The next contemplation in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta is concerned with a specific set of mental qualities, the five hindrances. These come as the first among the contemplations of “dhammas”. Before embarking on a closer inspection of this exercise, I will examine the implications of the term “dhammas”, in order to provide some background to the exercises listed under this fourth and last satipaṭṭhāna.
The Pāli term dhamma can assume a variety of meanings, depending on the context in which it occurs. Most translators take the term dhammas in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta to mean “mental objects”, in the sense of whatever can become an object of the mind, in contradistinction to the objects of the other five senses. In regard to satipaṭṭhāna, however, this rendering appears strange. If the term dhammas were to refer to “objects of the mind”, then the other three satipaṭṭhānas should also be included here, since they too can become objects of the mind. Moreover, one of the exercises listed under the fourth satipaṭṭhāna is contemplation of the six senses together with their respective objects, so this contemplation of dhammas is not confined to the objects of the mind as the sixth sense only. In fact, the dhammas listed in the fourth satipaṭṭhāna, such as the hindrances and the aggregates, etc., do not naturally evoke the classification “mental objects”.1
What this satipaṭṭhāna is actually concerned with are specific mental qualities (such as the five hindrances and the seven awakening factors), and analyses of experience into specific categories (such as the five aggregates, the six sense-spheres, and the four noble truths). These mental factors and categories constitute central aspects of the Buddha’s way of teaching, the Dhamma.2 These classificatory schemes are not in themselves the objects of meditation, but constitute frameworks or points of reference to be applied during contemplation. During actual practice one is to look at whatever is experienced in terms of these dhammas.3 Thus the dhammas mentioned in this satipaṭṭhāna are not “mental objects”, but are applied to whatever becomes an object of the mind or of any other sense door during contemplation.
The expression “contemplation of dhammas” occurs also in the Ānāpānasati Sutta in relation to the last four of the sixteen steps for developing mindfulness of breathing, which are concerned with contemplating “impermanence”, “fading away”, “cessation”, and “letting go”.4 At first sight, the four steps described here appear to be quite different from the mental factors and categories listed under contemplation of dhammas in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta. The Buddha’s reason for classifying these final four steps of mindfulness of breathing as contemplation of dhammas was that at this more advanced point of practice a meditator will have overcome desires and discontent, thereby becoming established in equanimity.5 The commentaries indicate that this is a reference to the removal of the hindrances.6
Although taking desires and discontent to represent the whole set of the five hindrances is questionable,7 this explanation provides a link between the final four steps of mindfulness of breathing and the sequence of dhammas in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, since these begin with the hindrances. According to the commentaries, the hindrances lead the contemplations of dhammas because their removal serves as a basis for developing the comparatively sophisticated contemplations in this last satipaṭṭhāna.8 A further parallel between the two discourses is that the sixteen-step scheme for mindfulness of breathing leads to the development of the awakening factors,9 since the awakening factors also form part of the contemplation of dhammas in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta.
These parallels suggest that a temporal progression towards realization could form the key aspect of contemplation of dhammas in both cases. In the satipaṭṭhāna context, this progression underlies the sequential order of the mental factors and categories detailed for contemplation of dhammas (cf. Fig. 9.1 below): Based on a sufficient degree of mental stability through overcoming the hindrances, contemplation of dhammas proceeds to an analysis of subjective personality, in terms of the five aggregates, and to an analysis of the relation between subjective personality and the outer world, in terms of the six sense-spheres.10 These two analyses form a convenient basis for developing the awakening factors, whose successful establishment constitutes a necessary condition for awakening. To awaken is to fully understand the four noble truths “as they really are”, this being the final exercise among the contemplations of dhammas and the successful culmination of satipaṭṭhāna practice.11
With the final four steps of mindfulness of breathing, however, the emphasis is mainly directed towards the insights gained through contemplation of dhammas. These proceed from the direct experience of the impermanent nature of phenomena (aniccānupassī), to giving attention to their “fading away” (virāgānupassī) and “cessation” (nirodhānupassī). These in turn lead to detachment, or “letting go” (paṭinissaggānupassī): a state of mind fit for awakening.12
Contemplation of dhammas in both the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta and the Ānāpānasati Sutta, then, indicates a temporal progression towards detachment and realization. Although the breakthrough to realization can take place while practising any of the sixteen steps of mindfulness of breathing, the final four steps appear to be specifically designed to this end. Similarly, although realization can take place while one is engaged in any of the satipaṭṭhāna contemplations, the final section of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, concerned with the contemplation of dhammas, stands out for its particular emphasis on achieving this goal.
