I
LAWS CONCERNING CHARACTER TRAITS
Laws Concerning Character Traits (Hilkhot De‘ot) is part of The Book of Knowledge, the first of the fourteen books in Maimonides’ monumental Code, the Mishneh Torah. The Code brings lucid order to the vastness of Jewish law by classifying laws according to subject. It is a compilation of the Oral Law, as distinct from the Written Law of the Pentateuch. The Oral Law, according to Maimonides, was originally handed down by Moses and ultimately recorded in the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds as well as other rabbinic works. Maimonides regards his codification of the Oral Law as an explanation of the Written Law. Thus, in H. De‘ot he explicates eleven commandments from the Torah.
The tide, Laws of De‘ot, cannot be adequately rendered in English. The word de‘ah (pl. de‘ot) is derived from the Hebrew root “to know” and usually means “knowledge” or “opinion.” In the Mishneh Torah, it has a variety of meanings, including “knowledge” as well as “intellect.” In H. De‘ot, de‘ah refers to a state of mind, an attitude with respect to a passion, and is translated as “character trait.”
The division into paragraphs follows that of the Bodleian manuscript edited by Hyamson, which was corrected on the basis of Maimonides’ own text. The numbers in square brackets are not in the original Hebrew text; they indicate the division into sections found in the traditional versions.
LAWS CONCERNING
CHARACTER TRAITS
They include altogether eleven commandments, five positive commandments and six negative commandments. These are: 1) to imitate His ways, 2) to cleave to those who know Him, 3) to love neighbors, 4) to love the converts, 5) not to hate brothers, 6) to rebuke, 7) not to put [anyone] to shame, 8) not to afflict the distressed, 9) not to go about as a talebearer, 10) not to take revenge, 11) not to bear a grudge.1 The explanation of all these commandments is in the following chapters.
CHAPTER ONE
[1] Every single human being2 has many character traits. [As for character traits in general,] one differs from another and they are exceedingly far apart from each other. One man is irascible, perpetually angry, and another man has a tranquil mind and does not become angry at all; if he does become angry, his anger is mild and only rarely aroused during a period of several years. One man has an exceedingly haughty heart, and another has an extremely lowly spirit. One is so full of desire that his soul is never satisfied by pursuing its desire; another has a body so exceedingly pure that he does not even desire the few things the body needs. One has a desire3 so great that his soul would not be satisfied with all the wealth in the world. As it is said: “He that loves silver shall not be satisfied with silver.”4 Another is so constrained that he would be satisfied with some small thing not adequate for him, and he does not press to acquire whatever he needs.
One torments himself with hunger and is so tightfisted that he does not eat the worth of a small coin except when in great pain; another intentionally squanders all his wealth. All the rest of the character traits follow these patterns, which are [also] exemplified by the gay and the mournful, the miserly and the prodigal, the cruel and the merciful, the soft-hearted and the hard-hearted, and so on.5
[2] Between two character traits at opposite extremes, there is a character trait in the middle, equidistant from the extremes. Some character traits a man has from the beginning of his creation,6 depending upon the nature of his body; some character traits a certain man’s nature is disposed to receive in the future more quickly than other character traits; and some a man does not have from the beginning of his creation6 but learns from others, or he himself turns to them due to a thought that arose in his heart, or he hears that a certain character trait is good for him and that it is proper to acquire it and he trains himself in it until it is firmly established within him.
[3] For any character trait, the two opposite extremes are not the good way, and it is not proper for a man to follow them nor to teach them to himself. If he finds his nature inclined toward one extreme or if he is disposed to receive one of them or if he has already learned one of them and has become accustomed to it, he shall make himself return to the good way and follow the way of good men, which is the right way.7
[4] The right way7 is the mean8 in every single one of a man’s character traits. It is the character trait that is equally distant from the two extremes, not close to one or the other. Therefore the wise men of old9 commanded that a man continuously appraise his character traits and evaluate them and direct them in the middle way so that he becomes perfect.10
How so? A man shall not be irascible and easily angered, nor like a corpse which feels nothing, but in between; he shall only become angry about a large matter that deserves anger so that something like it not be done again.
So too, he shall only desire the things which the body needs and without which it is impossible to live. As it is said: “A just man eats to satisfy his desire.”11 Likewise, he shall only labor at his work to acquire what he needs for the present. As it is said: “Good is a little for the just man.”12 He shall not be exceedingly tightfisted, nor squander all his wealth, but he shall give charity according to his means and lend a fitting amount to the needy. He shall not be gay and buffoonish nor sad and mournful, but rejoice all his days, calmly, with a cheerful demeanor. And thus shall he order the rest of his character traits. This way is the way of the wise men.
Every man whose character traits all lie in the mean is called a wise man. [5] Whoever is exceedingly scrupulous with himself and moves a little toward one side or the other, away from the character trait in the mean, is called a pious man.
How so? Whoever moves away from a haughty heart to the opposite extreme so that he is exceedingly lowly in spirit is called a pious man; this is the measure of piety. If he moves only to the mean and is humble, he is called a wise man; this is the measure of wisdom. The same applies to all the rest of the character traits. The pious men of old13 used to direct their character traits from the middle way toward [one of] the two extremes; some character traits toward the last extreme, and some toward the first extreme. This is the meaning of “inside the line of the law.”14
We are commanded to walk in these middle ways, which are the good and right15 ways. As it is said: “And you shall walk in His ways.”16 [6] Thus they taught in explaining this commandment: Just as He is called gracious, you too be gracious; just as He is called merciful, you too be merciful; just as He is called holy, you too be holy.17
In like manner, the prophets applied all these terms to God: slow to anger and abundant in loving-kindness, just and righteous, 18 perfect, powerful, strong, and the like. They did so to proclaim that these ways are good and right,19 and a man is obliged to train himself to follow them and to imitate20 according to his strength.
[7] How so? A man shall habituate himself in these character traits until they are firmly established in him. Time after time, he shall perform actions in accordance with the character traits that are in the mean. He shall repeat them continually until performing them is easy for him and they are not burdensome and these character traits are firmly established in his soul.
Since these terms applied to the Creator21 refer to the middle way that we are obliged to follow, this way is called the way of the Lord. That is what Abraham taught to his sons. As it is said: “For I have known him so that he will command his sons and his household after him to keep the way of the Lord, to do justice and righteousness.”22 Whoever walks in this way brings good and blessing upon himself. As it is said: “In order that the Lord render unto Abraham that which He said concerning him.”23
CHAPTER TWO
[1] Those whose bodies are sick taste the bitter as sweet and the sweet as bitter. Some of the sick desire and long for foods that are not fit to eat, such as soil and charcoal, and they hate good foods, such as bread and meat. It all depends upon the extent of the illness. Likewise, people with sick souls crave and love the bad character traits and hate the good way. They are careless about following it, and it is very difficult for them, depending upon the extent of their illness. Thus says Isaiah about these men: “Woe unto them who call evil good, and good evil; who turn darkness into light, and light into darkness; who turn the bitter into the sweet, and the sweet into the bitter.”1 Of them it is said: “They forsake the paths of righteousness to walk in the ways of darkness.”2
What is the remedy for those whose souls are sick? Let them go to the wise men—who are physicians of the soul—and they will cure their disease by means of the character traits that they shall teach them, until they make them return to the middle way. Solomon said about those who recognize their bad character traits and do not go to the wise men to be cured: “Fools despise admonition.”3
[2] How are they to be cured? Whoever is irascible is told to train himself so that if he is beaten and cursed, he will not feel anything. He shall follow this way for a long time until the rage is uprooted from his heart. If his heart is haughty, he shall train himself to endure much degradation. He shall sit lower than anyone else and wear worn-out, shabby garments, which make the wearer despised, and do similar things, until his haughty heart is uprooted. Then he shall return to the middle way, which is the good way, and when he returns to the middle way he shall follow it all his days.
