Prologue
1. G. W. Bush, “Securing Freedom’s Triumph,” New York Times, 11 September 2002, A33.
2. T. Blair, Speech to U.S. Congress, 18 July 2003, “History Will Forgive Us”; available online at: http://politics.guardian.co.uk/speeches/story/0,11126,1008150,00.html
3. G. W. Bush, “Both Our Nations Serve the Cause of Freedom,” New York Times, 20 November 2003, A14.
4. G. W. Bush, “Acceptance Speech to Convention Delegates in New York,” New York Times, 3 September 2004, P4; “The Inaugural Address: The Best Hope for Peace in Our World Is the Expansion of Freedom in All the World,” New York Times, 21 January 2005, A12–13.
5. D. Brooks, “Ideals and Reality,” New York Times, 22 January 2005, A15.
6. Cited in N. Chomsky, On Power and Ideology (Boston: South End Press, 1990), 14.
7. N. Smith, The Endgame of Globalization (New York: Routledge, 2005).
8. M. Foucault, “What Is Enlightenment?” in The Foucault Reader, ed. P. Rabinow (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin, 1984), 45.
9. Smith, Endgame of Globalization, 30–31.
10. Bush, “Securing Freedom’s Triumph.”
11. J. Sachs, The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities for Our Time (New York: Penguin, 2005), 80–81.
12. S. Benhabib, The Rights of Others: Aliens, Residents and Citizens (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 16, 44.
13. The critical perspective can be found in N. Chomsky, The New Military Humanism: Lessons from Kosovo (Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 1999). U. Beck, Cosmopolitan Vision (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2006), 127–29, takes a far more pragmatic view of it, though rather less supportive than in initial comments.
14. M. Nussbaum et al., For Love of Country: Debating the Limits of Patriotism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996), 11–12.
15. I. Kant, cited in J. May, Kant’s Concept of Geography and Its Relation to Recent Geographical Thought (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1970), v.
16. N. Smith, American Empire: Roosevelt’s Geographer and the Prelude to Globalization (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 18.
17. J. Locke, cited in May, Kant’s Concept of Geography, 135.
1. Kant’s Anthropology and Geography
1. I. Kant, Kant: Political Writings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 107–8.
2. Kant, cited in S. Benhabib, The Rights of Others: Aliens, Residents and Citizens (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 27
3. Benhabib, Rights of Others.
4. lbid., p. 33.
5. R. Bolin, “Immanuel Kant’s Physical Geography,” trans. and annotated by R. L. Bolin, master’s thesis, Department of Geography, Indiana University, 1968; I. Kant, Geographie (Physiche Geographie) (Paris: Bibliotheque Philosophique, 1999); J. May, Kant’s Concept of Geography and Its Relation to Recent Geographical Thought (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1970).
6. An English version of Kant’s Geography, translated by Olaf Reinhardt, will shortly be published in the Cambridge University Press series, The Complete Edition of Kant’s Works in Translation, and will be accompanied by a volume of critical commentaries, edited by Stuart Elden and Eduardo Mendietta, to be published by SUNY Press in 2009.
7. May, Kant’s Concept of Geography, 132–36.
8. Kant, cited in May, Kant’s Concept of Geography, 137; Kant, cited in F. Van de Pitte, “Introduction,” in I. Kant, Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1974), xiii; See also J. Zammito, Kant, Herder, and the Birth of Anthropology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000).
9. M. Foucault, Introduction to Kant’s Anthropology, ed. Robert Nigro (Los Angeles: Semiotext(e), 2008), 33.
10. M. Foucault, “Commentary of Kant’s Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View,” trans. Arianna Bove, http://www.generation-online.org/p/fpfoucault1.htm; A. Allen, “Foucault and Enlightenment: A Critical Reappraisal,” Constellations, 10, no.2 (2003): 180–98.
11. M. Nussbaum, “Kant and Stoic Cosmopolitanism,” Journal of Political Philosophy 5 (1997): 1–25, especially 8.
12. I. Kant, “An Answer to the Question: ‘What is Enlightenment,’” in Kant, Political Writings; Kant, Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1974), 249–51.
13. Kant, Anthropology, 203.
14. P. Cheah and B. Robbins, eds., Cosmopolitics: Thinking and Feeling Beyond the Nation (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998).
15. K. Marx, Capital, vol. 3 (New York: Penguin, 1981), 958–59.
16. Kant, Anthropology, 96.
17. Ibid., 225.
18. Foucault, “What Is Enlightenment?”
19. R-P. Droit, “Kant et les Fournis du Congo,” Le Monde, 5 February, 1999.
20. Kant, Geographie, 223 (my translation from the French); May, Kant’s Concept of Geography, 66.
21. E. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin, 1968); L. Barzini, The Italians (New York: Athenaeum, 1967); T. Zeldin, The French (New York: Vintage, 1984); P. Anderson, English Questions (London: Verso, 1992).
22. J. Rawls, The Law of Peoples with The Idea of Public Reason Revisited (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999); M. Walzer, Spheres of Justice (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983).
23. Droit, “Kant et les Fournis du Congo.”
24. S. Elden, Mapping the Present: Heidegger, Foucault and the Project of a Spatial History (London: Continuum, 2001).
25. C. Glacken, Traces on the Rhodian Shore: Nature and Culture in Western Thought from Ancient Times to the End of the Eighteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), 532.
26. Benhabib, Rights of Others; T. Brennan, At Home in the World: Cosmopolitanism Now (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997).
27. Foucault, “What Is Enlightenment?” 70.
28. M. Foucault, “Questions on Geography,” in Power/Knowledge, ed. C. Gordon (London: Harvester, 1980), 77.
29. The questions and replies, along with commentaries, some of them quite at odds with my own interpretation, can be found in Space, Knowledge and Power: Foucault and Geography, ed. J. Crampton and S. Elden (Aldershot, Hants.: Ashgate Publishing, 2007)
30. The peculiar way in which Kant compromised between Newton and Leibniz makes my assertions as to the absolute outcome of Kant’s arguments controversial. The important point is his strict separation of history from geography in his theory of knowledge, and the only view of space and time consistent with this is absolute. That Kant in effect sealed in the absolute view is supported, among others, by E. Casey, “How to Get from Space to Place in a Fairly Short Stretch of Time,” in Senses of Place, ed. S. Feld and K. Basso (Phoenix, Ariz.: School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series, 1996), 14.
31. May, Kant’s Concept of Geography.
32. R. Hartshorne, The Nature of Geography: A Critical Survey of Current Thought in the Light of the Past (Lancaster, Pa.: Association of American Geographers, 1939); K. Sauer, Land and Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965).