In contrast to the previous satipaṭṭhānas, contemplation of dhammas is particularly concerned with recognizing the conditioned nature of the phenomena under observation. In fact, the main instruction for most of the contemplations of dhammas directly mentions conditionality, while in the previous satipaṭṭhānas this happens only in the “refrain”. The prominence of conditionality in this satipaṭṭhāna brings to mind the well-known statement that one who sees dependent co-arising sees the Dhamma.13 Such “seeing” (passati) of the Dhamma may well come about through “contemplating” (anu-passati) dhammas, a suggestion which also squares well with the acquisition of the “method” (ñāya) mentioned in the “direct path” passage of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta as a goal of practice.14
Thus contemplation of dhammas skilfully applies dhammas (classificatory categories) as taught in the Dhamma (the teaching of the Buddha) during contemplation in order to bring about an understanding of the dhamma (principle) of conditionality and lead to the realization of the highest of all dhammas (phenomena): Nibbāna.15
IX.2 CONTEMPLATION OF THE FIVE HINDRANCES
The first of the contemplations of dhammas is, in a way, a more specific version of contemplation of states of mind, since it turns awareness to five manifestations of the three unwholesome roots: the five hindrances. In contrast to the preceding contemplation of the mind, however, contemplation of the hindrances covers not only the presence or absence of a hindrance, but also the conditions underlying the presence or absence of each hindrance. In my exploration I will follow the two-stage pattern of this instruction, by focusing initially on the five hindrances and the importance of recognizing them, and considering subsequently the conditions for their presence or absence.
The satipaṭṭhāna instructions for contemplating the hindrances are:
If sensual desire is present in him, he knows “there is sensual desire in me”; if sensual desire is not present in him, he knows “there is no sensual desire in me”; and he knows how unarisen sensual desire can arise, how arisen sensual desire can be removed, and how a future arising of the removed sensual desire can be prevented. If aversion is present in him, he knows.… If sloth-and-torpor is present in him, he knows.… If restlessness-and-worry is present in him, he knows.... If doubt is present in him, he knows “there is doubt in me”; if doubt is not present in him, he knows “there is no doubt in me”; and he knows how unarisen doubt can arise, how arisen doubt can be removed, and how a future arising of the removed doubt can be prevented.16
The use of the term “hindrance” (nīvaraṇa) clearly indicates why these mental qualities have been singled out for special attention: they “hinder” the proper functioning of the mind.17 Under the influence of the hindrances one is unable to understand one’s own good or that of others, or to gain concentration or insight.18 Learning to withstand the impact of a hindrance with awareness is therefore an important skill for one’s progress on the path. According to the discourses, difficulties in counterbalancing a hindrance are a good reason for approaching an experienced meditator to ask for practical guidance.19
These five hindrances actually cover seven distinct mental qualities.20 That these seven are subsumed under a fivefold presentation is probably due to the similarities in effect and character between sloth (thīna) and torpor (middha), and between restlessness (uddhacca) and worry (kukkucca).21 According to the commentaries, this fivefold presentation makes it possible to correlate each hindrance with one of the five mental factors needed to attain absorption (jhānaaṅga).22
The hindrances not only obstruct absorption attainment, they also impede the establishment of the awakening factors (bojjhaṅga).23 This antagonistic relationship between the hindrances and the awakening factors is of considerable importance, since the removal of the former and the development of the latter are necessary conditions for realization.24
Two sets of similes in the discourses depict the specific character and effect of the five hindrances. The first set of similes illustrates the effect of each hindrance through the image of a bowl filled with water and used as a mirror in order to look at the reflection of one’s face. According to these similes, the effect of sensual desire is similar to water mixed with dye; aversion resembles water heated to the boil; sloth-and-torpor is compared to water overgrown with algae; restlessness-and-worry affect the mind like water stirred by wind; and doubt is like dark and muddy water.25 In all five cases, one is unable to see one’s reflection properly in the water. These similes vividly illustrate the individual character of each hindrance: sensual desire colours one’s perception; because of aversion one gets heated; sloth-and-torpor result in stagnation; through restlessness-and-worry one is tossed about; and doubt obscures.26
The other set of similes illustrates the absence of the hindrances. According to this set, to be free from sensual desire is like being relieved from a debt; to be free from aversion is like recovering from physical illness; to be unobstructed by sloth-and-torpor is akin to being released from prison; to be free from the agitation of restlessness-and-worry is like being liberated from slavery; and to overcome doubt resembles crossing a dangerous desert safely.27 This second set of similes provides additional illustrations of the hindrances: sensual desire agitating the mind is comparable to being heavily in debt; the tension created through aversion is quite literally a dis-ease; sloth-and-torpor dulls and imprisons the mind; restlessness-and-worry can control the mind to such an extent that one is completely at its mercy; and doubt leaves one in a state of insecurity, not knowing which way to turn.