He shall do the same with all the other character traits. If he is at one extreme, he shall move to the other extreme and accustom himself to it for a long time until he returns to the good way, which is the mean4 in every single character trait.
[3] In the case of some character traits, a man is forbidden to accustom himself to the mean. Rather, he shall move to the other [i.e., far] extreme. One such [character trait] is a haughty heart, for the good way is not that a man be merely humble, but that he have a lowly spirit, that his spirit be very submissive.5 Therefore it was said of Moses our master that he was “very humble,” and not merely humble.6 And therefore the wise men commanded: “Have a very, very lowly spirit.”7 Moreover they said that everyone who makes his heart haughty denies the existence of God.8 As it is said: “And your heart shall swell, and you shall forget the Lord your God.”9 In addition they said: “Whoever has an arrogant spirit—even a little—deserves excommunication.”10 Likewise, anger is an extremely bad character trait, and it is proper for a man to move away from it to the other extreme and to teach himself not to become angry, even over something it is proper to be angry about. Now, he might wish to arouse fear in his children and the members of his household or in the community (if he is a leader) and to become angry at them in order that they return to what is good. Then he shall pretend to be angry in their presence in order to admonish them, but his mind shall be tranquil within himself, like a man who feigns anger but is not angry. The wise men of old11 said: “Anyone who is angry—it is as if he worships idols.”12 They said about anyone who is angry: If he is a wise man, his wisdom departs from him, and if he is a prophet, his prophecy departs from him.13 And [they said] the life of irascible men is no life.14 Therefore they commanded a man to refrain from becoming angry, until he trains himself not to feel anything even in response to things that provoke anger; this is the good way. The way of the just men is to be insulted but not to insult; they hear themselves reviled and do not reply; they act out of love and rejoice in afflictions. Scripture says about them: “And those who love Him are like the sun rising in its power.”15
[4] There shall always be much silence in a man’s conduct. He shall speak only about a matter concerned with wisdom or matters that are necessary to keep his body alive. They said about Rav, a student of our holy master, that during his entire life he did not engage in idle conversation.16 The latter is characteristic of most men. A man shall not use many words, even in connection with the needs of the body. Concerning this, the wise men commanded, saying: “Anyone who multiplies words brings about sin.”17 They also said: “I have found nothing better for the body than silence.”18 Likewise, concerning words of Torah and words of wisdom, the words of the wise man shall be few, but full of content. This is what the wise men commanded, saying: “A man shall always teach his students by the shortest path.”19 But if the words are many and the content slight, that is indeed foolishness. Concerning this it is said: “For a dream comes with much content, but a fool’s voice with many words.”20
[5] Silence is a fence around wisdom.21 Therefore he shall not hasten to reply, nor speak much; he shall teach his students quietly and calmly, without shouting or prolixity. That is in keeping with the saying of Solomon: “Words of wise men, spoken calmly, are listened to.”22
[6] A man is forbidden to make a habit of using smooth and deceptive language. There shall not be one thing in his mouth and another in his heart, but what is within shall be like what is without. The matter in his heart shall be the same as what is in his mouth. It is forbidden to delude23 one’s fellow creatures, even a Gentile.
How so? He shall not sell to a Gentile meat not ritually slaughtered as though it were ritually slaughtered, nor a shoe made from an animal that died by itself in place of one ritually slaughtered. He shall not urge his friend to eat with him when he knows he will not eat, nor press refreshment upon him when he knows it will not be accepted, nor open casks of wine (which he needs to open to sell anyway) to deceive him into thinking they were opened to honor him. Likewise with everything like that—even one word of deception and fraud is forbidden. Rather, he shall have lips of truth, a steadfast spirit, and a heart pure of all mischief and intrigue.
[7] A man shall not be full of laughter and mockery, nor sad and mournful, but joyful. Thus the wise men said: “Laughter and levity bring about illicit sexual conduct.”24They commanded that a man not be unrestrained in laughter, nor sad and mournful, but that he receive every man with a cheerful demeanor.25 Likewise his desire26 shall not be so great that he rushes for wealth, nor shall he be lazy and refrain from working. But he shall live in contentment,27 have a modest occupation, and be occupied [mainly] with the Torah.28 No matter how small his portion, let him rejoice in it.29 He shall not be full of contention, envy, or desire, nor shall he seek honor. Thus the wise men said: “Envy, desire, and honor remove a man from the world.”30 The general rule is that he follow the mean31 for every single character trait, until all his character traits are ordered according to the mean. That is in keeping with what Solomon says: “And all your ways will be upright.”32
CHAPTER THREE
[1] Perhaps a man will say: “Since desire, honor, and the like constitute a bad way and remove a man from the world, I shall completely separate myself from them and go to the other extreme.” So he does not eat meat, nor drink wine, nor take a wife, nor live in a decent1 dwelling, nor wear decent1 clothing, but sackcloth, coarse wool, and so on, like the priests of Edom.2 This, too, is a bad way and it is forbidden to follow it.
Whoever follows this way is called a sinner. Indeed, He [God] says about the Nazirite: “He [the priest] shall make atonement for him because he sinned against the soul.”3 The wise men said: “If the Nazirite who only abstained from wine needs atonement, how much more does one who abstains from every thing [need atonement].”4
Therefore the wise men commanded that a man only abstain from things forbidden by the Torah alone. He shall not prohibit for himself, by vows and oaths, things that are permitted. Thus the wise men said: “Is what the Torah has prohibited not enough for you, that you prohibit other things for yourself?”5
Those who fast continually are in this class; they do not follow the good way. The wise men prohibited a man from tormenting himself by fasting. Concerning all these things and others like them, Solomon commanded, saying: “Do not be overly righteous and do not be excessively wise; why should you destroy yourself?”6
[2] Man7 needs to direct every single one of his deeds solely toward attaining knowledge of the Name, blessed be He. His sitting down, his standing up, and his speech, everything shall be directed toward this goal. How so? When he conducts business or works to receive a wage, his heart shall not only be set upon taking in money, but he shall do these things in order to acquire what the body needs, such as food, drink, shelter, and a wife.
Likewise when he eats, drinks, and has sexual intercourse, his purpose8 shall not be to do these things only for pleasure, eating and drinking only what is sweet to the palate and having sexual intercourse only for pleasure. Rather, his only purpose8 in eating and drinking shall be to keep his body and limbs healthy. Therefore he shall not eat everything that the palate desires, like a dog or an ass, but he shall eat things that are useful for him, whether bitter or sweet, and he shall not eat things bad for the body, even if they are sweet to the palate.
