TECHNICAL DATA
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WEIGHING AND MEASURING
The system is avoirdupois, sixteen ounces to the pound. Weighing is more accurate than measuring, but it is slower, and the measuring can be made sufficiently accurate for most daily work. Weighing is necessary in the cookery of large pieces and in the preparation of large quantities of pastry. The measures in common use are ¼ teaspoon, ½ teaspoon, teaspoon, tablespoon, the ½ pint measuring cup (1 cup), the pint (2 cups), quart (4 cups), and gallon of liquid measure.
It is necessary to know the relation of these different weights and measures to each other. The following abbreviations are short cuts in reading:
oz. = ounce or ounces
lb. = pound
tsp. = teaspoon
Tbsp. = tablespoon
c. = cup
pt. = pint or 2 cups
qt. = quart or 4 cups
gal. = gallon
pkg. = package
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HOW TO MEASURE DRY INGREDIENTS
To measure 1 teaspoon, 1 tablespoon, or any part thereof, or 1 cup or fraction of a cup, or a pint or a quart of any dry ingredient such as sugar, meal, flour, or cereal, fill the utensil full by lifting the material, by means of spoon or cup, into the cup, pint, or quart and level off by passing the edge of a straight knife or spatula over the top. Fractions of a teaspoon or tablespoon are measured as follows: To measure ½ teaspoon, or ½ tablespoon, fill the spoon with the ingredient, level off and divide the spoon lengthwise in half. To measure ¼ teaspoon or ¼ tablespoon, fill the spoon with the ingredient, level off with a knife or spatula, divide lengthwise in halves, then crosswise in fourths. Scrape off the unused portion. (Measuring spoons are available for ½ and ¼ teaspoons.)
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HOW TO MEASURE FLOUR
Pastry flour is generally used in pastry-making because of the larger proportion of starch. Some pastry chefs claim, however, that bread flour gives a more flaky crust, and it is generally used in making Puff Paste (No. 41). A blend of the two flours is preferred by some, as indicated for No. 66, Winter Wheat Crunchy Semi-Puff Paste Flaky Pie Crust, which, however, may be used for both one-crust or two-crust pastry.
Two methods of filling a cup or quart measure have been found to give very good results. One is to sift the flour gently, bringing it up heaping full, and putting it into the cup or quart measure with almost as light a touch as though it were an explosive likely to blow up if jarred, then leveling off the top with the edge of a spatula—not the flat surface, for here there is a tendency to use pressure. By this method, the variation in the weight of any number of measurements of a given sample of flour need not run much, if any, higher than the equivalent of ½ tablespoon per cup, or about 2 tablespoons per quart. Another method of measuring flour is to sift it directly into the cup or quart slightly overful and then level off the surface with the edge of a spatula. However, the modern baker knows that there is just one procedure to be followed in measuring flour, and that is: sift, measure, sift. Flour which has been standing for several days may be so closely packed that a cup of it is really 1 cup plus 5 or 6 tablespoons, while the flour that has just been delivered in the bouncing truck of the dealer will give only 14 tablespoons to the cup instead of the usual 16.
As a result of variation in flour particle size and differences in methods of measuring, it is difficult to give exact figures for the weight of a cupful of flour. The following figures are used by a number of research workers:
1 cupful sifted bread flour = 112.0 grams
1 cupful sifted all-purpose flour = 110.0 grams
1 cupful sifted cake flour = 96.0 grams
1 cupful sifted pastry flour = 100.0 grams
1 cupful stirred whole-wheat flour = 120.0 grams
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HOW TO MEASURE BROWN SUGAR
Pack sugar firmly into the spoon, cup, pint or quart, then level off with a straight knife or spatula. If lumpy, roll and sift before measuring.
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HOW TO MEASURE LIQUIDS
Fill the utensil to the point where it is completely full without overflowing.
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HOW TO MEASURE FATS
In measuring fats, a real difficulty is encountered—that is, the tendency for large air spaces to form. This is greater if the fat is cold. Let us take lard as an example, which is plastic and easily packed. A cupful measured immediately after it is taken from the refrigerator is found to be 62/5 oz., whereas the same measure of this lard, when allowed to come to the temperature of the room, weighs 7⅔ oz., which is the correct value. The difference of 14/15 oz., between the two measurements assumes considerable significance when thought of as almost 2 tablespoons.
Butter, being harder and less plastic than lard, shows an even greater resistance to packing when cold and a greater tendency to slip and slide around when one tries to pack it down into the utensil.
Another difficulty met with in measuring fats is the resistance to leveling off. If one is not careful, the top is still rounded after passing the spatula over it. A rounded surface would, of course, tend to compensate for air spaces and therefore might appear to be desirable in measuring cold fats; but since no two cups of fat with air spaces and rounded tops are likely to weigh the same, it is better to pack solid and to level off the top to a flat surface.
The difficulty in measuring fats can be much lessened by taking the fat out of the refrigerator for a few minutes in hot weather—an hour or so in cold—before it is to be measured; but even then a special effort must be made to see that the pack is solid, with no air spaces.
For all solid fats: Measure by tablespoons for amounts of ¼ cup or less. To measure a spoonful of fat, pack it solidly into the spoon, then level off with a spatula or knife. To measure by cup, pack the shortening in so solidly that it will hold the shape of the cup (or other measure) when turned out; then level off. For fraction of cup, pack solidly or level off at the desired fraction, if cups in fractional sizes are used; or use the water displacement method. For example, for ½ cup of shortening, fill cup half full of cold water, add shortening until the water reaches the top of the cup, being sure that all the shortening is kept under the level of the water, then drain off water carefully. The remaining shortening measures the correct amount. This method may be used for any fraction of a cup, pint, or quart. To measure from a pound print (as for packaged butter or lard), is an easy matter if one is familiar with the relation between a pound and cup. One pound is equivalent to 2 cups. One-half pound equals 1 cup; a ¼ pound stick equals ½ cup.
To resume: Any difficulties which are encountered by measuring fats by the cupful are easily overcome by the purchase of a scale of suitable size to weigh the amount of shortening called for in the recipe.
For melted shortening: The solid shortening may be measured and leveled off with knife or spatula, then melted, or it may sometimes be more convenient to melt the shortening before measuring. The amount should be the same.
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STANDARD MEASURES
Standard measuring cups, graduated to read ⅓ and ⅔ on one side, and ¼, ½ and ¾ on the other, and sets of measuring spoons consisting of 1 tablespoon, 1, ½ and ¼ teaspoons are available for accuracy in measuring. Some measuring cups designed for liquid have an extra rim for the 1 cup mark, but these should not be used for measuring ingredients which must be leveled off.
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FATS OR SHORTENINGS
Under the term shortening are included all fats which are used with flour and other ingredients to make breads, cakes, and pastries tender, long, or short. Fats or shortenings are the only materials in pie crust which are not dissolved in the water nor wet by the water. They are not changed during the baking process and thus produce tenderness by preventing the flour, sugar, and other non-fatty materials from combining into a hard, brittle, continuous mass. Water as a liquid, for example, does not act in this manner. Fats or shortenings also prevent the products from drying out quickly.
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BUTTER
The butter in pies, although it adds flavor, is very expensive. Even in hotels and restaurants, pastry made with butter is extremely rare.
Butter’s chief value is its flavor. When substituting butter for lard or any other shortening in pastry, remember that butter is not 100 per cent fat, and so more butter should be used than is stated in the recipe. In general, 2 tablespoons of butter should be added for each cup of pure fat required. Butter is only 81 per cent pure fat, the rest of the contents being casein, salt, and water. When butter is used in pastry, the moisture present develops the gluten of the flour and makes a tough pastry. However, when butter is washed to remove all buttermilk, it gives a tender pastry with a flavor not obtained by the use of any other shortening. Some bakers prefer to melt the butter, remove the curds which settle, cool the remaining butter fat, and use it in a semi-solid condition. This is practised by the French and Italian pastry makers. Others recommend using lard or hydrogenated fat to mix with the flour; then when this pastry has been dampened and rolled out, spread on butter, fold and roll again. This method produces what is called semi-puff paste.
