surinam, 70
Survey of Verb Forms in the Eastern United States (Atwood), 22
Swadesh, Morris, 84
Swaggart, Jimmy, 181
Swain County, N.C., 86
Swanton, John R., 83, 84, 98, 108
Switzerland, 60, 66
Syria, 100

Taiwan, 10, 75, 76
Taliaferro, Hardin E., 151

“Talking backwards,” 56
Tallahassee, Fla., 95
TampaRed, 203
Tangier Island, Va., 55–56, 119
Tangipahoa (language), 100
Tangipahoa Parish, La., 100
Tate, Allen, 127
Tawasa, 83
Taylor, Archer, 136
Teaching English, to speakers of other languages, 201–2
Tecumseh, 79
Tecumseh, Okla., 38
Television, 18, 21, 42, 189, 193–97, 199, 210
Tellico, Tenn., 85
Tennessee, 11, 23, 42, 75, 87, 142, 151, 171, 172, 178;
- indigenous languages in, 5, 6, 47, 82, 98, 107, 120;
- Spanish in, 8, 110;
- name of, 173
Tequesta, 82
Terrebone Parish, La., 65
Texas, 11, 23, 73, 132, 142, 144, 149, 185, 189, 190, 204;
- indigenous languages in, 3, 6, 82, 83, 95;
- Spanish in, 8, 12, 73, 78, 109, 110, 115, 172;
- German in, 9, 65, 68–69;
- Afro-Seminole Creole in, 12, 36, 80;
- Confederates from, 58;
- Asians in, 75–77;
- Chinese in, 77;
- bilingual education in, 112;
- English in, 115–17;
- name of, 173
Texas English, 12, 115–17
Thailand, 10, 75
Their Eyes Were Watching God (Hurston), 153
Thomas, Erik, 31, 34
Thompson, William Tappan, 151
Thorpe, Thomas Bangs, 151
Tidewater English (Tidewater Virginia Dialect), 11, 57, 117–19
Time to Kill, A (film), 196
Timucua, 6, 79, 82, 83
Titles, honorific, 175–76
Toasts and dozens, 19, 203–5
Togo, 53
To Kill a Mockingbird (Lee), 169;
- film, 196
Tonkawa, 6, 48
Trinidad, 15
Tshiluba, 206
Tulsa, Okla., 120
Tunica, 6, 82, 83, 84, 98, 107, 108
Tunica-Biloxi, 100
Turkey, 100
Turner, Lorenzo Dow, 15, 36, 205–7
Tuscarora, 5, 79, 85, 108, 172
Tutelo, 79, 107, 108
Twain, Mark, 152, 153
Twang. See Drawl, southern

Twi language, 124

Ulster, 9, 10, 11, 14, 19, 26, 30, 31, 43, 44, 94, 139, 181, 209, 211
Umbundu, 206
Uncle Remus (Harris), 152
Upper Cape Fear Valley, 9
Upper Guinean languages, 36
Upper South, 11, 17, 19, 23, 106, 116
USSR, former, 10, 75
Utah, 116
Uto-Aztecan, 6

Vai, 206
Vaughn, Sarah, 180
Venezuela, 75
Vernacular Liberian English (VLE), 91
Vicksburg, Miss., 200
Victoria, Tex., 76
Vietnam, 10, 75
Vietnamese, 72, 73, 76, 100
Virginia, 1, 11, 19, 22, 23, 42, 50, 54, 91, 92, 104, 132, 149, 190;
- indigenous languages in, 5, 6, 38, 79, 82, 85;
- German in, 7, 9, 67;
- English in, 7, 10, 117;
- Spanish in, 8;
- school for the deaf in, 40;
- Chesapeake Bay English in, 54–57;
- El Salvadorans in, 75;
- Chinese in, 77;
- name of, 172
Virginia Algonquian (Powhatan), 38–39
Virginia Beach, Va., 117
Vocabulary, 17, 18, 19, 22, 23, 132–33;
- of Appalachian English, 44;
- of Bahamian English, 47;
- of Cajun English, 49;
- on Tangier Island, 56;
- of Confederados, 59;
- of Louisiana Creole and Cajun French, 64;
- of Lumbee English, 93;
- of Ozark English, 106;
- of folk speech, 135;
- in television and film, 195;
- of Gullah, 206;
- changes in, 207–10
Von Reck, Philip Georg Friedrich, 120

Wales, 9
Waletzky, Joshua, 157, 158
Walker, Alice, 129, 154
Waltons, The, 196
Ward, Marshall, 200
Washington, D.C., 32, 40, 75, 91, 117
Washington, George, 173
Washington Parish, La., 100
We Always Lie to Strangers (Randolph), 191
Webster, Noah, 12
Welty, Eudora, 133, 152, 169
West Africa, 15, 47, 53, 54, 61, 69, 71, 91, 92, 100, 108, 123, 124, 125, 206
West African Pidgin English, 69–70
West Indies, 15, 123
West Point, Va., 117
West Virginia, 23, 42, 108, 171;
- German in, 9, 67;
- name of, 173
Wewoka, Okla., 36
White, Newman I., 203
Whiting, Bartlett J., 136
Wichita, 47
Williams, Robert, 34
Williams, Tennessee, 171
Williamson, Juanita, 149
Wilson, George P., 136
Windham, Kathryn T., 201
Windward Coast, 70
Wise, Claude Merton, 149
Wise, Isaac Mayer, 90
Witherspoon, John, 12
Woccon, 50, 79, 82
Wolfram, Walt, 33
Wolof, 53
Woman Within, The (Glasgow), 127
Woodson, Carter, 206
Worcester’s Dictionary of the English Language (1860), 56
Word Geography of the Eastern United States (Kurath), 22, 148
Wright, Richard, 153

Y’all, 1–2, 18, 19, 29, 90, 113, 116, 133, 135, 138, 195, 210–12
Yamacraw, 83
Yamasee, 82
Yazoo City, Miss., 200
Yiddish, 89, 90
Yoruba, 206, 207
Youchigant, Sesostrie, 84
Young, Martha Strudwick, 152
Youngblood, Shay, 154
Yuchi (Euchee), 6, 50, 82, 107, 120–21

Zéphir, Flore, 78