33. For an appreciative view of Foucault’s arguments on local knowledges, see C. Philo, “‘Bellicose History’ and ‘Local Discursivities’: An Archaeological Reading of Michel Foucault’s Society Must Be Defended,” in Space, Knowledge and Power, ed. Crampton and Elden, 342–67.
34. H. Arendt, Lectures on Kant’s Political Philosophy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 76.
35. Nussbaum, “Kant and Stoic Cosmopolitanism,” citing the Stoics, 10.
2. The Postcolonial Critique of Liberal Cosmopolitanism
1. U. Mehta, Liberalism and Empire: A Study in Nineteenth-century British Liberal Thought (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 51; E. Stokes, English Utilitarians in India (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959); D. Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000).
2. Mehta, Liberalism and Empire, 129.
3. Ibid., 50, 92–93.
4. D. Clayton, Islands of Truth: The Imperial Fashioning of Vancouver Island (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1999).
5. Mehta, Liberalism and Empire, 32.
6. Cited in A. Badiou, Metapolitics (London: Verso, 2005), 131.
7. Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe, 8.
8. Mehta, Liberalism and Empire, 84.
9. Ibid., 108–11.
10. Ibid., 119–20.
11. Ibid., 121–22.
12. Ibid., 21.
13. Ibid., 148.
14. Ibid., 41–42.
15. Ibid., 133.
16. H. Arendt, Imperialism (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Jovanovich, 1968), 56.
17. Mehta, Liberalism and Empire, 215.
18. Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe, 254.
19. M. Katzenstein, U. Singh, and U.Thakar, “The Rebirth of Shiv-Sena: The Symbiosis of Discursive and Organizational Power,” Journal of Asian Studies 56, no. 2 (1997): 371–90.
20. Mehta, Liberalism and Empire, 132.
21. C. Sauer, Land and Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965), 147.
22. A. Pagden, “Introduction,” in C. Sauer, The Early Spanish Main (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); W. Mignolo, Local Histories/Global Designs (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000); Mignolo, The Darker Side of the Renaissance: Literacy, Territoriality and Colonization (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003).
23. A. Escobar, “Place, Economy, and Culture in a Post-Development Era,” in Places and Politics in an Age of Globalization, ed. R. Prazniak and A. Dirlik (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2001).
24. M. Edney, Mapping an Empire: The Geographical Construction of British India, 1765–1843 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 340.
25. Ibid., 333.
26. P. Chatterjee, The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).
27. C. Mohanty, Feminism without Borders: Decolonizing Theory, Practising Solidarity (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2006).
3. The Flat World of Neoliberal Utopianism
1. T. Friedman, The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 2005), 3–5, 45–49.
2. Ibid., 314–15.
3. G. W. Bush, “Securing Freedom’s Triumph,” New York Times, 11 September 2002, A33.
4. D. Harvey, A Brief History of Neoliberalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).
5. H. De Soto, The Other Path: The Invisible Revolution in the Third World (New York: Harper, 1989); De Soto, The Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and Fails Everywhere Else (New York: Basic Books, 2000).
6. T. Mitchell, “The Work of Economics: How a Discipline Makes Its World,” Archives européennes de sociologie 46 (2005): 297–320.
7. J. Elyachar, Markets of Dispossession: NGOs, Economic Development and the State in Cairo (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2005); D. Gross, “Fighting Poverty with $2-a-Day Jobs,” New York Times, 6 July 2006, Weekend in Review, 4 (quote); C. Brick, “Millions for Millions,” New Yorker, 30 October 2006, 62–73; C. Prahalad, The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid: Eradicating Poverty through Profits (Philadelphia: Wharton School Publishing, 2006).
8. M. Davis, Planet of Slums (London: Verso, 2006).
9. This account is drawn from Harvey, Brief History of Neoliberalism; see also N. Klein, The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2007).
10. Harvey, Brief History of Neoliberalism, chap. 6.
11. A. Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); R. Appelbaum and W. Robinson, eds., Critical Globalization Studies (New York: Routledge, 2005), particularly 91–100.
12. Friedman, World Is Flat, 50.
13. See United Nations Development Program, Human Development Report 1996 and Human Development Report 1999 (New York: United Nations, 1999); E. Dash, “Off to the Races Again, Leaving Many Behind,” New York Times, 9 April 2006, Business Section, 1, 5; P. Krugman, “Graduates versus Oligarchs,” New York Times, 27 February 2006, A19; N. Munk, “Don’t Blink. You’ll Miss the 258th Richest American,” New York Times, 25 September 2005, Weekend in Review, 3; J. Anderson, “Fund Managers Raising the Ante in Philanthropy,” New York Times, 3 August 2005, Business Section, 1, 3.
14. Harvey, Brief History of Neoliberalism; E. Arvedlund, “Russia’s Billionaires Club Now Totals 27 Members,” New York Times, 7 May 2005, C1; E. Porter, “Mexico’s Plutocracy Survives on Robber-Baron Concessions,” New York Times, 27 August 2007, Editorial Observer.
15. Friedman, World Is Flat,382–83.
16. J. Stiglitz, Globalization and Its Discontents (New York: Norton, 2002), 129–30; J. Sachs, The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities for Our Time (New York: Penguin, 2005), chap. 4.
17. A. Amsden, Escape from Empire: The Developing World’s Journey through Heaven and Hell (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2007).
18. S. Amin, Beyond U.S. Hegemony? Assessing the Prospects for a Multipolar World (London: Zed Books, 2006); S. George, Another World is Possible IF . . . (London: Verso, 2003); W. Bello, Deglobalization: Ideas for a New World Economy (London: Zed Books, 2002); A. Roy, Power Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: South End Press, 2001); B. Gills, ed., Globalization and the Politics of Resistance (New York: Palgrave, 2001); T. Mertes, ed., A Movement of Movements (London: Verso, 2004); P. Hawken, Blessed Unrest: How the Largest Movement in the World Came into Being and Why No One Saw It Coming (New York: Viking, 2007).
19. J. Gray, False Dawn: The Illusions of Global Capitalism (London: Granta Press, 1998), 207
20. Critically cited in D. Robotham, Culture, Society and Economy: Globalization and its Alternatives (New York: Sage, 2005), chap. 7
21. P. Krugman, Development, Geography and Economic Theory (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1995).
22. D. Harvey, “The Art of Rent: Globalization, Monopoly and the Commodification of Culture,” Socialist Register (2002): 93–110.
23. Harvey, Brief History of Neoliberalism, chap. 6.
24. D. Harvey, The New Imperialism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), chap. 4.
25. R. Wade and F. Veneroso, “The Asian Crisis: The High-Debt Model versus the Wall Street-Treasury-IMF Complex,” New Left Review 228 (1998): 3–23.
26. B. De Sousa Santos and C. Rodriguez-Garavito, eds., Law and Globalization from Below: Towards a Cosmopolitan Legality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005); A. Ong, Neoliberalism as Exception: Mutations in Citizenship and Sovereignty (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2006).