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MARGARINE
Margarine, as produced at the present time in the United States, is a combination of highly refined vegetable oils (more than 90 per cent of the oils used are cottonseed oil and soybean oil; other oils include corn, peanut, sunflower, seed oil, and meat fats, to a limited degree) pasteurized and cultured skim milk, salt and Vitamin A. The term oleomargarine, indicating the use of “oleo,” is no longer a true description of modern margarine. The original product, made largely from beef fat, was invented in 1870 by a French chemist, Mege-Mouriet, who discovered that beef fat from particular portions of the bullock would melt at the same temperature as butter, and would keep longer without becoming rancid. Like butter, margarines are not used to any extent in pie crust in the baking trade, hotel, restaurant, and home.
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LARD
The consistency of lard is extremely soft, and lard is not always uniform, since it is a natural fat and its qualities depend to a large extent on the feed of the animals. Quite often, a very plastic shortening such as lard tends to separate from the dough and work out on the board or bench, requiring the use of considerable dusting flour, which, of course, tends to produce an inferior crust. Some lards, such as hydrogenated lards, have been improved for baking and have better keeping qualities than others. Shortenings used for pie crust should be able to resist oxidation at oven temperature. If shortenings used for pie crust oxidize at oven temperature, they give the crust a disagreeable rancid taste and odor. This is not generally true of the hydrogenated lards.
The following kinds of lards are available on the market: (a) kettle-rendered leaf lard; (b) kettle-rendered lard; (c) prime steam, or steam-rendered lard; (d) hydrogenated lard.
(a) Kettle-rendered leaf lard is made from the leaf fat, or the internal fat of the abdomen of the hog, excluding that adherent to the intestines. It is rendered in an open kettle, which is steam-jacketed, at a temperature of 230° to 250°F. This method of making lard is similar to the home method; it is light in color, slightly grainy with firm texture, has a mild and pleasing flavor and has excellent keeping qualities.
(b) Kettle-rendered lard is made from leaf and back fat and is rendered in a steam-jacketed open kettle at a temperature of 240° to 260° F. Kettle-rendered lard is light in color, but somewhat darker than leaf lard, slightly grainy in texture, is of very good keeping quality, and has a very pleasing flavor.
(c) Prime steam lard is made from killing and cutting fats, rendered in direct contact with steam in a closed tank under a pressure of 30 to 50 lbs., or at a temperature of about 285° F. It is usually cooled rapidly over a chill roll or refrigerator drum, which produces a very smooth texture. It is whiter and has a different flavor from kettle-rendered lard (a). This kind of lard represents 80 per cent of the commercial product. The keeping qualities are satisfactory, and the cost is usually less than that of the kettle-rendered lards. Of course, none of the above mentioned lards has as good keeping qualities as hydrogenated lard or hydrogenated vegetable shortenings.
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HYDROGENATED LARD
By the processes of hydrogenation, addition of antioxidants, deodorization, caustic refining, and plasticizing, new so-called “hydrogenated lards” are on the market. This type of lard will keep firm at room temperatures, not needing refrigeration, has increased stability, more uniform and firmer consistency than other lards, and improved baking characteristics. Some brands on the market have a smoking point of 420° F. and can be kept fresh for fourteen to sixteen months.
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ALL-HYDROGENATED VEGETABLE OIL SHORTENINGS
In the manufacture of all-hydrogenated shortenings, every particle of vegetable oil used is subjected to the hydrogenation process. The properties of the original oil are changed so that a shortening with more desirable properties is produced. The hydrogenation process is controlled during manufacture so that finished shortenings have the desired consistency or body.
After the oils are hydrogenated to the proper body, they are further processed to give them a bland and neutral flavor, and to give the smoothness and feel which are characteristic of this type of shortening. Hydrogenated shortenings do not impart any objectionable fatty flavors to the crust. In addition, they resist breakdown and the development of “off” flavors at normal baking temperatures. The body of hydrogenated shortenings is just right to blend readily with the flour in order to produce a tender crust. Furthermore, hydrogenated shortenings maintain distribution in the dough and do not bake out of the crust.
Hydrogenated shortenings permit the production of any type of crust which may be desired—from the very mealy crust to a crust with a maximum flakiness. They have a desirable creamy white color, smooth texture, and a bland or neutral flavor. They keep well and longer than any other shortenings.
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STANDARD SHORTENINGS
Standard shortenings are vegetable oil shortenings made by blending, for example, refined, bleached, vegetable oil with sufficient vegetable stearine to produce the desired consistency. Vegetable stearine is vegetable oil hydrogenated to a high melting point. The vegetable stearine and hydrogenated oil are liquified and mixed together; when cooled, the vegetable stearine hardens the unhydrogenated vegetable oil. From this point on, the mixture is processed in much the same manner as the all-hydrogenated shortenings.
Standard shortenings have excellent consistency for pie crust and have good flavor, but they are inferior to hydrogenated shortenings in keeping qualities and in their ability to resist break-down at high temperature.
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CHICKEN FAT OR OILS, SOUR CREAM, BACON FAT, SUET
These products may be used in the manufacture of pie crust, but in my opinion their use is so limited and so impractical that the use of better shortenings is preferred.
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FLOUR
Flour may be ground according to two classes: (1) The kinds of wheats from which they are made—(a) durum wheat, (b) hard wheats and (c) soft wheats. (2) The uses for which they are milled. Different types and varieties of wheat may be blended to yield flours that are particularly well adapted to special uses. (a) Macaroni flours. These, as the name implies, are designed for the making of macaroni and related products. They are milled from durum wheats, which are high in protein. The flours are quite granular and usually creamy in color. (b) Bread flours. These are milled from blends of hard spring and hard winter wheats. They are fairly high in protein and somewhat granular to the touch. They may be bleached or unbleached. Bread flours are milled primarily for bakers. (c) General- purpose, or family flours. As the name implies, these flours are of such composition that they may be used satisfactorily for all household cookery purposes. In the hard wheat producing areas they are usually a blend of hard wheats. They are lower in protein content than bread flours. They do contain enough protein for making good yeast breads, but not too much for good quick breads and cakes. In soft wheat areas, all-purpose flours are usually a blend of soft wheats. Although both “northern” and “southern” all-purpose flours give good results in any type of product, the “northern” variety makes especially good yeast breads, while the “southern” variety makes especially good quick breads. Either of them gives good results in all types of home-baked products, except perhaps the finest cakes, which are best made from cake flour. (d) Pastry flours. These may be made either of hard or soft wheat, although usually of the latter. They are fairly low in protein and are finely milled, though they are not so fine as cake flour. They are especially milled for making pastry, and are used chiefly by bakers. (e) Cake flours. These are milled from soft wheats. They are short patents, representing the most highly refined flour streams of the mill. The granulation is uniform and very fine, and the protein content is low. (f) Self-rising flour. This is flour to which calcium acid phosphate or monocalcium phosphate, bicarbonate of soda, and salt have been added.
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SELECTING FLOUR FOR BAKING
How good a flour is for a given purpose depends, of course, on many factors—the quantity and quality of the protein; the size of the flour particles; the size of the starch granules, so tiny that nature may pack thousands of them into one microscopic particle of flour; the sugar content; the crude fibre of branny particles; the kind and quantity of enzymes; the fatty substance; the mineral, or ash, content; and finally, the skill of the baker using the flour, and the accuracy of his recipe.