How so? Whoever has warm flesh shall not eat meat or honey, nor drink wine. As Solomon, for example, said: “It is not good to eat much honey, etc.”9 He shall drink chicory water, even though it is bitter. Since it is impossible for a man to live except by eating and drinking, he shall eat and drink only in accordance with the directive of medicine, in order that he become healthy and remain perfect. Likewise when he has sexual intercourse, he shall do so only to keep his body healthy and to have offspring. Therefore he shall not have sexual intercourse every time he has the desire, but whenever he knows that he needs to discharge sperm in accordance with the directive of medicine, or to have offspring.
[3] If one conducts himself in accordance with the [art of] medicine and sets his heart only upon making his body and limbs perfect and strong, and upon having sons who will do his work and labor for his needs, this is not a good way. Rather, he shall set his heart upon making his body perfect and strong so that his soul will be upright to know the Lord. For it is impossible for him to understand and reflect upon wisdom10 when he is sick or when one of his limbs is in pain. He shall set his heart upon having a son who perhaps will be a wise and great man in Israel. Whoever follows this way all his days serves the Lord continuously, even when he engages in business and even when he has sexual intercourse, because his thought in everything is to fulfill his needs so that his body will be perfect to serve the Lord.
Even when he sleeps, if he sleeps with the intention of resting his mind and his body so that he does not become sick—for he is unable to serve the Lord when he is sick—his sleep shall become a service of the Lord,11 blessed be He. Concerning this subject, the wise men commanded, saying: “Let all your deeds be for the sake of Heaven.”12 That is what Solomon said in his wisdom: “In all your ways know Him, and He will make your paths straight.”13
CHAPTER FOUR
[1] Since preserving the body’s health and strength is among the ways of the Lord—for to attain understanding and knowledge is impossible when one is sick—a man needs to keep away from things that destroy the body and to accustom himself to things that make him healthy and vigorous. They are as follows. A man should eat only when he is hungry and drink only when he is thirsty. Whenever he needs to urinate or defecate, he should do so at once; he should not delay for even a single moment.
[2] A man should not eat until his stomach is full, but about one-fourth less than would make him sated. He should not drink water with the food, except a little mixed with wine. When the food begins to be digested in his intestines, he should drink what he needs to drink. He should not drink an excessive amount of water even when the food is being digested. He should not eat until he has examined himself very well, lest he needs to ease himself.
A man should not eat unless he first takes a walk so that his body becomes heated, or he should work or exert himself in some other way. The general rule is that he should afflict his body and exert himself every day in the morning until his body starts to become hot. Then he should rest a little until his soul is tranquil, and then eat. If he washes with warm water after his exertion, that is good. Afterward, he should wait a little and then eat.
[3] While he is eating, a man should always sit at his place or incline to the left, and should neither walk nor ride. He should not exert himself nor shake his body nor take a long walk until all the food in his intestines is digested. Anyone who takes long walks or exerts himself immediately after eating brings bad and severe illnesses upon himself.
[4] Day and night have altogether twenty-four hours. It suffices for a man to sleep one-third of them, i.e., eight hours, at the end of the night, so that there be eight hours from the beginning of his sleep until the sun rises. He should stand up from his bed before the sun rises.
[5] A man should not sleep upon his face, nor upon his back, but upon his side; at the beginning of the night, on the left side, and at the end of the night, on the right side. He should not go to sleep shortly after eating. He should not sleep during the day.
[6] Things which loosen the bowels, such as grapes, figs, mulberries, pears, melons, and the pulp of cucumbers and gherkins, are eaten before the meal. One should not mix them with the meal, but wait a little until they leave the upper stomach, and then eat the meal. Things which harden the bowels, such as pomegranates, quinces, apples, and small pears, are eaten immediately after the meal, and not in excess.
[7] When a man wants to eat poultry and the meat of cattle together, he should first eat the poultry. In the case of eggs and poultry, he should first eat the eggs. In the case of the meat of lean cattle and of heavy cattle, he should first eat the meat of the lean cattle. He should always have light food before heavy food.
[8] In hot weather he should eat cold foods, without much condiment, and sour food. In the rainy season1 he should eat warm foods, with a lot of condiment, and a little mustard and asafetida. He should do so in cold as well as hot places, in accordance with what is appropriate for each place.
[9] There are foods that are exceedingly bad and it is never proper for a man to eat them, such as large, salted, stale fish; salted, stale cheese; truffles and mushrooms; salted, stale meat; wine from the press; cooked food kept until its odor disappears; and likewise every food whose odor is bad or exceedingly bitter—these are like poison for the body.
There are foods that are bad, but not as bad as the above. Consequently, it is proper for a man to eat only a little of them, at long intervals, and not to accustom himself to make a meal of them or continually to eat them with his food. For example: large fish, cheese, milk kept twenty-four hours after milking, meat of large oxen and large goats, beans, lentils, chickpeas, barley bread, unleavened bread, cabbage, leeks, onions, garlic, mustard, and radishes. All these are bad foods.
It is proper for a man to eat only very little of them and then only in the rainy season; he should not eat them at all outside of the rainy season. It is not proper to eat beans and lentils in either hot weather or the rainy season. Gourds may be eaten a little in hot weather.
[10] There are foods that are bad, but not as bad as the above. They are: water fowl, young pigeons, dates, meat juice, fish brine, and bread baked in oil or kneaded in oil and fine flour sifted to such an extent that no trace of coarse bran remains. It is not proper to eat much of these foods. A man who is wise and conquers his impulse does not succumb to his desire to eat from any of the above-mentioned at all, except if he has need of them for medicine. He is indeed a powerful man.2
[11] A man should always restrain himself from eating the fruit of trees. He should not eat much of them even when they are dried and, needless to say, when they are fresh.3 For before they are cooked sufficiently, they are like daggers to the body, Likewise carob-pods are always bad. All sour fruit is bad and should not be eaten, except for a little in hot weather or in hot places. Figs, grapes, and almonds are always good, whether fresh or dried, and a man may eat of them whatever he needs. But he should not eat them continually, even though they are the best of all the fruit from trees. [12] Honey and wine are bad for children, but fine for old people, especially in the rainy season. In hot weather, a man needs to eat two-thirds of what he eats in the rainy season.
[13] All his days a man should try always to keep his bowels loose and be a bit close to diarrhea. This is an important general rule in medicine, for whenever the stool is blocked or expelled with difficulty, many illnesses result.
What should he loosen his bowels with if they are a little firm? If he is a youth, he should eat salted, boiled food, seasoned with oil, fish brine, and salt, and not eat bread; or he should drink the juice of boiled spinach or cabbage, with oil, salt, and fish brine. If he is old, he should drink honey mixed with warm water in the morning, and wait about four hours, after which he should eat his meal. He should do so day after day, for three or four days if necessary, until his bowels are loosened.
[14] Still another general rule: they said about the health of the body that if a man does much exercise and hard work and is not sated and his bowels are loose, he will not become sick and his strength will increase, even if he eats bad food. [15] Whoever leads a sedentary life and does not exercise, or delays excretion or has hard bowels, even if he eats good food and guards himself in accordance with medical practice, all his days will be painful and his strength will diminish. Gross eating is like deadly poison for the body of any man; it is a root of all illness.
