part0018

Acceptance theory of knowledge, 48

Acheulean industry, 297

Act of Creation, The (Koestler), 222

Actual, concept of, 128 , 144 ; in history, 104 ff.

Adaequatio rei et intellectus , 214

Addition, historical concept of, 121 f.

Against Method (Feyerabend), 268

Age of Louis XIV, The (Voltaire), 136

Alchemy, 46 , 69 , 245

Altcrity, consciousness of, 298

Anthropic Principle, 241 f., 331 ff., 334 , 341

Anthropology, 288

Antibody formation, theory of, 319

Appearance: concept of, 66 ; problem of, 3 ; world as, 309

A priori element of knowledge, 71 f.

A priori knowledge, 26 f., 30 , 31 , 34 , 201 ; origin of, 341

Art and Illusion (Gombrich), 43 f.

Art, history of, 42 ff, 113 , 321

Artefacts, evolution of, 297

Articulate subjects, history of, 95

Astrology, 69 ; influence of, 261

Biology: philosophical relevance of, 9 , 22 , 237 ff, 259 ; philosophical, 204 ff.

Biotic evolution, 281 f.

Bisociation, theory of, 222

Black Body Radiation, 154

Black Magic, 47

Brain: evolution of, 295 ; knowledge and, 201

Bricolage , 222

Burial, evolution of, 298

Castration, intellectual, 172

Catastrophism, 10 , 133 , 136 , 287 f.

Catechismic societies, 74 f., 82 , 293 , 300

Categories, Kantian, 310 f.

Causality: as source of knowledge, 5 , 22 ; historical, 88

Cave, myth of, 342

Cells, biology of, 210

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology, 14 f., 69 , 288 f., 335

Certainty: concept of, 3 , 49 , 56 , 226 f.;

Cartesian, 184

Change: abolition of, 314 ; explanation of, 89 , 287 ; Hegelian mechanism of, 171 ; theories of, 139 ; time and, 135 , 169 , 290 f.

Chinese science, 32

Christian Fathers, 305

Circularity: fallacy of, 116 ; historical, 273 ; historical knowledge and, 124 f.; method of, 111 ff.

Circumcision, interpretation of, 305

Closed circles, ch. 5 passim , 143 , 145 , 150 , 172 , 236 ; advocacy of method of, by Ruth Benedict, 140 , 144 , 151 ; by Ethnomethodology, 141 ; by Foucault, 144 f., 175 ; by Herder, 134 , 144 , 145 f., 175 ; by Kuhn, Th.S., 112 , 130 , 175 ; by Malinowski, B., 140 , 147 , 175 ; by Quine, W.V.O., 152 ; by Ranke, L.v., 135 , 151 ; by Rorty, R., 176 ff.; by social science, 147 fF.; by Spengler, Oswald, 137 , 175 ; by Voltaire, 133 , 144 , 145 , 175 ; by Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 142 f., 146 , 151 f., 175 ; method of, 140 f., 148 , 161 , 164 ; model of, 132 ff.

Closed systems, 255

Coding, concept of, 279

Cognitive apparatus, 57 , 66 ; development of, 302

Cognitive evolution, 281 ff.

Colligation in history, 119 f.

Commensurability, 153 , 156 ff.; structuralism and, 157 ; of systems, 215

Commonsense, plain language of, 63 , 65

Compatibility: concept of, 251 , 281 , 286 ; cognitive, 246 f.

Conjecture, method of, 216 , 222 , 243 , 252 , 257 f., 267 , 296

Conjectures, history of, 261 ff.

Consciousness, 282 , 291 ; character of, 299 ; evolution of, 296 f.

Constraints, in evolution, 280 f.

Contemplation, 203

Contingency: concept of, 307 ; in history, 120

Continuity, philosophy of science of, 109

Conventionalism, 109 , 219 , 340

Copenhagen interpretation of Quantum Mechanics, 103

Copernican Counter-revolution, 310

Copernican revolution, 113 f., 309

Copernican Revolution, The (Kuhn), 113 f.

Correspondence theory of truth, 228

Covering Law Model, 287

Creativity, 222

Crisis, concept of, 117

Criticism: method of, 56 , 72 , 73 , 81 , 145 , 265 , 269 f, 283 , 298 ; panrational, 322 ; role of, 49 ff.; standards of, 53

Cubism, 44

Cultural evolution, 281 ff.

Culture, 56 , 282 ; authority of, 58 ; evolution of, 290 ; growth of, 55 f.; inhibition of knowledge by, 76 , 210

Decline of the West, The (Spengler), 137

Deduction, concept of, 42

Deductivism, 217

Design in nature, 256 , 274 , 306 , 308 f., 316 f.; argument from, 13 , 173 ; problem of, 13

Development, mechanism of, 272 f.

Developmental laws, 136 f., 138 f., 147 , 166 , 181 , 288 , 294

Deviance, concept of, 195 f., 301 f.