27. J. Brash, “Re-scaling Patriotism: Competition and Urban Identity in Michael Bloomberg’s New York,” Urban Anthropology and Studies of Cultural Systems and World Economic Development 35 (2006): 387–432.
28. D. Chandler, From Kosovo to Kabul: Human Rights and International Intervention (London: Pluto Press, 2002); T. Wallace, “NGO Dilemmas: Trojan Horses for Global Neoliberalism,” Socialist Register (2003): 202–19.
29. Chandler, From Kosovo to Kabul, 230.
30. M. Edwards, and D. Hulme, eds., Non-Governmental Organizations: Performance and Accountability (London: Earthscan, 1995); Wallace, “NGO Dilemmas.”
31. De Sousa Santos in De Sousa Santos and Rodriguez-Garavito, eds., Law and Globalization from Below.
32. A. Bartholomew and J. Breakspear, “Human Rights and Swords of Empire,” Socialist Register XX (2003): 124–45.
33. Chandler, From Kosovo to Kabul.
34. Ibid., 235.
35. K. Marx, Capital, vol. 1 (New York: International Publishers, 1967): 225.
36. For my views on rights struggles more generally see Harvey, A Brief History of Neoliberalism, 175–82.
37. Sachs, End of Poverty, 81.
38. Ong, Neoliberalism as Exception; Gray, False Dawn, 207.
4. The New Cosmopolitans
1. P. Cheah, “Introduction Part II: The Cosmopolitical Today,” in Cosmopolitics: Thinking and Feeling Beyond the Nation, ed. P. Cheah and B. Robbins (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998), 23.
2. For an account of Herder’s position see J. Zammito, Kant, Herder and the Birth of Anthropology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002).
3. M. Nussbaum et al., For Love of Country: Debating the Limits of Patriotism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996).
4. K. Marx and F. Engels, Manifesto of the Communist Party (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1952).
5. Gramsci’s views are summarized in A. Anderson, “Cosmopolitanism, Universalism and the Divided Legacies of Modernity,” in Cosmopolitics, ed. Cheah and Robbins, 270–71; C. Calhoun, “The Class Consciousness of Frequent Travellers: Towards a Critique of Actually Existing Cosmopolitanism,” in Conceiving Cosmopolitanism: Theory, Context and Practice, ed. S. Vertovec and R. Cohen (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 86–109; S. Sassen, Territory, Authority, Rights: From Medieval to Global Assemblages (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 299; R. Wilson, “A New Cosmopolitanism Is in the Air,” in Cosmopolitics, ed. Cheah and Robbins, 352.
6. Cheah and Robbins, eds., Cosmopolitics, 9.
7. U. Beck, “The Cosmopolitan Perspective: Sociology in the Second Age of Modernity,” in Conceiving Cosmopolitanism, ed. S. Vertovec and R. Cohen, 61.
8. U. Beck, Cosmopolitan Vision (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2006), 72–73.
9. U. Beck, “Living in the World Risk Society,” Hobhouse Memorial Lecture, London School of Economics, 15 February, 2006
10. Beck’s endorsement of military humanism is reported in R. Cohen, “A Generation of German Pacifists at Odds over the War,” New York Times, 6 May 1999, A10.
11. Kant, cited in D. Held, Democracy and the Global Order: From the Modern State to Cosmopolitan Governance (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995), 229.
12. R. Fine and W. Smith, “Jürgen Habermas’s Theory of Cosmopolitanism,” Constellations 10, no. 4 (2003): 469–87
13. Beck, Cosmopolitan Vision, 95.
14. De Sousa Santos, B., “Beyond Neoliberal Governance: The World Social Forum as Subaltern Cosmopolitan Politics,” in Law and Globalization from Below, ed. De Sousa Santos and C. Rodriguez-Garavito (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 29–63.
15. A. Badiou, Metapolitics, trans. J. Barker (London: Verso, 2005), 138.
16. Ibid., 118; see also D. Harvey, A Brief History of Neoliberalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), chap. 5.
17. D. Held, “Principles of Cosmopolitan Order,” in The Political Philosophy of Cosmopolitanism, ed. G. Brock and H. Brighouse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 10–27; Held, “Law of States, Law of Peoples,” Legal Theory 8, no. 2 (2002): 1–44.
18. Held, “Principles of Cosmopolitan Order,” 18.
19. Ibid., 20; the recent shifts toward “governance” are remarked upon by De Sousa Santos, “Beyond Neoliberal Governance”; for a more concrete example, see D. Harvey, Spaces of Capital: Towards a Critical Geography (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2001), chap. 16.
20. Beck, Cosmopolitan Vision, 76.
21. Sassen, Territory, Authority, Rights, 338; C. Wright Mills, The Sociological Imagination (New York: Oxford University Press, 1959).
22. S. Benhabib, The Rights of Others: Aliens, Residents and Citizens (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 112; A. Ong, Neoliberalism as Exception: Mutations in Citizenship and Sovereignty (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2006).
23. Benhabib, Rights of Others, 122–27; M. Walzer, Spheres of Justice (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1983).
24. I. Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990).
25. M. Nussbaum, Frontiers of Justice: Disability, Nationality, Species Membership (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 2006), particularly 76–78.
26. J. Rawls. The Law of the Peoples with The Idea of Public Reason Revisited (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999); Nussbaum, Frontiers of Justice, 236.
27. Benhabib, Rights of Others, 77.
28. Nussbaum, Frontiers of Justice, 284–85.
29. Ibid., 306.
30. Ibid., 257
31. Ibid., 317
32. Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference.
33. De Sousa Santos and Rodriguez-Garavito, eds., Law and Globalization from Below, 14.
34. D. Harvey, The New Imperialism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).
35. De Sousa Santos, “Beyond Neoliberal Governance.”
36. Sassen, Territory, Authority, Rights, 20.
37. Ibid., 311.
38. Cheah and Robbins, eds., Cosmopolitics, 2–3.
5. The Banality of Geographical Evils
1. K. Marx, Capital, vol. 1 (New York: International Publishers, 1967), 169–70.
2. G. W. Bush, The President’s State of the Union Address, 29 January 2002; available online: http:www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/print20020129–11.html
3. First International Resources, Inc., Economic Sanctions Survey (Fort Lee, N.J.: First International Resources Inc., 2000).
4. M. Scheuer, Imperial Hubris: Why the West Is Losing the War on Terror (Dulles, Va.: Potomac Books, 2004).
5. R. Cooper, The Breaking of Nations: Order and Chaos in the Twenty-first Century (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2003).
6. A. Nilsen, “The Valley and the Nation: The River and the Rage,” Ph.D. diss., Department of Sociology, University of Bergen, 2006.