Most of the illnesses that come to a man are due either to bad foods or to stuffing the stomach. Solomon, in his wisdom, says about the one who eats in a gross manner (even though the food is good): “He who guards his mouth and his tongue guards his soul from troubles.”4 That is to say, he guards his mouth from eating bad food or from being sated, and his tongue from speaking, except in connection with his needs.
[16] The way to bathe is to enter the bath every seven days, and not enter shortly before eating or when hungry, but when the food begins to be digested. A man should wash his whole body with water that is not so hot that the body would be burned by it, but wash only his head with water so hot it would burn the body. Afterward he should wash his body with lukewarm water, and after that with water even less warm, until he washes with cold water. He should not let any lukewarm or cold water pass over his head. He should not wash with cold water in the rainy season, nor wash until his whole body perspires and becomes pliant, nor remain long in the bath, but when he perspires and his body becomes pliant he should rinse and leave.
He should test himself before he enters the bath and after he leaves, lest he needs to ease himself; likewise a man should inspect himself before and after eating, before and after sexual intercourse, before and after he exerts himself with exercise, before he goes to sleep and after he awakens—ten times in all.
[17] When a man leaves the bath, he should put on his clothes and cover his head in the anteroom, so that a cold breeze does not overcome him. Even in hot weather, he needs to be careful and pause after he leaves the bath until his soul is tranquil, his body is at rest, and he is no longer warm. Afterward he should eat, and if he sleeps a little when he leaves the bath before eating, that is indeed very fine. A man should not drink cold water when he leaves the bath and, needless to say, he should not drink in the bath. If he is thirsty when he leaves the bath and is unable to restrain himself, he should mix water with wine or honey and drink it. During the rainy season if he has a massage with oil at the bath after he rinses, that is good.
[18] A man should not accustom himself to have blood let continually; he should not have blood let unless there is an extraordinary need. He should not have blood let in either hot weather or the rainy season, except during the month of Nissan and a little during the month of Tishri. After age fifty, he should not have blood let at all. A man should not have blood let and enter the bath on the same day. He should not have blood let when he sets out on a trip, nor when he returns from a trip. On the day of bloodletting, he should eat and drink less than what he is accustomed to; he should rest and neither exercise nor take a long walk.
[19] Semen is the strength of the body and its life, and is the light of the eyes. Whenever too much is ejaculated, the body decays, its strength is spent, and its life destroyed. As Solomon said in his wisdom: “Do not give your strength to women, and your years to that which destroys kings.”5
As for anyone who overindulges in sexual intercourse: old age pounces upon him; his strength fails; his eyes become dim; a bad odor spreads from his mouth and armpits; the hair on his head, his eyebrows, and his eyelashes fall out; the hair of his beard, armpits, and legs grows excessively; his teeth fall out; and many pains in addition to these come to him.
The wise men among the physicians said: one in a thousand dies from other illnesses, and the rest from excessive copulation. Therefore a man needs to be careful in this matter if he wishes to live well. He should only have sexual intercourse when his body is healthy and exceedingly strong and he has a continuous, involuntary erection and he distracts himself with something else, but the erection remains as it was, and he finds a heaviness in his loins and below, as if the cords of the testicles were drawn out, and his flesh is hot. Such a man needs to have sexual intercourse and his medicine is to have sexual intercourse.
A man should not have sexual intercourse when he is sated or hungry, but after the food is digested in his intestines. Before and after sexual intercourse, he should test6 to see whether he needs to ease himself. He should not have sexual intercourse in either a standing or sitting position, nor in the bathhouse, nor on the day he enters the bath, nor on the day of bloodletting, nor on the day of departure or return from a trip —neither before nor afterward.
[20] Whoever conducts himself along the paths we have taught, I guarantee will not become ill all his days, until he is very old and dies. He will not need a physician and his body will be perfect and remain healthy all his days, unless it is defective from the beginning of its creation, or he has become accustomed to a bad habit from the time of birth, or a pestilence or drought comes to the world.
[21] It is only proper for a healthy man to adhere to these good habits about which we have spoken. But as for a sick man, or one with a sick organ, or one who is accustomed to a bad habit for many years—for each of them there are other paths and practices, depending upon his illness, as is explained in the medical books. “A change of custom is the beginning of illness.”7
[22] Whether a man is healthy or sick, if he lives in a place where there is no physician, it is not proper for him to depart from any of the paths we have discussed in this chapter, for every one of them results in some good.
[23] A disciple of wise men8 is not permitted to live in any city that does not have these ten things: a physician, a surgeon, a bathhouse, a bathroom, a fixed source of water such as a river or spring, a synagogue, a teacher of children, a scribe, a collector of charity, and a court that can punish with lashes and imprisonment.9.
CHAPTER FIVE
[1] The wise man is identified by his wisdom and his character traits, which distinguish him from the rest of the people. Similarly, he needs to be identified by his actions: by his eating, his drinking, his sexual intercourse, his relieving himself, his speech, his walking, his dress, the management of his affairs, and his business conduct. All of these actions are to be exceptionally decent and fitting.
How so? A disciple of wise men shall not be a glutton, but eat food that is suitable for making the body healthy. He shall not eat in a gross manner, nor run to fill his stomach, like those who stuff themselves with food and drink until their belly swells. The tradition applies the following verse to such people: “And I will spread dung on your faces, even the dung of your holiday sacrifices (
aggeikhem).”1 The wise men said: “These are the people who eat and drink and make all their days like holidays (aggim).”2
They are the same people who say: “Eat and drink for tomorrow we die.”3 This is how the wicked eat, whose tables Scripture censured by saying: “For all tables are full of filthy vomit, and no place is clean.”4
However, the wise man only eats one or two courses, eating from them what suffices for life, which is enough for him. That is what Solomon said: “A just man eats to satisfy his desire.”5
[2] When the wise man eats the little that is suitable for him, he shall eat it only in his house, at his table. He shall not eat in a store nor in the marketplace, except in case of great need, so that he is not degraded before his fellow creatures. He shall not eat with ignoramuses nor at those tables full of “filthy vomit.” He shall not frequent feasts at a variety of places, even with the wise men. He shall not eat at feasts where there is a large gathering. It is not proper for him to eat at a feast unless it involves fulfilling a commandment, such as a feast of betrothal or marriage, and then only if a disciple of wise men marries the daughter of a disciple of wise men. The just men and6 the pious men of old7 never ate at a feast not their own.
[3] When the wise man drinks wine, he drinks only in order to loosen the food in his intestines. Anyone who becomes drunk commits a sin, is contemptible, and loses his wisdom. If he becomes drunk before ignoramuses, he profanes the Name. It is forbidden to drink at noon, even a little, unless it is part of the meal, for drinking which is part of the meal does not make one drunk. They [the wise men] warn only about wine that comes after the meal.
[4] Even though a man’s wife is always permitted to him, it is proper for a disciple of wise men to conduct himself in holiness and not be with his wife like a rooster, but [be with her] only on the night of the Sabbath, if he has the strength. When he cohabits with her, he shall not cohabit at the beginning of the night when he is sated, nor at the end of the night when he is hungry, but in the middle of the night when the food in his intestines is digested.