Since the first set of similes illustrates the presence of the hindrances (in terms of their debilitating effect), while the second describes the relief of being free of them, these two sets correspond to the two alternatives for contemplating the hindrances: awareness of their presence or of their absence.
IX.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF RECOGNIZING THE HINDRANCES
According to the discourses, if a hindrance is present and one does not recognize it, one is “mis-meditating”, a form of practice the Buddha did not approve of.28 But if one does recognize the presence of a hindrance and contemplates it as a satipaṭṭhāna meditation, one’s practice will lead to purification of the mind.29
A passage in the Aṅguttara Nikāya demonstrates the importance of clearly recognizing mental defilements for what they are. This discourse reports the monk Anuruddha complaining to his friend Sariputta that despite concentrative attainments, unshaken energy, and well-established mindfulness, he was unable to break through to full realization.30 In reply, Sāriputta pointed out that Anuruddha’s boasting of concentration attainments was nothing but a manifestation of conceit, his unshaken energy was simply restlessness, and his concern about not yet having awakened was just worry. Helped by his friend to recognize these as hindrances, Anuruddha was soon able to overcome them and achieve realization.
This technique of simple recognition constitutes an ingenious way of turning obstacles to meditation into meditation objects.31 Practised in this way, bare awareness of a hindrance becomes a middle path between suppression and indulgence.32 Several discourses beautifully illustrate the powerful effect of this simple act of recognition by describing how the tempter Māra, who often acts as a personification of the five hindrances, loses his powers as soon as he is recognized.33
The ingenuity of this approach of bare recognition can be illustrated by considering the case of anger from a medical perspective. The arising of anger leads to an increase in the release of adrenaline, and such an increase in adrenaline will in turn further stimulate the anger.34 The presence of non-reactive sati puts a brake on this vicious cycle.35 By simply remaining receptively aware of a state of anger, neither the physical reaction nor the mental proliferation is given scope. If, on the other hand, one abandons the balanced state of awareness and resents or condemns the arisen anger, the act of condemnation becomes just another manifestation of aversion.36 The vicious cycle of anger continues, albeit with a different object.
Once the hindrances are at least temporarily removed,37 the alternative aspect of contemplating the hindrances becomes relevant: awareness of their absence. In several expositions of the gradual path, such absence of the hindrances forms the starting point for a causal sequence that leads via delight, joy, tranquillity, and happiness (pāmojja, pīti, passaddhi, and sukha) to concentration and the attainment of absorption. The instruction in this context is “to contemplate the disappearance of the five hindrances within oneself”.38 This suggests a positive act of recognizing and even rejoicing in the absence of the hindrances, which then paves the way for deep concentration. Such a conscious act of recognizing and rejoicing in the absence of the hindrances is vividly illustrated in the second set of similes mentioned above, which compare this state of mental freedom to freedom from debt, disease, imprisonment, slavery, and danger.
Several discourses refer to such a tranquil state of mind, temporarily unaffected by any hindrance or mental defilement, as “luminous”.39 According to a passage in the Aṅguttara Nikāya, to come to know this luminous nature of the mind is in fact an important requirement for the development of the mind (cittabhāvanā).40
IX.4 CONDITIONS FOR PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF A HINDRANCE
After the first stage of recognizing the presence or absence of a hindrance, the second stage of the same contemplation follows: awareness of the conditions that have led to the arising of a hindrance, that assist in removing an arisen hindrance, and that prevent future arising of a hindrance (see Fig. 9.2 below). The task of sati during this second stage follows a progressive pattern, proceeding from diagnosis, via cure, to prevention.
By turning a hindrance into an object of meditation, the mere presence of awareness can often lead to dispelling the hindrance in question. Should bare awareness not suffice, more specific antidotes are required. In this case, sati has the task of supervising the measures undertaken for removing the hindrance, by providing a clear picture of the actual situation, without however getting involved itself and thereby losing its detached observational vantage point.