Each of the above points is important. Yet the proteins are often considered the most important constituent of flour, since of all the cereal grains only wheat contains the kind of proteins which enable the flour from it to make a smooth, satiny dough.
Of the several proteins that flour contains, the chief ones are gliadin and glutenin. Together these may make up a large part of the proteins in flour. Gliadin may be present in larger quantity than is glutenin, but the latter substance is the protein which makes wheat flower unique as the chief bread-baking cereal of the world. Other cereals, such as rye and corn, contain gliadin, but none besides wheat contains glutenin in large enough quantity to possess good baking qualities.
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GLUTEN
When wheat flour is moistened, the gliadin and glutenin combine to form a substance called gluten. Gluten makes the framework of bread, biscuits, cakes, and most other baked products.
A simple way to examine some of the qualities of gluten is to put a cupful of flour into a bowl, add enough water to make a stiff dough, mix thoroughly, and then knead the dough until it is smooth and satiny (10 minutes). Then, under a stream of cool running water, or in a deep bowl, wash the dough, kneading it constantly. The kneading develops the gluten, and the washing removes the starch. When the wash water is no longer cloudy, an elastic, grayish mass remains. This is crude gluten. It may be shaped into a smooth, moist ball, put on a sheet of heavy paper or on a pan and baked for an hour in a hot oven (450° F.). The heat causes steam to form so that the gluten first expands and then becomes firm, for gluten is very elastic; and because it is protein, it is coagulated or hardened by heat.
Different kinds of flour yield different amounts and different kinds of gluten. Bread flour yields more gluten than cake flour. Moreover, strands of gluten from bread flour are more elastic, thicker and less tender than those from cake flour. The gluten from soft wheat all-purpose flour is more delicate and less tenacious than that from hard wheat all-purpose flour. Long ago it was found that when a small amount (½ of 1 per cent) of calcium acid phosphate was added to all-purpose flour made from soft wheat, the gluten became slightly more tenacious and its performance in baking was improved. For this reason, in many sections of the South where soft wheat is grown and milled, phosphated flours are commonly used.
Aside from expanding and holding its shape when baked, gluten also has the property of absorbing much water. Just how much of the moisture-absorbing capacity of a given flour is dependent on its gluten and how much on its starch seems to be an unsettled question. Certain it is that flours differ greatly in this property, bread flour in general absorbing more than the pastry. This difference in moisture-absorbing capacity gives trouble when one changes from one type of flour to the other in a given recipe, a fact which is especially noticeable in biscuit dough. Obviously, if one flour absorbs much more liquid than the other, we cannot use the same proportions of the two for a given volume of liquid. Provided there is the right proportion, however, it does not seem to make much difference which type of flour we use for muffins and biscuits. But pastry flour seems necessary for pies and cakes if they are to be at their best.
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BAKING PROCEDURES
The different amounts as well as different kinds of gluten developed are responsible for the different cookery procedures recommended when various types of flour are used. Yeast breads, for example, can be made from either hard or soft flours. But the method of making is changed slightly. Hard wheat flour, with its strong gluten, requires a longer fermentation time during which the gluten becomes softened and tender. The gluten of soft wheat flour is already soft and tender, so it needs only enough fermentation to generate carbon dioxide for leavening and to develop the delicious flavor characteristic of yeast breads. Consequently, when yeast breads are made from soft wheat flour, the amount of yeast is increased; the fermentation time is kept short, and the dough is handled gently so as not to injure the gluten meshwork that has been built up.
On the other hand, in making quick breads, which are best when the gluten remains somewhat underdeveloped, the procedure is just the opposite. When soft wheat flour is used, the batter may be stirred or the dough kneaded with less danger of developing a tough product than when hard wheat flour is used.
Although flours differ in protein content and particle size, the fact is that any good flour makes good products, provided the ingredients are properly proportioned and the method of mixing is adapted to the kind of flour used. For special types of baking, flours milled for specific purposes obviously give the finest type of products.
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STORAGE OF FLOUR
The place where flour is stored must be moderately dry, well lighted, airy, never exposed to a freezing temperature or to excessive heat. An even temperature of 70° to 75° F. is best if it is to be used within six months; that to be held longer should be kept cooler.
Whether in a barrel or sack, flour should always be placed on a rack at least two inches from the floor, in order to allow a current of air to pass under and prevent dampness from the floor; and it should never be placed in contact with grain or other substances which are liable to generate heat.
Flour is peculiarly sensitive to atmospheric influences—hence it should never be stored in a room with any material which emits an odor. Any smell perceptible to the human sense will be absorbed by it. A damp cellar, or a close attic or loft is especially unsuitable.
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FOOD INGREDIENT SUBSTITUTES
1 square of chocolate for ¼ cup of cocoa in pudding, pies, cakes, icings, or beverage. ¼ cup of cocoa for 1 oz. or square of chocolate in cake—take out 2 tablespoons of flour. In cakes and cookies add 1 teaspoon of shortening.
1 cup bread flour, less 2 tablespoons, plus 1½ tablespoons cornstarch for 1 cup of pastry flour.
1 tablespoon of cornstarch for 2 tablespoons of flour—for thickening.
1 cup of pearl tapioca for ¾ cup of quick-cooking tapioca.
1 teaspoon of baking powder for ¼ teaspoon baking soda and ½ teaspoon of cream of tartar.
7/8 cup chicken fat, hydrogenated fats, lard or oil, equivalent to 1 cup of butter in fat content.
2 to 2¼ cups heavy cream, equivalent to 1 cup of butter in fat content. Make allowance for difference in liquid. 1 cup of 40 percent heavy cream equals ⅓ cup of butter plus ¾ cup milk.
1 cup of milk for ½ cup of condensed milk and ½ cup water—omit sugar in recipe.
1 cup of milk for ½ cup of evaporated milk and ½ cup of water.
1 cup of milk for 4 tablespoons of powdered milk and 1 cup of water.
Sour milk for sweet, by using ½ teaspoon of baking soda for each cup of milk; cut down baking powder by 1½ teaspoons.
Sweet milk for sour, by adding 1 tablespoon of vinegar to each cup of milk, letting stand 20 minutes.
½ teaspoon of baking soda neutralizes 1 cup sour milk, or buttermilk and leavens 1 cup of flour.
½ teaspoon of baking soda neutralizes ½ to 1 cup of molasses and leavens 1 cup flour.
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THICKENING AGENTS
Thickening agents which thicken hot liquids as they cook are (a) flour, (b) cornstarch, (c) ground tapioca (or tapioca flour), (d) rice flour, (e) potato flour, (f) arrowroot, and (g) eggs.
Junket added to lukewarm milk, pectin added to fruit juice, stiffen these liquids as they cool.
Gelatin when hydrated (soaked in cold water) and dissolved in any heated cooking liquids, except fresh pineapple juice, stiffens the liquid on cooling.
Cornstarch, arrowroot, rice flour have twice the thickening power of flour. They give a clearer cooked mixture than flour.
1 level tablespoon of flour thickens 1 cup of liquid for a thin sauce.
2 level tablespoons of flour thicken 1 cup of drippings or liquid for gravy or sauce, or for a medium sauce.
4 level tablespoons (¼ cup) of cornstarch thicken 1 pint (2 cups) of liquid for cornstarch filling.
1 level tablespoon of granulated gelatin will stiffen 1 pint (2 cups) of liquid, cooled on ice in 2 to 4 hours.
3 eggs thicken 1 pint of milk for custard (cup or pie).
1½ eggs or 2–3 yolks thicken 1 cup of milk for cup custard.
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FRESH FRUIT PREPARATION
Fresh Peaches. To remove skins from fresh peaches, proceed as follows: For every two gallons of water used, dissolve ¼ lb. bicarbonate of soda and bring this to a boil. Add the fresh peaches and slowly bring back to a boil. Let boil 2 minutes, or until skins begin to slip off. Drain at once, cover with cold water. The skins will rub off easily without losing any flavor, and the peaches will not discolor. Use only firm, well-ripened peaches, as the skins of partly green peaches are rather difficult to remove by any method, except by peeling with a knife. Discard bruised or over-ripe peaches.