He shall not be frivolous, nor dirty his mouth with obscenity,8 even between himself and her. Indeed, it says in the tradition: “He [God] tells a man what his conversation was.”9 The wise men said: “Judgment is made in the future even upon a frivolous conversation between a man and his wife.”10
Both of them (or one of them) shall not be drunk, lethargic, or sad. She should not be asleep and he should not force her if she is unwilling, but [intercourse shall take place] when both wish it and in state of mutual joy. He shall converse and play with her a little so that their souls become tranquil, and he shall have sexual intercourse modestly, not shamelessly, and separate [from her] at once.
[5] Anyone accustomed to this conduct not only makes his soul holy, purifies himself, and improves his character traits, but also, if he has sons, they will be decent and modest,11 fit for wisdom and piety. Anyone accustomed to the conduct of the rest of the people, who walk in darkness, will have sons like those people.
[6] Disciples of wise men are accustomed to behave with great modesty.12 They do not degrade themselves; they uncover neither their heads nor their bodies. Even after entering the toilet, one must be modest and not uncover his garments until he sits down. He shall not wipe with the right hand. He shall move away from everyone and [for example] enter the innermost room of a cave and relieve himself there. If he relieves himself behind a fence, he shall go far away so that his fellow man will not hear a sound if he breaks wind. If he relieves himself in a plain, he shall go far away so that his fellow man will not see him uncovered. He shall not speak when he relieves himself, even in case of great need. He conducts himself with the same modesty in the toilet at night as by day. A man shall forever train himself to relieve himself only in the morning and the evening, so that he does not have to go off at a distance.
[7] A disciple of wise men shall not shout and scream when he speaks, like cattle and wild beasts. He shall not raise his voice much, but speak calmly with all his fellow creatures. When he speaks calmly, he shall be careful not to be aloof, lest his words appear to be like the words of the arrogant. He greets every man first,13 so that they will be pleasantly disposed toward him. He judges every man in a favorable light.14 He speaks in praise of his fellow man, never disparagingly. He loves peace and seeks peace.15
If he sees a place where his words would be useful and listened to, he speaks and, if not, he remains silent. How so? He does not appease his friend in the hour of his anger; he does not ask about his vow at the time he makes the vow, but waits until his mind becomes cool and is calm; he does not comfort [his friend] while his dead lie before him because he is in a state of shock until the burial;16 and so too, in all similar circumstances. He does not appear before his friend in the hour of his disgrace, but hides his eyes from him.17
He shall not alter what he says; he shall neither add nor detract, except in matters concerning peace and the like. The general rule is that he speaks only in performing deeds of loving-kindness or about matters of wisdom and the like. He shall not converse with a woman in the marketplace, even if she is his wife, sister, or daughter.18
[8] A disciple of wise men shall not walk with an erect carriage19 and outstretched neck. As it is said: “And they walk with outstretched necks and wanton eyes.”20 He shall not walk mincingly and smugly, like the women and the arrogant about whom it is said: “Walking and tripping along, making a tinkling sound with their feet.”21
He shall not run in a public place and behave in a crazy manner, nor bend over like hunchbacks. Rather he looks down, like someone praying, and walks straight ahead, like a man preoccupied with his affairs.
In his manner of walking, too, a man is recognized as wise and sensible,22 or else a simpleton and a fool. Thus, Solomon said in his wisdom: “Also in the way the fool walks he lacks thought, and he says to everyone that he is a fool.”23 He announces about himself to all that he is a fool.
[9] The dress of a disciple of wise men is becoming24 and clean. It is forbidden for a stain, a fatty spot, and the like to be found on his garment. He shall not wear the dress of the poor, which degrades those who wear it, but garments that are becoming24 and in the middle [way].
His flesh must not show from beneath his clothing, as happens with the exceedingly light, linen garments that they make in Egypt, nor shall his garments drag on the earth, as do the garments of the arrogant, but they shall extend down to his heel and his sleeve extend down to his fingertips. He shall not let his garment hang down because he would appear like the arrogant, except on the Sabbath, if he has no change of clothing. In hot weather he shall not wear patched shoes and a garment with patch over patch, but in the rainy season this is permitted if he is poor.
He shall not go perfumed to the marketplace, with perfumed garments or with perfume on his hair, but if his skin is massaged with perfume to remove a foul smell, it is permitted. So too, he shall not go out alone at night, unless he has a set time to go out in order to study. All these [laws] are to avoid suspicion.25
[10] A disciple of wise men conducts his affairs judiciously. His eating and drinking and his support of the members of his household depend upon his income and his success. He shall not burden himself excessively. The wise men commanded concerning the proper regimen that a man eat meat only when he has the desire.26 As it is said: “Because your soul desires to eat meat.”27 It is enough for a healthy man to eat meat on the eve of the Sabbath. If he is rich enough to eat meat every day, he may do so.
The wise men commanded, saying: “A man shall always eat less than is suitable for him according to his income, dress as is suitable for him, and honor his wife and children more than is suitable for him.”28
[11] A sensible man29 first establishes himself in an occupation which supports him, afterward he buys a home, and after that he marries a woman. As it is said: “What man is there who has planted a vineyard and has not used the fruit thereof; who has built a new house and has not dedicated it; who is betrothed to a woman and has not taken her?”30 But the fool begins by marrying a woman after which, if he can, he buys a house and, after that, at the end of his days, he finally seeks a trade or he is supported by charity. Thus it says in the [enumeration of] curses: “A woman shall you betroth . . . a house shall you build . . . a vineyard shall you plant.”31 That is to say, your deeds shall be the reverse [of what is proper], so that you shall not make your paths prosper. In the blessing, what does it say? “And David had success in all his paths, and the Lord was with him.”32
[12] A man is forbidden to renounce ownership of all his possessions and to dedicate them to the Temple, and then to become a burden upon his fellow creatures. He shall not sell a field and buy a house, nor sell a house and then either buy movable goods or do business with the funds from his house, but he may sell movable goods and buy a field. The general rule is that he set his goal to improve his possessions, not to have a little pleasure for the moment, or to have a little pleasure and then suffer a great loss.
[13] The business conduct of the disciples of wise men is truthful and faithful. His “no” is no and his “yes” yes. He is scrupulous with himself in his reckoning. He gives in and yields to others when he buys from them and is not exacting of them. He gives the sale-price on the spot. He does not allow himself to be made a surety or a guarantor and does not accept the power of attorney. He obligates himself in matters of buying and selling in circumstances where the Torah does not obligate him, so that he stands by his word and does not change it.33 If others are obligated to him by law, he gives them time and is forgiving. He lends money and is gracious. He shall not take away business from his fellow man34 nor bring grief to any man in the world during his lifetime.