Clearly recognizing the conditions for the arising of a particular hindrance not only forms the basis for its removal, but also leads to an appreciation of the general pattern of its arising. Such appreciation lays bare the levels of conditioning and misperceptions that cause the arising of a hindrance, and thereby contributes to preventing its recurrence.
Sustained observation will reveal the fact that frequently thinking or dwelling on a particular issue produces a corresponding mental inclination, and thus a tendency to get caught up in ever more thoughts and associations along the same lines.41 In the case of sensual desire (kāmacchanda), for example, it will become evident that its arising is due not only to outer objects, but also to an inclination towards sensuality embedded within one’s own mind.42 This sensual tendency influences the way one perceives outer objects and thence leads to the full-blown arising of desire, and various attempts to satisfy this desire.43
The particular dynamic of sensual desire is such that, every time a sensual desire is gratified, the act of gratification fuels ever stronger subsequent manifestations of the same desire.44 With detached observation it will become apparent that gratification of sensual desires is based on a misconception, on searching for pleasure in the wrong place.45 As the Buddha pointed out, the way to inner peace and composure necessarily depends on gaining independence from this vortex of desire and gratification.46
A passage in the Aṅguttara Nikāya offers an intriguing psychological analysis of the underlying causes of sensual desire. According to this discourse, the search for satisfaction through a partner of the other gender is related to one’s identification with the characteristics and behaviour of one’s own gender.47 That is, to search for union externally implies that one is still caught up in the limitations of one’s own gender identity. This shows that the affective investment inherent in identifying with one’s gender role and behaviour forms an important link in the arising of sensual desire. In contrast arahants, who have eradicated even the subtlest traces of identification, are unable to engage in sexual intercourse.48
Just as the arising of sensual desire can be analysed in terms of its psychological underpinnings, so too the absence of sensual desire depends on an intelligent management of the same psychological mechanisms. Once one has at least temporarily escaped from the vicious circle of continuous demands for satisfaction, it becomes possible to develop some form of counterbalance in one’s perceptual appraisal.49 If excessively dwelling on aspects of external beauty has led to frequent states of lust, contemplation directed towards the less appealing aspects of the body can lead to a progressive decrease in such states of mind.
Examples for such counterbalancing can be found among the satipaṭṭhāna meditation practices, in particular the contemplations of the anatomical constitution of the body and of a decaying corpse. In addition to these, restraint of the senses, moderation with food, wakefulness, and awareness of the impermanent nature of all mental events are helpful measures in order to prevent the arising of sensual desire.50
Similar approaches are appropriate for the other hindrances, in each case entailing the establishment of some form of counterbalance to the conditions that tend to stimulate the arising of the hindrance. In the case of aversion (byāpāda), often the irritating or repulsive feature of phenomena has received undue attention. A direct antidote to such one-sided perception is to ignore the negative qualities of whoever is causing one’s irritation, and to pay attention instead to whatever positive qualities can be found in him or her.51 By no longer paying attention to the matter, or by reflecting on the inevitability of karmic retribution, it becomes possible to develop equanimity.52
An important remedy for a tendency to anger and aversion is the development of loving kindness (metta).53 According to the discourses, developing loving kindness helps to establish harmonious relations not only towards other human beings, but also towards non-human beings.54 In the present context, the concept of “non-human beings” can also be understood in a psychological way, as representing subjective psychological disorders.55 The development of loving kindness indeed counteracts pathological feelings of alienation and low self-esteem, and thereby provides an important foundation for successful insight meditation.
Loving kindness not only provides the proper preparatory ground for the practice of insight meditation, but it can also directly contribute to realization.56 According to the Buddha, the distinctive character of loving kindness meditation as taught by him lies in combining it with the awakening factors, in this way directly harnessing loving kindness to the progress towards realization.57 Several discourses relate the practice of loving kindness in particular to progress from the stage of stream-entry to that of non-returning.58 Clearly, the advantages of developing loving kindness are not confined to its function as an antidote to anger and irritation.
Returning to the remaining hindrances, an antidote to sloth (thīna) and torpor (middha) is to develop “clarity of cognition” (ālokasaññā).59 In the discourses and the Vibhaṅga, “clarity of cognition” seems to refer to the development of mental clarity.60 The commentaries take the expression more literally and suggest the use of real light, either from an external source, or else light as an internal mental image.61
Such “clarity of cognition” takes place with the aid of mindfulness and clearly knowing (sampajāna), which brings into play two essential qualities of satipaṭṭhāna as a remedy against sloth-and-torpor. This points back to the fact that satipaṭṭhāna itself can at times suffice for countering a hindrance. The same is also the case in regard to sensual desire, where contemplation of the anatomical parts or a corpse can act as an antidote. Nevertheless, it needs to be kept in mind that the emphasis in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta is not on actively opposing a hindrance, but on clearly recognizing a hindrance together with the conditions related to its presence or absence. More active measures are the domain of right effort, another factor of the noble eightfold path.