7. M. Hajer, The Politics of Environmental Discourse: Ecological Modernisation and the Policy Process (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995).
8. J. Sachs, The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities for Our Time (New York: Penguin, 2005), 80–81.
9. T. Koopmans, and A. Beckman, “Assignment Problems and the Location of Economic Activities,” Econometrica 25 (1957): 53–76; M. Fujita, P. Krugman, and A. Venables, The Spatial Economy: Cities, Regions and International Trade (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2001).
10. W. Connolly, The Ethos of Pluralization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995); Connolly, “Speed, Concentric Cultures and Cosmopolitanism,” Political Theory 28 (2000): 596–618.
11. M. Shapiro, “The Events of Discourse and the Ethics of Global Hospitality,” Millennium 27 (1998): 695–713.
12. S. Deshpande, “Hegemonic Spatial Strategies: The Nation-Space and Hindu Communalism in Twentieth Century India,” Public Culture 10, no. 2 (1998): 249–83.
13. Ibid.
14. M. Walzer, Spheres of Justice (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983); J. Elster, Local Justice: How Institutions Allocate Scarce Goods and Necessary Burdens (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1992).
15. J. Clifford, “Mixed Feelings,” in Cosmopolitics, ed. P. Cheah and B. Robbins (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998), 362–70.
16. E. Burke, cited in A. Appiah, The Ethics of Identity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 241.
17. A. Appiah, “Cosmopolitan Patriots,” in Nussbaum et al., For Love of Country: Debating the Limits of Patriotism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996), 21–29; Appiah, Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers (New York: Norton, 2006).
18. R. Falk, “Revisioning Cosmopolitanism,” in Nussbaum et al., For Love of Country, 60.
19. Appiah, Ethics of Identity, chap. 6.
20. Appiah, Cosmopolitanism, 99.
21. W. Michaels, The Trouble with Diversity: How We Learned to Love Diversity and Ignore Identity (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006).
22. M. Heidegger, Poetry, Language, Thought (New York: Harper and Row, 1971).
23. H. Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin, 1997).
24. J. Ree, “Cosmopolitanism and the Experience of Nationality,” in Cosmopolitics, ed. Cheah and Robbins, 77–90.
25. I. Berlin, The Sense of Reality: Studies in Ideas and Their History (London: Chatto and Windus, 1997).
26. T. Brennan, At Home in the World: Cosmopolitanism Now (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997).
27. M. Nussbaum, Frontiers of Justice: Disability, Nationality, Species Membership (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 2006), 257; Nussbaum, “Kant and Stoic Cosmopolitanism,” Journal of Political Philosophy 5 (1997): 1–25.
28. The most sophisticated discussions of how geography has approached these questions are to be found in D. Livingston, The Geographical Tradition: Episodes in the History of a Contested Enterprise (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993), which is systematic but ends up reducing the “contestation” to a matter of conversations between different traditions; and D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994), which brilliantly connects critical geographical thinking with the social and literary theory tradition but unfortunately neglects the problems that arise from the strong traditions of physical and mathematical inquiry in the discipline’s history.
6. Geographical Reason
1. W. Pattison, “The Four Traditions of Geography, Journal of Geography 63 (1964): 211–16.
2. J. Harley, P. Laxton, and J. Andrews, eds., The New Nature of Maps: Essays in the History of Cartography (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001); and the various volumes published by the history of cartography project, edited initially by J. B. Harley and David Woodward, published by University of Chicago Press.
3. W. L. Thomas, ed., Man’s Role in Changing the Face of the Earth, 2 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956); C. Glacken, Traces on the Rhodian Shore: Nature and Culture in Western Thought from Ancient Times to the End of the Eighteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967).
4. I have examined this elsewhere; see D. Harvey, “The Sociological and Geographical Imaginations,” International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society 18, nos. 3–4 (2005): 211–56.
5. A. Godlewska and N. Smith, eds., Geography and Empire (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997); D. Gregory, The Colonial Present: Afghanistan, Palestine and Iraq (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004).
6. R. Hartshorne, “‘Exceptionalism in Geography’ Re-examined,” Annals, Association of American Geographers 45 (1955): 205–44; F. Schaeffer, “Exceptionalism in Geography: A Methodological Examination, Annals, Association of American Geographers 43 (1953): 57–84.
7. Spacetime and the World
1. A. Whitehead, The Concept of Nature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1920), 33.
2. This is a summary and an extension of my essay “Space as a Key Word,” in D. Harvey, Spaces of Global Capitalism: Toward a Theory of Uneven Geographical Development (London: Verso, 2006), 119–48. For other geographical works, see N. Smith, Uneven Development (Oxford: Blackwell, 1984); D. Massey, For Space (London: Sage, 2005); Soja, E., Postmodern Geographies: The Reassertion of Space in Critical Social Theory (London: Verso, 1989); Yi-Fu Tuan, Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977); R. Sack, Conceptions of Space in Social Thought: A Geographic Perspective (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1980); Sack, Human Territoriality: Its Theory and Its History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). The themes of spatio-temporality have been the subject of extensive inquiry in other disciplines, of course, and among my favorite texts are the following: from history, A. Gurevich, Categories of Medieval Culture (London: Routledge, 1985); from anthropology, N. Munn, The Fame of Gawa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); from cultural studies, S. Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880–1918 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1983). I examined many of these other works in D. Harvey, Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), chaps. 9 and 10.
3. R. Osserman, The Poetry of the Universe (New York: Doubleday, 1995).
4. Ibid., 125–33.
5. The technical exposition of relative space in geography became most strongly evident in P. Haggett, Locational Analysis in Geography (London: Edward Arnold, 1965).
6. N. Rescher, Leibniz’s Metaphysics of Nature (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1981).
7. B. Ollman, Dialectical Investigations (New York: Routledge, 1992); A. Whitehead, “La théorie relationiste de l’espace,” Revue de métaphysique et de morale 23 (1916) : 423–54.
8. E. Grosz, “Bodies—Cities,” in Sexuality and Space, ed. B. Colomina (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 241–54.
9. E. Casey, “How to Get From Space to Place in a Fairly Short Stretch of Time,” in Senses of Place, ed. S. Feld and K. Basso (Phoenix, Ariz.: School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series, 1996), 13–51.
10. C. Garnett, The Kantian Philosophy of Space (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1965).
11. Whitehead, “La théorie relationiste de l’espace.” Revue de métaphysique et de morale 23 (1916): 423–54.
12. D. Bohm, Wholeness and the Implicate Order (London: Ark Paperbacks, 1983); G. Deleuze, The Fold: Leibniz and the Baroque (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993); Deleuze and F. Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987).
13. A. Naess, Ecology, Community and Lifestyle (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); M. Hardt and T. Negri, Empire (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001); T. Negri, Subversive Spinoza: (UN)contemporary Variations (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004).