The general rule is that he be among the oppressed and not the oppressors, among the insulted and not those who insult.35 Scripture says about a man who performs all these actions and their like: “And He said to me, ‘You are My servant Israel, in whom I will be glorified.’ ”36
CHAPTER SIX
[1] Man is created in such a way that his character traits and actions are influenced by his neighbors and friends, and he follows the custom of the people in his country. Therefore a man needs to associate with the just and be with the wise continually in order to learn [from] their actions, and to keep away from the wicked, who walk in darkness, so that he avoids learning from their actions. That is what Solomon said: “He who walks with wise men will become wise, but he who associates with fools will become evil.”1 And it says: “Blessed is the man who does not walk in the counsel of the wicked, etc.”2 Likewise, if he is in a country with evil customs where men do not follow the right way, he shall go to a place where men are just and they follow the way of good men. If all the countries he knows or hears about follow a way that is not good, as in our time, or if because of military campaigns or illness, he is unable to go to a city with good customs, he shall dwell alone in solitude. As it is said: “Let him dwell alone and be silent.”3 If there are evil men and sinners who do not let him live in the country unless he mingles with them and follows their evil customs, he shall go off to the caves, the briers, or the desert, and not accustom himself to the way of sinners. As it is said: “0 that I were in the desert, in a lodging place of wayfaring men.”4
[2] It is a positive commandment to cleave to the wise men in order to learn from their actions. As it is said: “And to Him shall you cleave.”5 Is it possible for a man to cleave to the Shekhinah [Presence]? But thus said the wise men in explaining this commandment: cleave to the wise men and their disciples.6 Therefore a man needs to try to marry the daughter of a disciple of wise men; to give his daughter in marriage to a disciple of wise men; to eat and drink with the disciples of wise men; to do business on behalf of the disciples of wise men; and to associate with them in all kinds of associations. As it is said: “And cleave to Him.”7 Thus the wise men commanded, saying: “Sit in the dust of their feet and drink in thirst their words.”8
[3] It is a commandment for every man to love every single individual of Israel like his own body. As it is said: “And you shall love your neighbor as yourself.”9 Therefore he needs to speak in praise of him and to have concern for his possessions, just as he has concern for his own possessions and wants to be honored himself. Whoever glorifies himself through the humiliation of his fellow man has no portion in the world-to-come.10
[4] There are two positive commandments to love the convert 11 who comes under the wings of the Shekhinah; one, because he is in the class of neighbors, and the other, because he is a convert and the Torah said: “And you shall love the stranger.”12 He [God] commanded the love of the convert, just as He commanded the love of His Name. As it is said: “And you shall love the Lord your God.”13 The Holy One Himself, blessed be He, loves the converts. As it is said: “And He loves the stranger.”14
[5] Anyone who hates one Israelite in his heart transgresses a prohibition. As it is said: “You shall not hate your brother in your heart.”15 They do not give lashes in connection with this prohibition, since it does not refer to an action. The Torah warned [here] only about hatred in the heart, but whoever strikes his fellow man and reviles him, even though it is not permitted, does not transgress what is prohibited by the verse, “You shall not hate. . . .”
[6] When a man sins against another man, he [the latter] shall not hate him and remain silent. As it is said about the wicked: “And Absalom spoke to Amnon neither good nor evil, although Absalom hated Amnon.”16 Rather, he is commanded to speak to him, and to say to him: “Why did you do such-and-such to me? Why did you sin against me in such-and-such a matter?” As it is said: “You shall surely rebuke your neighbor.” 17 If he repents and requests forgiveness from him, he needs to forgive and shall not be cruel. As it is said: “And Abraham prayed to God, etc.”18
[7] If someone sees his fellow man who has sinned or who follows a way that is not good, it is a commandment to make him return to the good and to make known to him that he sins against himself by his evil actions. As it is said: “You shall surely rebuke your neighbor.”19
Whoever rebukes his fellow man, whether concerning matters between the two of them or between him [the fellow man] and God,20 needs to rebuke him in private. He shall speak to him calmly and gently, and make known to him that he talks to him only for his own good, to bring him to the life of the world-to-come. If he accepts it from him, good; if not, he shall rebuke him a second and a third time. Thus he is always obliged to rebuke him until the sinner strikes him and says to him, “I will not listen.”21 If he does not prevent everything he can possibly prevent, he is ensnared in the sin of all those he could have prevented from sinning.
[8] Whoever rebukes his fellow man shall not at first speak harshly so as to put him to shame. As it is said: “You shall not bear sin on his account.”22 Thus said the wise men: “Are we to assume he should rebuke him until his face changes [its expression or color]? The text therefore says: ‘You shall not bear sin on his account.’ ”23 From this we learn it is forbidden to humiliate an Israelite; all the more [is it forbidden] in public.
Even though the one who humiliates his fellow man is not given lashes, it is a great sin. Thus said the wise men: “Whoever puts his fellow man to shame in public has no portion in the world-to-come.”24
Therefore a man needs to be careful that he not shame his fellow man—be he young or old—in public, nor call him by a name he is ashamed of, nor speak about something in front of him that would make him ashamed.
To what matters does the above refer? To matters between a man and his fellow man, but in matters of Heaven if he does not repent in private, he is to be humiliated in public, his sin is proclaimed, and he is reviled to his face and degraded and cursed until he returns to the good. That is what all the prophets did with Israel.
[9] If someone is sinned against by his fellow man and does not wish to rebuke him or to say anything to him—because the sinner is exceedingly simple or his mind is distraught—and if he forgives him in his heart and bears no animosity toward him and does not rebuke him, this is indeed the measure of piety. The Torah was particularly concerned only about animosity.
[10] A man is obliged to be careful about widows and orphans because their souls are very lowly and their spirits submissive, even if they are wealthy. We are even warned about the widow and the orphans of a king. As it is said: “You shall not afflict any widow or orphan.”25
How should we conduct ourselves toward them? A man shall speak only softly to them, treat them only with honor, and not afflict their bodies with labor nor their hearts with words. He shall have more concern for their possessions than for his own. If anyone belittles them, vexes them, afflicts their hearts, subjugates them, or loses their money, he transgresses a prohibition, and all the more if he strikes or curses them. Although lashes are not given in such cases, the punishment is expressly stated in the Torah: “My wrath shall wax hot, and I will slay you with the sword.”26
A covenant was made for them by Him who spoke and the world came to be. Whenever they cry out because of violence, they are answered. As it is said: “For if they cry out at all to Me, I will surely hear their cry.”27 To what do these words refer? To a man’s afflicting them for his own needs, but if a teacher afflicts them in order to teach them Torah or a craft or to guide them on the right way,28 this is indeed permitted. Nevertheless, he shall not treat them the way he is accustomed to treat every man, but shall make a distinction and guide them calmly, with great mercy and honor—“For the Lord will plead their cause”29 —whether the orphan has lost his father or mother. For how long are they called orphans with respect to this matter? Until they have no need of an adult to depend upon for their nurture and their care, but the orphan can fulfill all his own needs like any other adult.
CHAPTER SEVEN
[1] Whoever speaks ill of his fellow man transgresses a prohibition. As it is said: “You shall not go about as a talebearer among My people.”1 Even though they do not give lashes in connection with this prohibition, it is a great sin and causes many people of Israel to be killed. Therefore it is followed by the verse: “And you shall not stand idly by the blood of your neighbor.”2 Go and learn what happened in the case of Doeg the Edomite.3
[2] Who is a talebearer? He who carries words and goes from one person to another, saying: “A certain individual said such-and-such”; “I heard such-and-such about a certain individual.” Even though he speaks the truth, this man destroys the world.