The arising of sloth-and-torpor can be caused by discontent, boredom, laziness, drowsiness caused by overeating, and by a depressed state of mind.62 An effective antidote for these can then be found in a sustained application of energy.63 The Aṅguttara Nikāya dedicates an entire discourse to discussing the hindrance torpor, offering a variety of remedies. Initially, presumably while still maintaining the formal meditation posture, one can attempt to counter torpor by changing one’s meditation subject, or else by reflecting on or reciting passages from the Buddha’s teachings. Should this not work, one can pull one’s ears, massage the body, get up, sprinkle one’s eyes with water and look up at the sky. If torpor still persists, walking meditation should be practised.64
In the opposite case, when restlessness (uddhacca) and worry (kukkucca) have arisen, factors leading to an increase of mental calmness and stability should be developed. Here, mindfulness of breathing stands out as a particularly effective method for calming the thinking activity of the mind.65 In addition, any of the other subjects of calmness meditation are appropriate in this situation, together with improving the general degree of mental calmness and composure during one’s activities.66
According to the discourses, restlessness-and-worry can sometimes arise because of excessive energetic striving.67 Here a less pushy attitude towards one’s practice can help to remedy the situation. In relation to restlessness in particular, it is moreover advisable to avoid any provocative talk, since such talk easily leads to prolonged discussions and thereby causes the arising of restlessness.68 The arising of worry is often related to guilt, such as when one has done an unwholesome deed and feels regret about it.69 Thus maintaining an impeccable level of ethical conduct goes a long way in preventing the arising of this hindrance. The discourses also relate a monk’s experience of “worry” to lack of clarity concerning the Dhamma, and describe how this was then countered by an instruction or explanation given by the Buddha.70
In the case of the last of the five hindrances, a clear distinction between what is wholesome or skilful and what is unwholesome or unskilful serves to counter the obstruction caused by doubt (vicikicchā).71 This obstruction is of considerable importance, since without clearly knowing what is wholesome and what is unwholesome one will be unable to overcome lust, anger, and delusion.72 The hindrance of doubt plays a role not only in relation to the development of insight, but also in the context of calmness meditation. This can be inferred from the Upakkilesa Sutta, a discourse concerned mainly with the development of concentration, where doubt heads a list of mental obstructions to the attainment of absorption.73
The ability to distinguish between wholesomeness and unwholesomeness needed for overcoming doubt can be developed with the help of the awakening factor investigation-of-dhammas (dhammavicaya).74 This indicates that from a Buddhist perspective the task of overcoming doubt is not a question of belief or faith. Rather, overcoming doubt takes place through a process of investigation, which leads to clarity and understanding.
Overcoming these five hindrances is a matter of crucial importance for all types of meditative practices. For this purpose, the commentaries list a set of factors helpful for overcoming or inhibiting each hindrance, a survey of which can be found in Fig. 9.3 overleaf. With increasing meditative proficiency it will become possible to dispel any hindrance as soon as it is recognized, as quickly as a drop of water evaporates when it falls on a hot frying pan.75 The centrally important factor for removing a hindrance, whether slowly or quickly, is sati, since without awareness of the presence or arising of a hindrance, little can be done in terms of prevention or removal. This task of mindful recognition is the central theme of contemplation of the hindrances.
|
sensual desire |
general acquaintance with and formal meditation on the body’s unattractiveness guarding the senses moderation in food good friends and suitable conversation |
|
aversion |
aversion general acquaintance with and formal meditation on loving kindness reflecting on the karmic consequences of one’s deeds repeated wise consideration good friends and suitable conversation |
|
sloth + torpor |
lessening food intake changing meditation postures mental clarity/ cognition of light staying outdoors good friends and suitable conversation |
|
restlessness + worry |
good knowledge of the discourses clarification of the discourses through questioning being well versed in ethical conduct visiting experienced elders good friends and suitable conversation |
|
doubt |
good knowledge of the discourses clarification of the discourses through questioning being well versed in ethical conduct strong commitment good friends and suitable conversation |
Fig. 9.3 Commentarial survey of factors for overcoming or inhibiting the hindrances76