14. A. Badiou, Being and Event (London: Continuum, 2005).
15. W Benjamin, The Arcades Project (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1999); for Sacré Coeur see D. Harvey, Paris, Capital of Modernity (New York: Routledge, 2003), chap. 18.
16. D. Harvey, Social Justice and the City (London: Edward Arnold, 1973), 13.
17. H. Lefebvre, The Production of Space (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991); E. Cassirer, An Essay on Man (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1944).
18. Yi-Fu Tuan, Topophilia: A Study of Environment Perceptions, Attitudes and Values (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).
19. M. Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (New York: Random House, 1970); T. J. Clark, Image of the People: Gustave Courbet and the 1848 Revolution (London: Thames and Hudson, 1973).
20. J. Barry, “Voice Off,” in Third Berlin Biennal for Contemporary Art, Catalogue (Berlin: Biennale, 2004), 48–49.
21. K. Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (New York: International Publishers, 1963); the letter to Cabet is cited in L. Marin, Utopics: Spatial Play (Atlantic Heights, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1984), 73–79.
22. K. Marx, cited in I. Mesjaros, Beyond Capital (New York: Monthly Review Press, 2000), 485.
23. E. Thompson, “Time, Work Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism,” Past and Present 38 (1967): 56–97; R. Williams, Resources of Hope (London: Verso, 1989).
24. R. Williams, People of the Black Mountains: The Eggs of the Eagle, vol. 1 (London: Chatto and Windus, 1989), 10–12.
25. J. Clark, and C. Martin, eds., Anarchy, Geography, Modernity: The Radical Social Thought of Elisée Reclus (Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2004).
26. K. Marx, Capital, vol. 1 (New York: International Publishers, 1967).
27. Ibid., 167
28. Ibid., 275.
29. K. Cox, ed., Spaces of Globalization: Reasserting the Power of the Local (New York: Guilford, 1997).
30. M. Burawoy, Manufacturing Consent: The Labor Process under Monopoly Capitalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).
31. J. Rancière, The Nights of Labor: The Workers’ Dream in Nineteenth-century France (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989).
32. I reviewed some the anthropological and historical evidence in Harvey, Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference, chap. 9.
33. D. Moore, Suffering for Territory: Race, Place and Power in Zimbabwe (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2005), 4.
34. J. Le Goff, Time, Work, and Culture in the Middle Ages (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Kern, Culture of Time and Space. I reviewed much of this transition literature in D. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989), Part III.
35. M. Kohn, Radical Space: Building the House of the People (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2003), 3–8.
36. Ibid.
37. Ibid., chap. 6.
38. Foucault, Order of Things; M. Foucault, “Heterotopias,” Diacritics 16, no.1 (Spring 1986): 22–28.
39. M. Foucault, “Questions on Geography,” in Power/Knowledge, ed. C. Gordon (London: Harvester, 1980); Foucault, Security, Territory, Population: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1977–78 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007); The Foucault Reader, ed. P. Rabinow (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin, 1984); J. Crampton and S. Elden, eds., Space, Knowledge and Power: Foucault and Geography (Aldershot, Hants.: Ashgate Publishing, 2007).
40. H. Lefebvre, The Urban Revolution (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005).
41. J. Elyachar, Markets of Dispossession: NGOs, Economic Development and the State in Cairo (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2005); D. Graeber, Towards an Anthropological Theory of Value: The False Coin of Our Own Dreams (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001).
8. Places, Regions, Territories
1. E. Casey, The Fate of Place: A Philosophical History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Casey, “How to Get From Space to Place in a Fairly Short Stretch of Time,” in Senses of Place, ed. S. Feld and K. Basso (Phoenix, Ariz.: School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series, 1996),16–17
2. M. Kohn, Radical Space: Building the House of the People (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2003).
3. G. Himmelfarb, “The Illusions of Cosmopolitanism,” in M. Nussbaum et al., For Love of Country: Debating the Limits of Patriotism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996), 72–77; A. Escobar, “Place, Economy and Culture in a Post-Development Era,” in Places and Politics in an Age of Globalization, ed. R. Prazniak and A. Dirlik (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002), 193–217; E. Burke, cited in A. Appiah, The Ethics of Identity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 241.
4. Appiah, Ethics of Identity; A. Appiah, Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers (New York: Norton, 2006).
5. Nussbaum et al., For Love of Country, 13; U. Hannerz, Transnational Connections: Culture, People, Places (New York: Routledge, 1996).
6. R. Williams, Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 264–66. For some of the history of the regional concept in geography, see, e.g., R. Hudson, Producing Places (New York: Guilford, 2001); T. Cresswell, Place: A Short Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004); J. Agnew, Place and Politics: The Geographical Mediation of State and Society (London: Macmillan, 1987); Agnew and J. Duncan, eds., The Power of Place: Bringing Together Geographical and Sociological Imaginations (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1989); N. Entriken, The Betweenness of Place: Towards a Geography of Modernity (London: Macmillan, 1991); G. Kimble, “The Inadequacy of the Regional Concept,” in London Essays in Geography, ed. L. Stamp and S. Wooldridge (London: Longmans Green, 1957), 151–74; D. Massey, “In What Sense a Regional Problem?” Regional Studies 13 (1979): 233–43; M. Pudup, “Arguments within Regional Geography,” Progress in Human Geography 12 (1988): 369–90.
7. K. Archer, “Regions as Social Organisms: The Lamarckian Characteristics of Vidal de la Blache’s Regional Geography,” Annals, Association of American Geographers 83 (1993): 498–514; A. Buttimer, Society and Milieu in the French Geographical Tradition (Washington, D.C.,:Association of American Geographers, 1971); A. Rossi, The Architecture of the City (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1984).
8. On classificatory approaches to regions, see D. Grigg, “Regions, Models and Classes,” in Models in Geography, ed. R. Chorley and P. Haggett (London: Methuen, 1967), 479–501. On regions and places more generally, see K. Anderson and F. Gale, eds., Inventing Places: Studies in Cultural Geography (Melbourne: Longman Cheshire, 1992); Hudson, Producing Places; Cresswell, Place; Yi-Fu Tuan, Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977); A. Paasi, “Place and Region: Regional Worlds and Words,” Progress in Human Geography 26 (2002): 802–11; T. Oakes, “Place and the Paradox of Modernity,” Annals, Association of American Geographers 87 (1997): 509–31; B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983); A. Paasi, Territories, Boundaries and Consciousness: The Changing Geographies of the Finnish-Russian Border (New York: Wiley, 1997).