Strawberries. In washing strawberries, raspberries, and the like, don’t let the water from the faucet play on them. They are too tender to stand such treatment. Instead, put them in a large bowl of warm water and then lift them out of the water with fingers somewhat apart to act as strainer. The sand and soil on the berries will settle to the bottom of the container. For that reason, don’t pour the water off the berries. Unless they are quite dirty, two such rinses are usually sufficient. Above all, don’t let berries stand in water to lose color and flavor.
Should you be against washing berries, here is a dry method: Tie one end of a large piece of cheesecloth, hammock fashion, to the side of a sturdy table. Hold the other end in your hand. Now drop berries into the center; raise and lower the free end of the cloth and allow the berries to roll back and forth its length. Shake them a little as they roll. The porous cheesecloth will catch all the particles of sand and soil and remove them from the berries. Do this a few times and the berries will be thoroughly free from foreign matter.
Banana Discoloration. Following are several methods to prevent darkening of this popular fruit:
(a) When preparing bananas for pie filling, proceed as rapidly as possible.
(b) When slicing bananas for pies or any kind of dessert, try using a wooden knife, which you can whittle yourself, of hard wood, making a thin blade. You can also buy one ready made in almost any kind of house furnishing store.
(c) Sprinkle bananas with a solution of water and lemon juice; use 2 tablespoons of lemon juice or ¼ tsp. powdered ascorbic acid for each quart of water and drop banana slices into this solution; do not allow the bananas to remain in this solution longer than 10 or 15 minutes. Drain thoroughly and use at once.
(d) Pile sliced bananas immediately into pie shell, and cover at once with either cream, meringue, or glaze.
(e) Better yet, marinate sliced bananas in a mixture of lemon and orange and a very little lime juice, sweetened with honey. But drain well before using for pie.
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DRIED FRUIT PREPARATION
Today, dried fruits are by no means shriveled fruits, or withered fruits, as they once were when less efficient handling methods were employed. Strictly speaking, they should be considered fresh fruits from which the water has been evaporated—or evaporated fruits, if you will.
Apricots, apples, dates, figs, peaches, pears, prunes, and raisins—fresh fruits all, but evaporated—are ready to cook, ready to save store or pantry space, and present no other storage problem.
Mention has just been made of the better handling and other factory processes which now permit the evaporated fruit to more closely approximate fresh fruit. There is also the better packaging in airtight cartons which do everything possible to continue to keep the fruit moist. The result is that these new evaporated fruits are not “dried” or desiccated—and this fact quite radically affects their cooking or preparing processes.
In the old days when evaporated fruits were indeed dried and withered, it was necessary to “soak overnight’’ or at least eight hours. But today this is not only unnecessary but decidedly wrong. Quick cooking is the secret of success with these tender, delicate fruit pulps, and quick cooking must be practiced. It is really entirely up to the cook whether or not these fruits shall be whole, shapely, and delicious, or whether they shall come out an unsightly broken or mashed mass of a dark or yellow, unpleasant color. Quick cooking, and practically no soaking, must be the rule.
Another point is that too many pieces of fruit should not be cooked at the same time. After all, isn’t this exactly what we do when we cook all fresh fruits, like fresh peaches, or plums, or cherries, or strawberries? If we put a few pieces at a time into the water or syrup, then each piece has room in which to simmer down but still retain its shape; whereas, if we dump a whole mass of pieces into the kettle, then we must expect little else than a shapeless mixture to result. Strange, that while so many cooks follow this sensible rule when cooking fresh fruits, they do just the opposite when they handle evaporated fruits.
Here are the rules for dried fruit preparation:
APPLES (Absorb enough water to make their cooked bulk five times the original lb.) |
Remove particles of core. Rinse, cover with water, and boil 40 minutes. For fresh apple flavor, omit sugar; or if desired, or directed, allow ¼ cup sugar for each cup fruit. Added flavor may be obtained with few grains salt. |
APRICOTS (Double in weight when cooked) |
Rinse, cover with water, and boil 30 minutes. Allow, if directed, ¼ to ½ cup sugar for each cup fruit, to taste, added 5 minutes before cooking is completed. |
FIGS (Double in weight when cooked) |
Rinse, cover with water and boil 20 to 30 minutes, depending on condition of fruit. Allow 1 tablespoon sugar for each cup fruit and add for last 5 minutes of cooking. |
PEACHES (Triple in weight when cooked) |
Rinse, cover with water, boil 5 minutes, and remove skins. Cover with fresh water and boil 45 minutes. Allow ¼ cup sugar for each cup fruit, added 5 minutes before cooking is completed. |
PEARS (Triple in weight when cooked) |
Rinse, remove cores, cover with water, and boil 35 minutes. Allow ¼ cup sugar for each cup fruit, added 5 minutes before cooking is completed |
PRUNES (Double in weight when cooked) |
Rinse, cover with water, and boil 45 minutes to 60 minutes, depending on condition of fruit. Sugar is not needed, but from 1 to 2 tablespoons for each cup prunes may be added, if desired, the last 5 minutes before cooking is completed. |
RAISINS (Double in weight when cooked) |
Rinse. Allow 1 cup water for each cup raisins, boil 10 minutes, and add ¼ to ½ tablespoon sugar for each cup fruit, the last 5 minutes before cooking is completed. |
Practically all foods shrink during the cooking process, but the dried fruits are a notable exception.
Raisins, dates, currants, and figs blend better with other ingredients if they are soaked for 5 minutes in a little boiling water. Use 2 tablespoons boiling water for each ½ cup of fruit.
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NUT CHART
| Nut | How Purchased | Weight | Measure by cups |
| ALMONDS | |||
| Hard shell | In shell | 1 lb. | 1 cup meats |
| Soft shell | In shell | 1 lb. | 2 cup meats |
| Jordans | Meats | 1 lb. | 3 cup meats |
| Valencias | Meats | 1 lb. | 3 cup meats (generous) |
| Salted | Meats | 1 lb. | 3½ cup meats (generous) |
| Butter | Glass jar | 5 ozs. | ⅓ cup meats (generous) |
| BRAZIL NUTS | In shell | 1 lb. | 1½ cup meats (generous) |
| BUTTERNUTS | In shell | 1 lb. | ½ cup meats (generous) |
| CASHEW NUTS | Salted | 1 lb. | 4 cup meats (generous) |
| CHESTNUTS | In shell | 1 lb. | 2 cup meats (generous) |
| COCONUT | |||
| Shredded | Bulk | 1 lb. | 6 cup meats (generous) |
| Shredded | Paper carton | ¼ lb. | 1⅓ cup meats (generous) |
| Shredded | Paper carton | ½ lb. | 2⅔ cup meats (generous) |
| Shredded | Tin can | 4 ozs. | 1½ cup meats (generous) |
| Shredded | Tin can | 10 ozs. | 3¾ cup meats (generous) |
| Whole | In shell | per nut | 2 cup meats (chopped) |
| FILBERTS | |||
| Shelled | Meats | 1 lb. | 3½ cup meats (chopped) |
| In shell | 1 lb. | 2⅔ cup meats (chopped) | |
| HICKORY | In shell | 1 lb. | 1 cup meats (chopped) |
| PEANUTS | |||
| Jumbo | Salted | 1 lb. | 3 cup meats |
| Spanish | Salted | 1 lb. | 3⅓ cup meats |
| Roasted | In shell | 1 lb. | 2½ cup meats |
| Peanut butter | Glass jar | 6½ ozs. | ¾ cup meats |
| PECANS | |||
| Paper shell | In shell | 1 lb. | 2 cup meats |
| Hard shell | In shell | 1 lb. | 1 cup meats |
| Meats | Meats | 1 lb. | 3½ cup meats |
| PINE NUTS | Meats | 1 lb. | 4 cup meats |
| PISTACHIOS | In shell | 1 lb. | 2 cup meats |
| WALNUTS (black) | In shell | 1 lb. | ⅔ cup meats |
| Shelled | Meats | 1 lb. | 4 cup meats |
| WALNUTS (English) | |||
| Hard shell | In shell | 1 lb. | 1⅓ cup meats |
| Soft shell | In shell | 1 lb. | 1⅔ cup meats |
| Halves | Meats | 1 lb. | 4½ cup meats |
| Halves | Tin can | 8 ozs. | 2 cup meats |
| Broken pieces | Meats | 1 lb. | 3 cup meats |
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MERINGUE TOPPING
The recipe depends upon the type of meringue to be used. If you wish it to tower to the skies and to be dry, 1 tablespoon sugar should be used to each well-beaten egg white. If you prefer a sweeter and more flavorful topping, you may use from 2 to 3 tablespoons of sugar for each egg white. In general, 2 tablespoons of fine granulated sugar per egg white give best results.