There is a far greater sin that falls under this prohibition. It is “the evil tongue,” which refers to whoever speaks disparagingly of his fellow man, even though he speaks the truth. But whoever tells a lie is called, “one who gives his fellow man a bad name.” However, the one who possesses an “evil tongue” sits and says: “A certain individual did such-and-such”; “his ancestors were so-and-so”; “I heard such-and-such about him.” Scripture says concerning whoever speaks disparagingly about someone: “May the Lord cut off all smooth lips, the tongue that speaks proud things.”4
[3] The wise men said: “For three transgressions punishment is exacted from a man in this world and he has no portion in the world-to-come: idol worship, illicit sexual unions, and the shedding of blood. And the evil tongue is equal to all of them put together.”5 Moreover, the wise men said: “Whoever speaks with an evil tongue [behaves] as if he denied God.6 As it is said: ‘They said, ”With our tongues we will prevail, our lips are with us. Who is lord over us?” ’ ”7 Furthermore, the wise men said: ”The evil tongue slays three: the one who speaks, the one who accepts it, and the one who is spoken about; the one who accepts it more so than the one who speaks.“8
[4] There are also words that are “dust of the evil tongue.” For example: “Who would have thought that so-and-so would become like he is now?” Or someone says: “Be still about so-and-so; I do not wish to tell about what happened and what took place.” And words like these. So too, the one who speaks well of someone before his enemies; this too is “dust of the evil tongue,” for that would cause them to speak disparagingly of him. Concerning this matter, Solomon said: “He who blesses his neighbor with a loud voice, rising early in the morning, will be regarded as cursing.”9 For out of the good [said] of him comes evil.
It is also [dust of the evil tongue] if one speaks with an evil tongue in jest and levity, that is, speaks without hatred. This is what Solomon says: “Like a madman who throws firebrands, arrows, and death is the man who deceives his neighbor and says, ‘I am only jesting.’ ”10 And, so too, if one speaks with an evil tongue deceitfully, feigning innocence, as though he does not know that it is evil speech.11 When they protest about it, he says: “I did not know that these are the deeds of so-and-so or that this is evil speech.”11
[5] It is all the same whether he speaks with an evil tongue in the presence of his fellow man or not in his presence. Whoever relates things which, if repeated, would harm the body or possessions of his fellow man, or would only distress or frighten him—this is the evil tongue! If these words are spoken in the presence of three people, the matter is regarded as public knowledge. If one of the three relates it once again, it is not classified as the evil tongue, assuming that he does not intend to make a proclamation and to be excessive in the disclosure.
[6] It is forbidden to dwell in the vicinity of any of those with an evil tongue, and all the more to sit with them and to listen to their words. The judgment against our fathers in the desert was decreed solely because of the evil tongue.12
[7] One who takes vengeance against his fellow man transgresses a prohibition. As it is said: “You shall not take vengeance.” 13 Even though he is not given lashes, this is an extremely bad character trait.14 It is proper for a man to overlook all the things of the world, for according to those who understand, everything is vain and empty and not worth taking vengeance for.
What is vengeance? His friend says: “Lend me your axe.” He says: “I will not lend it to you.” The next day, [the other] needs to borrow from him and says: “Lend me your axe.” He says: “I will not lend it to you, for you did not lend your axe to me when I asked you for it.” This is taking vengeance.15 Rather, when someone comes to him to borrow, he shall give with a perfect heart and not repay in kind. So too, with all things like these. So too, David said, referring to his good character traits: “If I have repaid my friend with evil or plundered my enemy without cause, etc.”16
[8] Likewise, whoever bears a grudge against any Israelite transgresses a prohibition. As it is said: “You shall not bear a grudge against the sons of your people.”17 How so? Reuben said to Simon: “Rent this house to me” or “Lend this ox to me.” Simon did not wish to. After several days, Simon needed to borrow from Reuben or to rent from him. Reuben said to him: “Here you are, I will lend it to you. I am not like you. I will not pay you back in kind.” The one who acts like this transgresses the verse: “You shall not bear a grudge.”18
Rather, he shall blot out the matter from his heart and not bear a grudge. If he bears a grudge over something19 and remembers it, he might come to take vengeance. Therefore the Torah was particularly concerned with grudge-bearing so that the wrong done be completely blotted out from a man’s heart and he not remember it. This is the appropriate character trait; it makes possible the settlement of the earth and social relations 20 among human beings.21
Blessed be the Merciful One
who has helped us.
NOTES
CHAPTER ONE
These commandments are all based upon verses from Scripture cited in the main body of the text.
The text has the pural: benei ‘adam.
The primary meaning of this word is “soul.”
Eccles.5:9.
See infra, Guide, II 40, for the significance of introducing the commandment concerning the mean with a description of character traits at the two extremes.
I.e., conception. Cf. H. De‘ot, IV 20, where the beginning of a man’s creation is contrasted with the time of his birth.
Or: straight path.
Literally: a middle measure.
Literally: the first wise men.
Cf. Babylonian Talmud (cited henceforth as B.T.), Mo‘ed Qatan, 5a; Sotah, 5b.
Prov. 13:25. The last word in this verse could also be translated as “soul.”
Ps. 37:16.
Literally: the first pious men.
A rabbinic expression for going beyond what is required by the Law.
Or: straight.
Deut.28:9.
According to B.T., Shabbat, 133b, just as God is gracious and merciful, man must be gracious and merciful. Cf. Sifre to Deut. 10:12, which teaches that just as God is merciful, gracious, just, and pious (asid), so too, man must acquire these qualities. The command to imitate the holiness of God is based on Lev. 19:2.
Yashar, translated above as “right.”
Or: straight (yashar).
The traditional version reads: “to imitate Him.” The last word is omitted in the Hyamson edition.
Yotzer.
Gen. 18:19.
Ibid.
CHAPTER TWO
Isa. 5:20.
Prov. 2: 13.
Prov. 1:7.
Literally: middle measure.
Literally:low.
Num. 12:3.
Mishnah, Avot, IV 4.
Literally: the root.
B.T., Sotah, 4b; Deut. 8:14.
B.T., Sotah, 5a.
Literally: the first wise men.
Cf. B.T., Shabbat, 115b.
B.T., Pesahim, 66b.
Ibid., 113b.
B.T., Yoma, 23a; Gittin 36b.
Cf. B.T., Sukkah, 28a, where this is reported about R. Yohanan ben Zakkai. “Our holy master” refers to R. Judah the Prince.
Mishnah, Avot, I 16.
Ibid. Maimonides interprets the word guf in the rabbinic passage quite literally as “body.” It might also mean something like “principle,” in which case the passage would read: “I have found no better principle than silence.”
B.T., Pesahim, 3b.
Eccles.5:2.
Mishnah, Avot, III 16.
Eccles.9:17.
Literally: steal the opinion of.
Mishnah, Avot, III 16.
Cf. ibid.
The primary meaning of this word is “soul.”
Literally: possess a good eye. This refers to the virtue of contentment, according to Maimonides’ Commentary on Avot, II 12.
Mishnah, Avot, IV 12.
Cf. ibid., IV 1.
Ibid., IV 27.
Literally: the middle measure.
Prov. 4:26. The full verse reads: “Balance the course of your steps, and all your ways will be upright.”
CHAPTER THREE
Na‘eh, which can have the connotation of being suitable, attractive, or becoming. Cf. C.M., Eight Chapters, V (infra, p. 77), where na’eh is translated as “attractive.”
I.e., Christian monks.