9. R. Ardrey, The Territorial Imperative (New York: Athenaeum, 1966); R. Sack, Human Territoriality: Its Theory and Its History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
10. D. Delaney, Territory: A Short Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005), 9–11; for a particularly interesting ethnographic study of some of these issues, see S. Narotzky and G. Smith, Immediate Struggles: People, Power, and Place in Rural Spain (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006).
11. P. Taylor, “The State as Container: Internationality, Interstatenesss, Interterritoriality, Progress in Human Geography 19 (1995): 1–15.
12. For a series of essays written on this topic in the 1970s, see D. Harvey, Spaces of Capital: Towards a Critical Geography (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2001), Part 2; N. Smith, Uneven Development (Oxford: Blackwell, 1984); M. Storper, and R. Walker, The Capitalist Imperative: Territory, Technology and Industrial Growth (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989).
13. G. Deleuze and F. Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987).
14. K. Basso, “Stalking with Stories: Names, Places and Moral Narratives among the Western Apache,” in 1983 Proceedings of the American Ethnological Society (Washington, D.C.: AES, 1984); Basso, “Wisdom Sits In Places: Notes on a Western Apache Landscape,” in Sense of Place, ed. Feld and Basso, 52–87
15. K. Basso, Wisdom Sits in Places (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995); D. Moore, Suffering for Territory: Race, Place and Power in Zimbabwe (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2005), 19.
16. Moore, Suffering for Territory, 21; D. DeLillo, The Names (New York: Vintage, 1989), 329–31.
17. M. de Certeau, The Writing of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 69; G. Bachelard, The Poetics of Space (Boston: Beacon Press, 1964), 6–7
18. D. Morley and K. Robbins, “No Place Like Heimat: Images of Home(land),” in Space and Place: Theories of Identity and Location, ed. E. Carter, J. Donald, and J. Squires (London: Routledge, 1993), 3–31.
19. M. Gordon, “My Mother is Speaking from the Desert,” New York Times Magazine, 19 March 1995, 47–70.
20. R. Williams, Resources of Hope (London: Verso, 1989); see also the essay “Militant Particularism and Global Ambition,” in D. Harvey, Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), chap. 1.
21. W. Benjamin, Illuminations (New York: Schocken Books, 1969).
22. C. Boyer, The City of Collective Memory (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996), 135.
23. Kohn, Radical Space, 149.
24. C. Norberg-Shulz, Genius Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture (New York: Rizzoli, 1980).
25. Rossi, Architecture of the City.; A. Loukaki, “Whose Genius Loci: Competing Interpretations of the Sacred Rock of the Acropolis,” Annals, Association of American Geographers 87 (1997): 306–29; Loukaki, Living Ruins: Value Conflicts (Farnham, U.K.: Ashgate, 2008).
26. M. Heidegger, Poetry, Language, Thought (New York: Harper and Row, 1971), 165.
27. Ibid., 114–15.
28. Ibid., 160.
29. Ibid., 156; M. Heidegger, Discourse on Thinking (New York: Harper, 1966), 47–48; U. Mehta, Liberalism and Empire: A Study in Nineteenth-century British Liberal Thought (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 215.
30. T. Relph, Place and Placelessness (London: Pion, 1976), 26–29.
31. Heidegger, Poetry, Language, Thought, 154; Casey, “How to Get from Space to Place,” 37
32. H. Lefebvre, The Urban Revolution (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005); A. Merrifield, “Place and Space: A Lefebvrian Reconciliation,” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 16 (1991): 516–31.
33. B. Foltz, Inhabiting the Earth: Heidegger, Environmental Ethics, and the Metaphysics of Nature (Atlantic Park, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1995).
34. Tuan, Space and Place.
35. On Heidegger’s supposed interest in the critique of West German reconstruction, see S. Elden, Mapping the Present: Heidegger, Foucault and the Project of a Spatial History (London: Continuum, 2001), 87; Bate, J., Romantic Ecology: Wordsworth and the Environmental Tradition (London: Routledge, 1991); Wiley, M., Romantic Geography: Wordsworth and Anglo-European Spaces (London: Macmillan, 1998).
36. On deep ecology, see A. Naess, Ecology, Community and Lifestyle (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989). For Heidegger and environmentalism, see Foltz, Inhabiting the Earth; and E. Reclus, L’Homme et la Terre, ed. B. Ghiblin, 2 vols., abridged (Paris: La Découverte, 1982).
37. Relph, Place and Placelessness; K. Sale, “What Columbus Discovered,” The Nation, 22 October 1990, 444–46; R. Kunstler, The Geography of Nowhere: The Rise and Decline of America’s Man-Made Landscape (New York: Free Press, 1994).
38. Escobar, “Place, Economy, and Culture.”
39. Casey, Fate of Place, 30, 35.
40. D. Massey, Space, Place and Gender (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994), 5.
41. A. Dirlik, “Place-Based Imagination: Globalism and the Politics of Place,” in Places and Politics in an Age of Globalization, ed. R. Prazniak and A. Dirlik (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2001), 15–51.
42. Casey, Fate of Place, 43.
43. I summarize Whitehead’s views in Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference, 261–64.
44. Moore, Suffering for Territory, 21; C. Katz, “On the Grounds of Globalization: A Topography for Feminist Political Engagement,” Signs 26, no. 4 (2001): 1213–34.
45. A lot of work has been done in recent years on the significance of interurban competition in the dynamics of neoliberal capitalism. See N. Brenner, and N. Theodore, Spaces of Neoliberalism: Urban Restructuring in North America and Western Europe (Oxford: Blackwell, 2002); H. Leitner, J. Peck, and E. Sheppard, Contesting Neoliberalism: Urban Frontiers (New York: Guilford, 2006).
46. G. Deleuze, and M. Taormina, Desert Islands and Other Texts (1953–74) (London: Semiotexte, 2003).
47. Kohn, Radical Space.
48. Massey, Space, Place and Gender, depicts my views this way, and Dirlik, “Place-Based Imagination,” takes her word for it. J. K. Gibson-Graham, “Beyond Global vs. Local: Economic Politics Outside the Binary Frame,” in Geographies of Power: Placing Scale, ed. A. Herod and M. Wright Wiley-Blackwell, 2002),25–60.
49. D. Harvey, Spaces of Hope (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2000).
50. Nussbaum et al., For Love of Country, 9.
51. K. Marx and F. Engels, The Communist Manifesto (London, Pluto Press, 2008).
52. Harvey, Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference, chap. 1; Harvey, Spaces of Hope, chap. 10.
53. A. Etzioni, The New Golden Rule: Community and Morality in a Democratic Society (New York: Basic Books, 1998).
54. D. Harvey, Spaces of Global Capitalism: Towards a Theory of Uneven Geographical Development (London: Verso, 2006), chap. 2.