With a small amount of sugar, you will have a fluffy meringue, although it will not rise as high as when 2 tablespoons of sugar are used. With a larger amount (especially when made with ultrafine sugar), the result will be a frosting type of meringue which will keep soft and shiny and which is more delicious, although not so spectacular as the others.
There is one other point which must also be considered in making the perfect meringue of any type. The oven temperature must be low (325º–350º F.). Like other rules, this one has one exception. When you are making a baked Alaska—that combination of cake, ice cream, and meringue—you must use a hot oven (400º–425º F.), as the ice cream will not hold up during the longer time necessary for the browning.
When making a meringue for topping, use the correct proportion of sugar and egg whites. Beat egg whites to a foam; add sugar gradually. Beat constantly until the mixture is very smooth. Have egg whites at room temperature; they whip to a greater volume. Beat until they are stiff enough so that they stand up in points as the rotary beater is removed. Another test is to invert the bowl; the whites should not run out. Do not let them reach the “dry” stage, however. A little salt or ¼ teaspoon of cream of tartar per egg white may be added during the beating; this increases the tenderness of the egg white. Flavoring may be used if desired or directed in recipe.
If you use or need a large amount of meringue, place the egg whites in electric beater and beat in second speed with the wire beater. Beat to a medium dry stiffness, to the point where they start to pull away from the bowl sides; then, if making an uncooked meringue, add the required amount or weight of sugar, gradually, very slowly, while the machine is still beating the whites in second speed.
Remember, too little sugar to each egg white tends to give a less fluffy, less-tender meringue and one lacking in sweetness. Too much sugar tends to give a gummy crust or one containing sugar crystals, though the amount of sugar that can be used to obtain a desirable meringue depends on the fineness of the sugar and on its rate of solution. A temperature below 325° F. causes the meringue to shrink after being removed from the oven, and it dries out too much. Too high temperatures toughen the meringue.
Hot Syrup Meringue. Proceed as indicated for large amount of meringue, and substitute a syrup for sugar. This syrup should be hot and poured in very slowly, in just a heavy threadlike stream, while the machine is still beating the whites in second speed. This hot meringue increases the volume almost to double that of the cold method. Let the machine beat the mixture one minute or so after all the syrup has been added. This kind of boiled meringue is very appropriate for butterscotch, custard, sabayon and brandied fruit pies, as well as the chocolate pie class. You may flavor, according to direction, with the desired flavoring extract, just before the beaten egg whites are removed from the machine. If used on citrus pies, such as lime, lemon, grapefruit, or orange pies, the flavoring may be the juice of the fruit used in the pie.
This kind of meringue will appear somewhat softer than the plain sugar meringue, but it will become firm and dry after it is placed on the pies. Another advantage of this boiled meringue is that it is foolproof against leaking, cracking, or shrinking. Again, like other rules, this method has an exception. It should be baked in a hot oven or at 425º–450º F., as it will not keep fluffy long, and should be used at once. Spread the meringue immediately on the pies, being sure that it touches the rim of the crust on all sides. Do not have, unless desired, the meringue with a smooth, even surface but rather what has been described as “mountain and valley” effect; or you may force the meringue through a pastry bag; or a fork or spoon may be worked through the meringue to make an attractive but not fussy appearance.
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A FEW POINTERS AND HINTS ABOUT MERINGUE
If you wish really to set your meringue-topped pies in a very delicious way, follow the pointers and hints below:
(a) Two tablespoons sugar per egg white is the average proportion and twelve to fifteen minutes in a rather slow oven (325°–350° F.) allows penetration of heat to all parts of the meringue. For a firmer type, 4 tablespoons sugar per egg white is the rule and bake at 250° F. For a soft one use one tablespoon per white and bake 15 to 20 minutes at 300° F.
(b) A teaspoon of cold water added to the white of each egg will make it whip more easily, and increase the volume of the meringue.
(c) Meringue will always stand up high and perfect if a generous pinch of baking soda is added to beaten egg whites.
(d) Pie meringues become flat when too much sugar is used in them, if they are baked in too hot an oven, or they are not baked enough. A fourth of a teaspoon of cream of tartar mixed with each egg white helps to keep the meringue firm.
(e) Egg whites separate from the yolk easily when the egg is cold, but they whip better when at room temperature.
(f) Meringue should be added without removing pastry from the oven, unless directed to do so.
(g) General direction for one-crust pies which take a meringue or whipped cream topping: Instead of covering the entire filling, pipe a “collar” of the meringue or whipped cream around the outer edge. This leaves a bit of the filling exposed to view, and presents a most attractive appearance.
(h) Grated orange peel gives a delightful flavor to meringue.
(i) Grated apples often are used in meringues. Peel the apples whole, then press them onto a regular grater, turning the apple around in your hand until everything but the core has been grated.
(j) Try sprinkling shedded cocoanut (which may be tinted) over the meringue before browning in oven.
(k) Do you ever make berry pies with a meringue on top instead of a top crust? Blueberry pies, for example, done this way are worth a king’s ransom—or almost.
(28)
WHIPPED CREAM TOPPINGS
A few pointers about whipped cream
(a) Very fresh cream is not good for whipping. Cream for whipping should be at least twelve hours old.
(b) It is best to whip no more cream than is necessary at a time. Chill bowl and beater, if using small amount. If the cream is beaten in a warm bowl in a warm place it is apt to turn to butter.
(c) For fluffiness you may combine equal parts of whipped cream and equal parts of stiffly beaten egg whites. It’s economical, too.
(d) One quart (refers to unwhipped cream) when whipped will give 50 rounded tablespoons.
(e) Cream which is hard to whip will whip quickly by adding a few drops of lemon juice, and flavor is added too.
(f) Grated orange peel gives a delightful flavor to whipped cream.
(g) Try adding a teaspoon of strained honey to whipped cream to give it a delicious new flavor.
(h) Chopped nuts—walnuts or Brazil—added to whipped cream is something to try. Whipped cream is not chewable. Nuts are.
(i) Ever try flavoring whipped cream with cinnamon and sugar?
(j) Drop some black walnut flavoring into the whipped cream you are using for topping on your pies, especially chocolate pies, and see if it doesn’t make the most delicious combination.
(k) For a sauce for deep dish apple pies, try whipped cream with brown sugar and flavored with nutmeg. It’s great.
(1) Gingerbread split, filled with any of the above flavored whipped cream, fresh or sour, and sliced large berries, or bananas, with cream and fruit on top, is delicious.
(m) Whip sour cream; when thick and smooth, pour over a mound of sugar and surround open berry pies or tarts with it for a delicate flavor.