Num. 6:11.
B.T., Ta‘anit lla; Nedarim, 10a; Nazir, 19a, 22a; Baba Qamma, 91b.
Jerusalem Talmud, Nedarim, IX 1.
Eccles.7:16.
Maimonides is emphatic here. Literally: the man (ha-’adam).
Literally: he shall place upon his heart. According to the Jewish tradition, the heart is the location of both thought and will.
Prov.25:27.
The text has the plural and (presumably) the definite article: the wisdoms.
Literally: the Place (a talmudic term for God).
Mishnah, Avot, II 15.
Prov. 3:6.
CHAPTER FOUR
The rainy season refers to the winter months.
Cf. Mishnah, Avot, IV 1: “Who is a powerful man (gibbor)? He who conquers his impulse.”
Literally: wet.
Prov.21:23.
Prov. 31:3. The biblical verse reads, “your ways”; the edition of Hyamson reads, “your years.”
Reading yivdoq with the traditional version and the Constantinople edition; Hyamson has yivdo.
B.T., Baba Batra, 146a; Ketuvot, 110b.
Talmid ha-akhamim, which refers to an advanced student of the Law, who might even be elderly.
B.T., Sanhedrin, 17b. The passage there reads: “A disciple of a wise man [or a wise disciple] is not permitted to live in a city that does not have these ten things: a court that can give lashes and exact penalities, charity collected by two [men] and distributed by three, a synagogue, a bathhouse, a bathroom, a physician, a surgeon, a scribe, a butcher, and a teacher of children.”
CHAPTER FIVE
Malachi 2:3.
B.T., Shabbat, 151b. The passage there reads: “These are the people who forsake the words of Torah and make all their days like holidays.”
Isa. 22:13.
Isa. 28:8.
Prov. 13:25. The last word in this verse could also be translated as “soul.”
Reading with the traditional version, the Rome edition, the Constantinople edition, and many manuscripts cited in Lieberman; Hyamson has “the pious, just men of old.”
Literally: the first pious men.
Literally: words of vanity (or exaggeration).
Amos 4:13.
B. T., Hagigah, 5b.
Or: have a sense of shame (bayyshanin).
eniy‘ut, as distinct from bushah, which is found at the end of V 4. 
ushah can have the connotation of a “sense of shame.”
Mishnah, Avot, IV 20.
Ibid., I 6. More literally: he inclines toward judging every man as being on the scale of merit.
Ibid., I 12.
Ibid., IV 23.
Ibid.
B.T., Berakhot, 43b.
B.T., Kiddushin, 31a. Cf. Guide, III 52.
Isa.3:16.
Ibid.
Ba‘al de‘ah. Literally: a master of intellect, or of character trait.
Eccles. 10:3.
See supra, Chapter Three, note one.
B.T., Berakhot, 43b. If he is perfumed, he might be suspected of being a homosexual. If he is not accustomed to go out alone at night, he might be suspected of some other improper conduct.
B.T., 
ullin, 84a.
Deut. 12:20.
B.T., ullin, 84b.
The text has the plural (ba‘alei de‘ah). Cf. note twenty-two.
Cf. Deut. 20:6,5,7. Maimonides, changes the order found in the Bible.
Deut. 28:30. The complete verse reads: “A woman shall you betroth and another man shall lie with her; a house shall you build and you shall not dwell in it; a vineyard shall you plant and not use the fruit thereof.”
I Sam. 18:14.
According to Jewish law, “a purchase is not made with words.” The sale must be consummated by the payment of money, signing a contract, or some other legally binding method (M.T., Laws of Selling, I). The disciples of the wise go beyond what the Law requires.
Or: his friend. The word aver, usually translated as “fellow man,” does not have universalistic overtones. It means “friend,” “associate,” “fellow.”
Cf. supra, II 3, p. 32.
Isa. 49:3. This verse is also quoted at the end of the fifth chapter in M.T., Laws of the Foundation of the Torah. That chapter deals with the sanctification of God’s name and ends with an exhortation to wise men to be scrupulous in all their conduct.
CHAPTER SIX
Prov. 13:20.
Ps. 1:1.
Lam. 3:28.
Jer. 9:1.
Deut. 10:20.
Sifre to Deut. 10:12.
Deut. 11:22; B.T., Ketuvot, 111b.
Mishnah, Avot, I 4.
Lev. 19:18.
Jerusalem Talmud, agigah, II 1.
Ger, which also means “stranger.” Maimonides interprets the commandment, “To love the stranger,” as requiring a love of the convert. Cf. Sifra to Lev. 19:33-34.
Deut. 10:19. This is the conventional translation of the verse. According to the interpretation of Maimonides, it means: “And you shall love the convert.”
Deut. 6:5.
Deut. 10:18. This is the conventional translation of the verse. According to the interpretation of Maimonides, it means: “And He loves the convert.”
Lev. 19:17.
II Sam. 13:22. After Amnon had forced their sister, Tamar, to lie with him, Absalom hated Amnon and did not rebuke him.
Lev. 19:17.
Gen. 20:17. After Abimelech showed regret for having taken Sarah, whom he had supposed to be Abraham’s sister, Abraham asked God not to punish Abimelech.
Lev. 19:17.
Literally: the Place (a talmudic term for God).
B.T., ‘Arakhin, 16b.
Lev. 19:17.
B.T., ‘Arakhin, 16b.
Mishnah, Avot, III 14.
Exod. 22:21.
Exod. 22:23.
Exod. 22:22.
Or: straight path.
Prov. 22:23.
CHAPTER SEVEN
Lev. 19:16.
Ibid.
When Saul was in pursuit of David, Doeg the Edomite reported to Saul that David had been aided by the priest, Ahimelech of Nob. As a result, Saul had eighty-five priests of Nob put to death by the hand of Doeg. All the inhabitants of Nob were also exterminated by Doeg. I Sam. 22:6-19.
Ps. 12:4.
Cf. B.T., ‘Arakhin, 15b.
Literally: the root.
B.T., ‘Arakhin, 15b; Ps. 12:5.
Cf. Jerusalem Talmud, Pe’ah, I 1; B.T., ‘Arakhin, 15b.
Prov.27:14.
Prov.26:18-19.
Literally: the evil tongue.
B.T., ‘Arakhin, 15a. According to the Talmud, the Hebrews were not permitted to enter the promised land because they accepted the evil report of the spies concerning the land of Canaan. Cf. Num. 13:31-14:23.
Lev. 19:18.
Reading de‘ah with the traditional version, the Rome edition, and other editions listed in Lieberman; Hyamson has da‘at.
B.T., Yoma, 23a; Sifra to Lev. 19:18.
Ps. 7:5. The next verse continues: “Let the enemy pursue my soul and overtake it, and tread my life down to the earth; let him lay my glory in the dust.”
Lev. 19:18.
B.T., Yoma, 23a; Sifra to Lev. 19:18.
More literally: If he guards (no
er) the thing. The primary meaning of the Hebrew word that refers to bearing a grudge is to “guard” or “keep.”
Masa’ umatan, a Hebrew idiom meaning literally, “carrying and giving.”
Maimonides closes the work as he had begun, with a reference to “human beings” (benei ’adam) and an allusion to man’s political nature. Cf. supra, Chapter One, note five.