55. J. Conway, Identity, Place, Knowledge (Halifax: Fernwood Publishing, 2004); Katz, “On the Grounds of Globalization”; M. Keith, and S. Pile, eds., Place and the Politics of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1993); D. Hayden, The Power of Place: Urban Landscapes as Public History (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1995).
56. M. Bookchin, Remaking Society: Pathways to a Green Future (Boston: South End Press, 1990), 182–85.
57. I. Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990).
9. The Nature of Environment
1. J. Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (New York: Norton, 1997; rpt. 2003), 25, 408.
2. Ibid., 408.
3. Ibid., 417 For the West African rice culture, see J. Carney, Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001); and for the problem of soil erosion, see G. Jacks and R. Whyte, Vanishing Lands (New York: Doubleday, 1949).
4. Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel, 453.
5. Ibid., 455.
6. Ibid., 414.
7. Ibid., 462.
8. J. Sachs, The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities for Our Time (New York: Penguin, 2005), 163.
9. J. Sachs (with J. Gallup and A. Mellinger), “Is Geography Destiny,” in World Bank Conference on Development Economics, ed. B. Pleskovic and J. Stiglitz (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1999), 127–78; Sachs, End of Poverty, 165.
10. Sachs, End of Poverty, 166–67.
11. Sachs, End of Poverty, 167.
12. R. Haussmann, “A Case of Bad Latitude: Why Geography Causes Poverty,” Foreign Policy (January–February 2001): 45–53. See D. Harvey, “Population, Resources and the Ideology of Science,” in Spaces of Capital: Towards a Critical Geography (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2001), chap. 3.
13. K. Wittfogel, Oriental Despotism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953).
14. D. Acemoglu, S. Johnson, and J. Robinson, “Reversal of Fortune: Geography and Institutions in the Making of the Modern World Income Distribution,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 117 (2002): 1233.
15. D. Harvey, Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), chap. 11.
16. A. Przeworski, “Geography vs. Institutions Revisited: Were Fortunes Reversed?” Department of Politics Working Paper, New York University, 2004.
17. C. Glacken, Traces on the Rhodian Shore: Nature and Culture in Western Thought from Ancient Times to the End of the Eighteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967).
18. E. C. Semple, Influences of Geographical Environment on the Basis of Ratzel’s System of Anthropogeographie (New York: Henry Holt, 1911).
19. E. Huntington, Civilization and Climate (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1945); Huntington, Mainsprings of Civilization (New York: Mentor Books, 1965); D. Worster, Dustbowl: The Southern Plains in the Great Depression (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979).
20. P. O’Keefe, N. Smith, and B. Wisner, “Taking the Naturalness Out of Natural Disasters,” Nature 260 (1976): 566–67; N. Smith, “Disastrous Accumulation,” South Atlantic Quarterly 106, no. 4 (2007): 769–87
21. On Griffith Taylor see J. Powell, An Historical Geography of Modern Australia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988,) 129–49.
22. O. Spate, “Toynbee and Huntington: A Study in Determinism,” Geographical Journal 118 (1952): 406–28.
23. G. Tatham, “Environmentalism and Possibilism,” in Geography in the Twentieth Century, ed. G. Taylor (London: Methuen, 1951), 128–64.
24. P. Vidal de la Blache, Principles of Human Geography (London: Constable, 1926); K. Archer, “Regions as Social Organisms: The Lamarckian Characteristics of Vidal de la Blache’s Regional Geography,” Annals, Association of American Geographers 83 (1993): 498–514.
25. G. Marsh, Man and Nature: Or, Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965).
26. Engels, cited in Harvey, Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference, 184.
27. W. Leiss, The Domination of Nature (Boston: Beacon Press, 1974).
28. R. Williams, Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). I here follow the general argument laid out in Harvey, Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference.
29. A. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1964), 7–14.
30. K. Soper, What Is Nature? (Oxford: Blackwell, 1995); N. Castree and B. Braun, eds., Social Nature: Theory, Practice and Politics (Oxford: Blackwell, 2001).
31. This is Neil Smith’s fundamental argument in Uneven Development.
32. K. Marx, Capital, vol. 1 (New York: International Publishers, 1967), 493.
33. Emil Altvater has criticized my formulations because I am not sufficiently respectful of the limits set by the second law of thermodynamics. See E. Altvater, “Review of Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference,” Historical Materialism 2 (1998): 225–35; The extreme version of this thesis can be found in K. Lee, Social Philosophy and Ecological Scarcity (London: Routledge, 1989).
34. I. Prigogine, and I., Stengers, Order Out of Chaos (Boston: Shambhala, 1984); R. Levins and R. Lewontin, The Dialectical Biologist (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985); T. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962). For an excellent overview of contemporary thinking in geography, see Castree, and Braun, Social Nature.
35. E. Wilson, Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge (New York: Knopf, 1998), 266.
36. Ibid., 266–67
37. Ibid., 270.
38. Marx, Capital, vol. 1, 493–94.
39. Wilson, Consilience, 83.
40. Ibid., 128.
41. Ibid., 166.
42. Ibid., 168.
43. This is the sense that derives from the otherwise excellent work of A. Tsing, Friction: An Ethnography of Global Connection (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004).
44. A. Escobar, “Place, Economy, and Culture in a Post-Development Era,” in Places and Politics in an Age of Globalization, ed. R. Prazniak and A. Dirlik (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2001), 193-217; J. Gibson-Graham, The End of Capitalism (As We Knew It): A Feminist Critique of Political Economy (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006).
45. D. Harvey, Spaces of Hope (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2000); N. Smith, “Geography, Difference and the Politics of Scale,” in Postmodernism and the Social Sciences, ed. J. Docherty, M. Graham, and M. Malek (London: Routledge, 1992); E. Swyngedouw, 1997: “Neither Global nor Local: “Glocalization” and the Politics of Scale,” in Spaces of Globalization: Reasserting the Power of the Local, ed. K. Cox (New York: Routledge, 1997), 137–66.
46. R. Bhaskar, Dialectic: The Pulse of Freedom (London: Verso, 1993).
47. Leiss, Domination of Nature; M. Jay, The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research 1923–50 (Boston: Little Brown, 1973).
48. C. Caudwell, Studies and Further Studies in a Dying Culture (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1971).
49. Smith, Uneven Development.
50. N. Smith, “Nature as Accumulation Strategy,” Socialist Register (2007): 16–36.
51. B. Braun, “Toward a New Earth and a New Humanity: Nature, Ontology, Politics,” in David Harvey: A Critical Reader, ed. N. Castree and D. Gregory (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006), 191–222.
52. Cited in Harvey, Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference, 48–57; Levins and Lewontin, Dialectical Biologist.