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SPECIAL WHIPPED CREAM FOR CHIFFON AND ONE-CRUST FRUIT PIES
NOTE: the use of dry, white pectin in whipped cream has the advantage of giving firmness, body, and consistency to the resulting product, especially when the whipped cream is used as a first layer in chiffon, berry or heavy fruit pies and tarts. A heavy cream (40 per cent) gives best results, and here is how to proceed:
Place 1 quart heavy cream in beating machine and beat until stiff. Meantime, sift together 3½ cups, or 1 lb. powdered sugar and ½ cup or 4 oz. powdered white pectin. To the whipped cream, add half of the sugar-pectin mixture, and continue beating 4 or 5 revolutions, or until mixture is well blended; then add remaining sugar-pectin mixture and again give 4 or 5 revolutions. (Topping for 5 pies.)
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HOW TO WHIP EVAPORATED MILK
Pour the indicated quantity of evaporated milk into top part of double boiler. Heat uncovered over boiling water until hot (scalding point—150° F.). Add to the hot milk, granulated gelatin which has been soaked in cold water 5 minutes (see table of proportion below). Stir until dissolved. Pour into chilled bowl and chill until ice cold (45° F.) before whipping, either in a bowl or beating machine. Whip until stiff with rotary egg beater if using a bowl, or in the beating machine (electric beater); then sweeten to taste as directed.
IMPORTANT: Do not remove the film of milk solids that forms on top of the hot milk. It will whip up like the rest of the milk. The bowl should be large, according to amount of milk to be whipped.
GELATIN PROPORTIONS FOR EVAPORATED MILK
| MILK | GELATIN | WATER |
| ½ cup | ¼ teaspoon | 1 teaspoon |
| ¾ cup | ½ teaspoon (scant) | 1½ teaspoons |
| 1 cup | ½ teaspoon | 2 teaspoons |
| 1½ cups | ¾ teaspoon | 3 teaspoons |
Another simple method for whipping evaporated milk is as follows:
Place one (or several) unopened can of evaporated milk in the freezing compartment of refrigerator for at least 1 hour. Empty into a well-chilled bowl (or electric beating machine) and whip in the usual way. This takes but a few minutes. Or, pour a can (or several) of evaporated milk into one of the ice trays of the electric refrigerator and set the control for quick freezing. When partly frozen (mushy), whip in the usual way.
There is yet another method similar to the one mentioned at the beginning of this section, but without the use of gelatin, which is as follows:
Pour the amount of evaporated milk called for into top part of double boiler and heat over boiling water to scalding point. Do not discard the film of milk solids that forms on top of the hot milk: stir it in; then chill the milk by placing it in a pan containing either cracked ice or very cold water. Chill in refrigerator and whip in the usual way. Or place the unopened can (or cans) of evaporated milk into a saucepan and cover with very cold water. Boil 5 long minutes, after boiling actually begins. Cool in running cold water and whip in the usual way.
The main point to remember in whipping evaporated milk is that the milk must be thoroughly chilled, either in refrigerator or with the can (or cans) placed in a large bowl and surrounded and covered with cracked ice.
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PIES—PLAIN PASTRY (PIE CRUST)
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD PIE CRUST
In appearance, good pie crust is flaky, that is, its surface has a rough, blistered appearance, rather than a smooth, firm one. Moreover, it is tender enough to cut easily with a fork, but not so tender that it crumbles. It is a golden brown color around the edge, a somewhat lighter brown on the bottom; and, even though containing a filling, it is crisp on the bottom as well as along the edge.
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MANIPULATION OF INGREDIENTS
The “secret” of making good, flaky pastry appears to be largely a matter of not overmixing the ingredients. If once the fat, flour, and liquid are all divided into tiny particles and these intimately mixed with one another, they tend to stay that way and give a smooth, solid, tough crust which is impervious to heat and browns unevenly, if at all.
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FAT AND FLOUR ADDITIONS
Care in mixing the ingredients should begin with adding the fat to the flour. When a large proportion of fat is used, it is easy for the inexperienced person to keep on working the ever warming fat into the flour until the grains of the latter become so coated with grease that they will not take up enough water to make the pastry flaky. The particles of fat should be coated with flour, and that is accomplished if the combining process is not overdone. There is little danger of doing this, however, if one starts with cold fat, works quickly, and uses a pastry blender or knives rather than the fingers in mixing the fat with the flour.
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WATER
The ticklish business of adding the water to the flour-fat mixture would be somewhat simpler if we could give an exact measure of water which could be counted on to give just the right degree of dampness for a given weight of fat and flour. This, however, we cannot do, for the amount varies with the temperature and the fineness of division of the ingredients and the rate of adding it. It is less for warm than for cold ingredients, less for finely divided particles than for coarse ones, and more when the water is added slowly rather than quickly.
Less water tends to give a crust which is crumbly rather than flaky, while any appreciable increase makes for toughness. We can stay within the desirable limits easily enough if we keep the ingredients cool and take time to add the water. Remember, the ingredient directly responsible for the tenderness of your pie crust is the water. Of course, the mixing of the flour-shortening is also important, but is secondary to the addition of the water.
If the room is cool and you work quickly, you take no special precaution regarding the temperature of the ingredients other than to keep the fat in the refrigerator until you are ready to use it, and to have the water ice-cold. If, however, the room is hot and damp, set the fat-flour mixture in the refrigerator to chill before adding the ice-cold water; if necessary, chill the dough before rolling it. In other words, keep the mixture so cool that the fat shows no tendency to melt.
In adding water, what you try to do is to give each fat-flour particle just enough water to dampen it to the point where it will stick to its neighbor. So to distribute the water evenly, sprinkling is almost obligatory. The water should be very cold—ice-cold. To determine when you have added enough water, press the dampened particles gently to see if they tend to stick together, by pushing the small lumps of dough, gathered together, to one side, as the water is sprinkled over the next layer, and so on.
Remember that a stirring motion will develop the gluten of the flour and make a tough pastry, while a cutting-in or chopping-in motion or as it is usually called in pastry terms, “lifting in” motion with a wooden utensil (fork or spoon), tends to produce a light and tender pastry. The less the shortening and flour are mixed, the more water the dough will take.
If the process has been successfully carried out thus far, you will now have a ball of dough which is easy to handle, being neither sticky because of too much water nor crumbly because of too little, and one which will yield tender, flaky pastry. If not, there is nothing to do. Remodeling a dough at this stage simply does not work. The extra cutting-in motion required is almost certain to give a tough, rubbery crust in place of the tender, flaky one.
Should you desire a crust which browns better, you may use part cold milk and part ice water.
In certain parts of the United States, as in Alabama for example, certain pastry makers use the so-called “Hot Water Pastry,” which is made by distributing the fat in hot water, then beating the mixture until creamy. This is then added to the sifted flour with salt and sometimes baking powder. The mixture is then thoroughly chilled before using. The baking powder makes the pastry lighter, but careful handling of flour and shortening should be observed; then the product will be a light, flaky, excellent pastry.
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ROLLING OF CRUST
There is a difference of opinion as to the best rolling surface; some bakers prefer smooth hardwood, some canvas, and others a marble slab. The latter is very satisfactory because it remains cold and is easily cleaned. A wooden or glass rolling pin is generally used, although a very clever restaurant manager has invented one of bakelite with gauges at either end to control the thickness of the crust. Some bakers use a cloth cover over rolling pin to prevent sticking.
The board or marble slab should be floured lightly. The dough should be pressed lightly into a disk, not into a ball. There should be no cracks in the edges. Do not knead or pat the dough. With a light, as light as possible, springy motion, roll from the center to the edge, then in the opposite direction, and lastly crisscross; every particle should be rolled evenly. If the dough begins to stick, that is, if it does not spread out from the center when rolled, loosen it with pastry scraper or spatula. Never turn pastry over during rolling process, as there is danger of rolling in too much flour, and the surface may not be smooth. The upper crust is rolled in the same way and may be folded, in order to lift it easily into the pan. Roll to ⅛ of an inch in thickness, for both under and upper crusts.