53. W. Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), 13–14.
54. D. Bohm, Wholeness and the Implicate Order (London: Ark Paperbacks, 1983); M. Wilkins, “Complementarity and the Unity of Opposites,” in Quantum Implications, ed. B. Hiley and F. Peat (London: Routledge, 1987), 338–60; A. Naess, Ecology, Community and Lifestyle (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); M. Hardt and A. Negri, Empire (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001).
55. W. Thomas, ed., Man’s Role in Changing the Face of the Earth (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956).
56. Ibid., 68.
57. Marx., Capital, vol. 1, 133.
58. Harvey, Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference, chap. 8.
59. Marx, Capital, vol. 1, 494.
60. D. Harvey, “The Fetish of Technology: Causes and Consequences,” in “Prometheus’s Bequest: Technology and Change,” Macalester International 13 (2003): 3–30.
61. Marx, Capital, vol. 1., 133.
62. H. Lefebvre, Critique of Everyday Life, vol. 1 (London: Verso, 1991); N. Hartsock, Money, Sex and Power (London: Macmillan, 1973); M. Mies, Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale (London: Zed Books, 1986); C. Katz, “Whose Nature, Whose Culture? Private Productions of Space and the Preservation of Nature,” in Remaking Nature: Nature at the End of the Millennium, ed. N. Castree and B. Braun (London: Routledge, 1998), 46–63; F. Braudel, Capitalism and Material Life, 1400–1800 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973); J. Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. 2: Lifeworld and System: A Critique of Functionalist Reason (Boston: Beacon Press, 1985).
63. See Mies, Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale, in particular.
64. G. Cohen, Karl Marx’s Theory of History: A Defense (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978).
65. K. Marx, The Grundrisse (Harmondworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin, 1973), 414–15.
66. Ibid., 704–5.
67. D. Haraway, “A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s,” in Feminism/Postmodernism, ed. L. Nicholson (London: Routledge, 1990); Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature (London: Routledge, 1991); Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel.
68. P. Hawken, Blessed Unrest: How the Largest Movement in History Is Restoring Grace, Justice and Beauty to the World (New York: Penguin, 2007).
69. Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel, 111; D. Haraway, Primate Visions: Gender, Race and Nature in the World of Modern Science (London: Routledge, 1989); see also E. Martin, Flexible Bodies: Tracking Immunity in American Culture: From the Days of Polio to the Age of AIDS (Boston: Beacon Press, 1994).
70. Cited in M. Delanda, A New Philosophy of Society: Assemblage Theory and Social Complexity (London: Continuum Books, 2006), 121.
71. Ibid.
72. K. Marx, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (New York: International Publishers, 1970).
73. Ibid.
74. For further elaboration on these lines, see D. Harvey, “On the Significance of a Certain Footnote in Marx’s Capital,” Human Geography 1, no. 2 (2008): forthcoming.
Epilogue
1. See D. Harvey, “The Sociological and Geographical Imaginations,” International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society 18, nos. 3–4 (2005): 211–56.
2. T. Lemke, “‘The Birth of Biopolitics’: Michel Foucault’s Lecture at the Collège de France on Neo-liberal Governmentality,” Economy and Society 30 (2000): 190–207
3. W. Benjamin, Illuminations (New York: Schocken Books, 1969), 255; A. Badiou, Metapolitics, trans. J. Barker (London: Verso, 2005).
4. B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983).
5. E. Grosz, “Bodies-Cities,” in Sexuality and Space, ed. B. Colomina (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 241–54; N. De Genova, Working the Boundaries: Race, Space, and “Illegality” in Mexican Chicago (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2005); P. Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977).
6. R. Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (New York: Basic Books, 1974).
7. K. Marx and F. Engels, Collected Works, vol. 3 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), 154; Lemke, “‘Birth of Biopolitics.’”
8. M. de Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984).
9. R. Williams, Loyalties (London: Chatto and Windus, 1985).
10. J. Clark, and C. Martin, Anarchy, Geography, Modernity: The Radical Social Thought of Elisée Reclus (Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2004).
11. See the trenchant critique in D. Robotham, Culture, Society, Economy: Globalization and Its Alternatives (New York: Sage, 2005).
12. P. Abrams, “Notes on the Difficulty of Studying the State,” in The Anthropology of the State, ed. A. Sharma and A. Gupta (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006), 112–30.
13. T. Mitchell, “Society, Economy, and the State Effect,” in Anthropology of the State, ed. Sharma and Gupta, 169–86.
14. Ibid., 174–82.
15. Cited in S. Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880–1918 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1983).
16. Mitchell, “Society, Economy, and the State Effect,” 183.
17. M. Biggs, “Putting the State on the Map: Cartography, Territory, and European State Formation,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 41 (1999): 374–405.
18. D. Harvey, Spaces of Global Capitalism: Toward a Theory of Uneven Geographical Development (London: Verso, 2006).
19. T. Winichakul, Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-Body of a Nation (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994).
20. De Genova, Working the Boundaries, chap. 3.
21. Smith, Endgame of Globalization, 47
22. J. Scott, Seeing like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999); Benhabib, Rights of Others.
23. M. Sparke, In the Space of Theory: Postfoundational Geographies of the Nation-State (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005), xxxiv, 116–17.
24. R. Trouillot, “The Anthropology of the State in the Age of Globalization: Close Encounters of the Deceptive Kind,” Current Anthropology 42, no. 1 (2001): 125–34.
25. For an example of conceptualizing capitalism into quasi-oblivion, see J. Gibson-Graham, The End of Capitalism (As We Knew It); A Feminist Critique of Political Economy (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006).
26. M. Bookchin, Remaking Society: Pathways to a Green Future (Boston: South End Press, 1990), 194–95.
27. Kern, Culture of Time and Space, 1880–1919.
28. H. Lefebvre, The Production of Space (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991); D. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989); C. Schorske, Fin-de-Siècle Vienna (New York: Vintage, 1981), 226.
29. Smith, Endgame of Globalization.
30. S. Kaviraj, “On the Enchantment of the State: Indian Thought on the Role of the State in the Narrative of Modernity,” European Journal of Sociology 46 (2005): 263–96; P. Chatterjee, The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).
31. Cited in D. Harvey, Paris, Capital of Modernity (New York: Routledge, 2003), 264.
32. M. Hardt and T. Negri, Empire (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001); J. Holloway, Changing the World without Taking Power: The Meaning of Revolution Today (London: Pluto Press, 2002); Badiou, Metapolitics; J. Ranciere, Disagreement: Politics and Philosophy (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); S. Žižek, The Parallax View (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2003).
33. A. Badiou, “Communist Hypothesis,” New Left Review, 2d ser., 49 (2008): 29–48.
34. Schorske, Fin-de-Siècle Vienna, 308.
35. D. Harvey, “Introduction,” in K. Marx and F. Engels, The Communist Manifesto (London: Pluto Press, 2008).
36. Clark and Martin, Anarchy, Geography, Modernity, 249–50.