(36)
PLACING PASTRY ON PAN
After dough has been rolled to the desired thickness, that is ⅛ inch, fold one half over the other, forming a semi-circle. Lift carefully to pan; lay crease in center and unfold so that it covers the entire surface; have the bottom crust about 2 inches larger than the pie pan. If the crust has a tendency to break, it may be lifted on a rolling pin. Do not grease pan! Remember, “good pastry greases its own pan.” With the right hand, press the pastry to the pan so that it fits like the proverbial paper on the wall. The left hand should lift the pastry to the pan to let out any air which will cause bulging of the crust. Never stretch pastry; take enough in the beginning to insure covering the entire pan. Then drop pastry-lined pan onto table to allow pastry to settle.
From now on the treatment of the crust will depend upon the type of pie in which it is to be used; each, therefore, will be described separately.
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FOR A TWO-CRUST PIE
The dough for the bottom crust should be about 2 inches larger than the diameter of the top of the pan. After it has been placed on ungreased pan, as described above (No. 36) it should be trimmed 1 inch from edge by running a knife or scissors around the outer rim of pan. Do not trim too close, or pastry may not cover edge of pan when filling is put in, particularly if the pastry has been stretched or has not been fitted properly into the pan. Roll top crust in same way, allowing 1 inch more than diameter of pan rim. Put in filling. Add butter, if recipe calls for it. Fold one half over other, and with a sharp knife cut several slits in crust top to act as steam vents. Just before placing upper crust on pie, dampen edge of lower crust with pastry brush (using water or milk). Lay upper crust gently and carefully on pan so that it will completely cover pie when unfolded. Put it on loosely and do not stretch. Press edges firmly together and trim off surplus pastry. (A good pastry cook will have few trimmings left. If there are any, the left-over crust and trimmings may be used for pastry snacks. These scraps of pastry, if used in pies, should be worked into lower crusts). To finish the edges, press together with the tines of a fork or a pastry roller or trimmer; the most common method of crimping is by pressing the edge between the thumb and forefinger of left hand. Brush top with ice water, milk, cream, or beaten egg if desired. The temperature for baking will depend upon filling and will be discussed further.
(38)
FOR A ONE-CRUST PIE OR SHELL
(Baked separately)
Roll dough to ⅛ inch thickness and allow 3 inches more than the diameter of top of pan. Fit pastry snugly to pan, leaving no air underneath. Drop onto table to let pastry settle. The edge may be folded, fluted and rimmed in one operation, thus:
With the left hand fold the rim of the pastry at the outer edge of pan, using forefinger of right hand to make crinkly edge, as the forefinger of left hand presses down the edge of pan the surplus pastry breaks off. Prick pie shell with fork to remove air, which causes it to bulge when baking. If the surface puffs up it may be pricked again. If you prefer, a pan may be placed inside the shell during the first part of baking, then removed to brown surface. Shell may also be baked on an inverted pie pan, but must be pricked carefully before baking. For one-crust pie or shell, bake separately in a very hot oven (450° F.) 15–20 minutes.
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FOR ONE-CRUST PIE
(Unbaked)
For one-crust pies when shell is not baked before filling is added, the problem is how to avoid a soggy undercrust. The rolling is the same as No. 35 and 38 above. Any one of these suggestions may help to keep filling from soaking: (1) let shell stand for at least 1 hour or overnight in refrigerator before filling is added; (2) brush surface with slightly beaten egg white and place in oven until egg sets; (3) brush a little flour over bottom of crust before filling is added.
The rim may be brushed with milk or cream before baking to insure a brown edge.
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FOR CRISSCROSS PIES
Prepare the bottom crust of a two-crust pie. Roll pastry to ⅛ inch in thickness in a long strip; then cut into scant ½-inch strips. Put filling into crust and add butter, if directed in recipe. Brush rim with milk or water. Lay strips across parallel and one scant inch apart. Press ends of strips tightly to rim, brush strips with milk or water, then lay the same number of strips at right angles to first and same distance apart. Place a long strip of pastry around rim to cover ends and make a rim, which may be pressed with a fork or fluted. Brush with milk or water again and bake in hot oven (400º–450º F.) for 10 minutes; then finish baking according to time required for filling.
If you want a crisscross lattice-top pie a little different from the ordinary, simply start the strips of pastry in the center and carry them, French style, to the outer edge, twisting them slightly for a curled effect. Fasten the edges with four-leaf clovers cut with tiny cookie cutter; better to use puff paste. Any fruit pie can be easily decorated in this attractive manner.
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PUFF PASTE
Puff Paste is not difficult to make but is more expensive than plain pastry. It also requires more care in handling. There are two kinds of paste: (1) the French Puff Paste, and (2) the Italian Puff Paste. The type known as Italian Puff Paste requires only time. The result, while not as sturdy or high rising as the traditional French Puff Paste, is beautifully flaky, tender, and well flavored. It is fine for pastry Napoleons, fancy baked dumplings, or the crust of any shortcake. For patty shells, regular French Puff Paste is usually preferable. For both types of pastry, bread flour gives better results. Both keep very well for a long time when wrapped in a damp cloth and placed in the refrigerator. Keep away from food with strong odors.
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FRENCH PUFF PASTE TECHNIQUE
| INGREDIENTS | AMOUNT OR WEIGHT | |
| Bread flour, sifted | 3 qts. | 3 lbs. |
| Shortening (preferably butter) | 6 cups | 3 lbs. |
| Salt | 1 Tbsp. | ½ oz. |
| Eggs, well beaten | 2 | 3 oz. (about) |
| Ice Water | 3 cups or thereabouts | |
Sift flour and salt together three times. If butter is used, wash it in cold water until it is waxy; press into a cake and squeeze out all water. Work 3 oz. of this washed butter into flour. Combine well-beaten eggs with water and add to butter-flour mixture, making a stiff dough. Turn onto slightly floured board and knead vigorously for 10 minutes or until it is soft and pliable. Chill in refrigerator for 5 long minutes. Put on slightly floured board, roll, and pat to ¼ inch in thickness and a rectangular shape. Now divide the remaining butter into four equal parts and cut it into very thin slices.
Place 1 part of butter in center of rectangular pastry. Fold over the two ends; press edges together with rolling pin to enclose as much air as possible. Chill for 5 minutes. Repeat with other 3 parts of butter, folding and chilling 5 minutes each time. Be careful to use very little flour on board and handle as lightly as possible. When all the butter has been used, fold both ends of pastry to center, envelope-shape; fold again to make four layers. Cover paste with damp towel to prevent surface drying and shortening breaking through. Let stand in refrigerator overnight. Next day, remove from refrigerator, roll and fold twice, and chill before final rolling.
Cut into desired shapes, place them in a baking sheet lined with heavy, unglazed paper. Chill in refrigerator 15 minutes before putting in oven. Bake at 500° F. for 10 minutes, then reduce heat to 350° F. and continue baking for 5 or 10 minutes. The secret of French Puff Paste is having the dough very cold and the oven very hot. This delicate paste may be used for top crusts for pies, or for small individual tartlets, Napoleons, patty shells, etc.
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OVEN TEMPERATURE
Before science took a hand in things pertaining to baking, temperature was a matter of guesswork. Cooks and bakers depended upon their instincts—or thought they did—to tell them when their oven was just hot enough to turn out a well-baked cake or pie. Really they were depending upon long experience, the cost of which in time and wasted materials no modern cook or baker need pay.
Various kinds of cooking thermometers were evolved to supply this need. Today we have thermometers which standardize the measurement of heat for baking, deep-fat frying, roasting, even candy making. Each one lends to our cooking a certain assurance, and helps to make successful products—not just occasionally, but each and every time.
Of course, we are used to hearing that correct temperatures are important. But have you ever stopped to think just what happens to your cake or your pie if the oven heat soars far beyond the proper temperature? Tough texture, coarse grain, heaviness, cracks on top crust of cake, toughness, burned edges of pie crust, etc.—all these are some of the ills known to befall the products baked at too low or too high temperature. Consequently, knowing your oven temperature is the first principle for successful baking.
Practical oven temperature tests may be made which correspond to these thermometer ranges. Set a pan sprinkled with flour in the oven. If it becomes a delicate golden brown in 5 minutes, the oven is moderate (350° F. to 375° F.); if it turns a deep, dark brown in 5 minutes, the oven is hot (400° F. to 450° F.); if it turns a deep, dark brown in 3 minutes, the oven is very hot (475° F. to 550° F.). These same tests may also be done with white tissue paper or white, unglazed paper.
OVEN TEMPERATURE TESTS
| For pie shells | 450° F. for 15 minutes |
| For tart shells | 450° F. for 10 to 15 minutes |
| For berry and fruit (canned or fresh) pies and then |
450° F. for 10 to 15 minutes 350° F. for 20 to 30 minutes |
| For custard, pumpkin, etc., uncooked |
|
| mixture baked in uncooked pastry. and then |
450ºF. for 10 to 15 minutes 350° F. for 20 to 25 minutes |
| For dried fruit and then | 425 to 450° F. for 10 to 15 minutes 350° F. for 25 to 30 minutes |
In general, all pastry should be baked in a hot oven (450° F.) for 10 to 15 minutes; then the heat should be reduced to medium (350° F.) and baking finished according to indicated time for each. The weight of bottom dough for a 9-inch tin should be between 5½ and 6 oz. before baking, that of the top dough 5½ oz. before baking, making a total weight of dough for a double pie-crust between 11 and 12 oz.
Tart shells may be baked on inverted muffin tins.
Two or 3 minutes after you have started your gas or electric oven, open the door a second or two to let out the damp air. The oven will then heat in a much shorter time.
OVEN TEMPERATURE CHART
| OVEN | |
| Slow | 300º–325ºF. |
| Moderate | 350º–375ºF. |
| Hot | 400º–450ºF. |
| Very Hot | 475º–550ºF. |
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SUMMARY OF SOME IMPORTANT POINTS ON PASTRY, PIES, AND PIE FILLINGS
(a) In general, the secret of good pastry lies in the use of the right amount of weight and kind of flour and shortening, in not overmixing or overhandling the ingredients, in enclosing as much air as possible while mixing, and in using as little water as possible.
(b) Tenderness of pastry depends much upon the kind of flour, the amount of shortening and handling.
(c) Flakiness is determined largely by the method of combining these ingredients.
(d) Turning Pastry. Do not turn pastry. Lift from board, table, or cloth with a spatula if it sticks. Turning pastry works in too much flour and often makes a rough surface.
(e) Shrinkage. To allow for shrinkage in upper crust, leave upper crust 1 inch larger than the pan. Shape into rim with lower crust.
(f) Air Bubbles. To prevent air bubbles in a baked pastry shell, drop pastry-lined pan on table once or twice before trimming. Prick bottom and sides of crust with a fork before placing in oven to bake.
(g) To glaze pie crust, brush with milk, cream, or warm melted butter. This will add to the appearance and flavor. For browner glazing, brush with combined melted butter and egg. Always allow the glazing to dry before baking the pie.
(h) Main Causes for Toughness in Pie:
(1)Too much water added to the dough when mixing. Too much moisture will shrink the dough, toughen it, and prevent browning.
(2)Too little water causes cracking and splitting.
(3)Too little fat in proportion of flour.
(4)Too much flour used for dusting, when rolling out.
(i) Rolling out. Before you roll pie dough to fit into pie plate, chill dough thoroughly. Doing so makes it easier to handle. Then roll out just enough dough for one pie or two pies at a time. Work quickly, and roll from the center to the outside. Try to keep the shape as round as possible.
(j) Sifting. Salt, sugar (if any), flour and spices (if any) are usually sifted together before using.
(k) Proportion. Proportion of flour to shortening varies but is usually 3 or 4 to 1 by volume, or 2 to 1 by weight. Three quarts (3 lbs.) of sifted flour with 3 cups (1½ lbs.) shortening will give twelve shells or six two-crust 9-inch pies.
(1) Pastry Flour. Made from winter wheat and excellent for pies and pastries. Always use the same kind of flour when dusting the board or working table for pastry rolling.
(m) Shortening. When using half shortening and half butter in pastry, cut the chilled shortening into the flour with two knives or pastry blender, until the mixture looks like meal. Then add chilled butter and continue cutting or blending until the pieces of butter are about the size of a small pea.
For a flaky texture, shortening should be evenly distributed and the mixture kept light and airy, not matted down.
The shortening should never be too fine. When a recipe calls for melted shortening, measure after melting.
Since butter and margarine have milk and salt incorporated in them they have more flavor than the other shortenings mentioned. Therefore, they should be used when flavor is an important factor. Unless butter, margarine, or oil is specifically listed among the ingredients of the following recipes, the unflavored solid shortenings are very suitable for pies, cakes and cookies.
(n) Water. Always use ice water, preferably as little as possible, and handle lightly. If you do not add just enough ice water when mixing, your dough will tear and break when rolling out. This will also happen when dough is insufficiently mixed, or overmixed.
(o) Cream Filling. When making cream filling to use in pies, as in Boston Cream Pie, Cream Puffs, Eclairs, etc., do not leave the finished product to cool in the pan in which it has been cooked. Transfer it as soon as possible into a shallow, cold container. This method will prevent souring or separating, especially in summer.
Another good method of preventing souring or separating creams, custards, etc., used for filling, is to beat into recipe cream filling (when lukewarm) a meringue made of 2 egg whites stiffly beaten and sweetened with 3 Tbsps. of powdered sugar beaten into the whites until whites keep their shape (peaks). For one gallon of filling, use 2 cups of egg whites and ½ lb. powdered sugar. This method increases the lightness of the cream filling, helps to prevent souring and separating, and does not in the least affect the consistency or flavor of the filling, because the air cells which have been introduced into it disappear when mixture is cool.
It is not advisable to cool pie fillings by refrigeration, although after they are cold they can be kept in the refrigerator for a limited time. If kept too long in a refrigerator, they are apt to turn cloudy; moreover, the starch has a tendency to reset, resulting in a lumpy filling.
(p) Fruit juice. To prevent liquid from berry or any other juicy pies from running out in the oven, place three or four pieces of macaroni about 3 inches in length, upright in the slits cut in top of pie crust. This forms a funnel or outlet and allows the juice to bubble up in the macaroni but not run out.
(q) Another fool-proof method, one of my own creation, is as follows: The bottom crust is rolled, as usual, about 2 inches larger than the pie pan. When the pastry has been fitted into the pie pan and filled, the edges are turned back over the filling, taking a pleat here and there to make it fit. Then a small round piece of pastry is cut to fit the opening. The edges are pressed together with the tines of a fork and a little design is marked in the center. I call this “Tam O’Shanter Pie Crust.” The advantages of this method are three fold: (1) it takes less pastry than the usual crimped edge, (2) eliminates juice running out into the oven, and (3) does away with the heavy pastry rim which so many people do not eat.
(r) To prevent fruit filling from soaking into bottom pie crust, dust the bottom crust with a little flour mixed with equal parts of granulated sugar, before pouring in the fruit. You may also brush bottom and sides of crust with unbeaten egg white.