Dialectics, 273 ; Hegelian, 109

Discovery, context of, 265

Distal knowing, 203

DNA Theory, 251 ; discovery of, 164

Dogmatism, 85 , 269 f.

Earth-Mother, 276

Ecclesia , concept of, 301

Edge of Objectivity, The (Gillespie), 115

Elimination of errors: method of, 13 , 15 , 221 f., 243 f., 246 , 251 , 255 , 286 ; theory of, 34 f.

Empirical content, definition of, 216

Empirical quality of narratives, 261

Empiricism, 35 , 244 f.; British, 183

Enlightenment, age of, 10 f., 20 , 133 , 136 , 145 , 307

Episteme , 144 f., 165

Epistemic authority, 8 , 59 , 181 f., 193 ff., 195 , 199 , 231 , 236 f., 331

Epistemology, descriptive, 59 ff., 265

Equidistance, concept of, 124 , 135 , 195 , 288 , 330

Erklären , 144

Error, rationality of, 16 f.

Error elimination, method of, 15 , 221 f.

Essay on Metaphysics (Collingwood), 170

Eternal recurrence, myth of, 315 f., 342

Ether, theories of, 156 , 332

Ethnomethodology, 141

Euphoria, epistemological, 194

Events: in history, 121 ; nature of, 86 ff.

Evolution: biological, 288 , 289 ; biotic, 281 f.; cognitive character of, 209 , 222 , 281 ff., 332 ; concept of, 179 ; course of, 280 ; cultural, 281 ff., 289 f.; evolution of, 290 ff., 294 ; mechanism of, 207 , 210 , 243 , 258 , 267 , 270 ; mind and, 310 f.; pre-biotic 281 ; theory of, 13 , 19 , 29 , 42 , 67 , 135 , 165 , 173 , 238 , 279 ; time and, 173 , 285 , 289 , 314 , 315

Evolutionary change, 285

Evolutionary Epistemology, 6 , 12 , 185 f., 246 ff, 253 , 261 , 265 , 270 , 284 , 318 , 336 , 341

Evolutionary sequence, 221

Existentialism, 144

Expectations, cognitive, 13 , 27 , 30 f., 34 , 201 f., 205

Explanation: causal, 287 ; of change, 89 ; historical, 89 ; nature of, 254 , 336 f.

Explanatory power, 254 ; of paradigms, 165 ; of paradigms in social science, 147 ff.

Eye: cognitive nature of, 10 , 206 , 323 ; function of, 181 ; physiology of, 198 f.

Facts in history, 116 , 118 f.

Fals1fiability, concept of, 17 , 21 , 216 ff.

Fals1fication: method of, 105 , 109 , 118 , 223 f., 243 , 251 f., 259 , 264 f., 269 , 271 f., 272 , 277 ; revaluation of, 225 ; selectionism, inclusive of, 221 ff.

Faraday Effect, 95 ff.

Field, concept of, 61

Florence, history of, 77

Force: concept of, 38 , 64 ; theories of, 275

Foundation of Empirical Knowledge, The (Ayer), 9

French Revolution, history of the, 121

Functionalism, 140 , 164 ff, 288

Future, awareness of, 298

General laws, 3 , 39 , 88 f., 92 f., 118 , 254 , 259 , 287 ; in history, 95

General Theory of Relativity, 22 , 27 , 46 f., 218 , 224 , 312

Genetics, Mendelian, 321

Geology, history of, 116 f.

God: belief in, 307 ; concept of, 32

Golden Ages of history, 133 ; theory of, 10 , 133

Gradualism, 287

Heliocentricity, problem of, 114 ff.

Hidden Order of Art, The (Ehrenzweig), 321

Historia rerumgestarum , 91 f., 294

Historical explanation, 89 ff., 118 ; knowledge, 118 f.; observation, 112 f.; series, 91 ; understanding, 119 f.

Historicism, 11 , 136 f., 146 , 152 , 166 f., 181 , 182 , 288 , 294 , 330 , 339 ; Marxist, 329

Historicity of science, ch. 1 passim , 123

Historiography of science, 108 f.

Historism, 136 f., 138 , 145 ff, 152 , 182 , 328

History, of histories, 95 ; knowledge and, 59 f.; philosophy of, and science, 98 ; of science, 60 , 86 f., 108 , 126 ; verdict of, 186 f.

History of Science and its Rational Reconstruction, The (Lakatos), 109 f., 126 f.

History of science: external, 259 f., 273 ; internal, 259 f., 273 ; sources of, 96 f.

Hologram, 280

Hominids, technological skill of, 297

Homosexuality, Wittgenstein’s, 331

Humanism, 261 , 318

Human sciences, 149 f.

Hypothetical realism, 12 , 238 , 242 , 270 f.

Idea of History, The (Collingwood), 170

Idealism: philosophical, 9 , 183 ; transcendental, 304 f., 311

Ideal speech situation, 303

Immunity of theories, 21 , 161 f., 325

Imperative, categorical, 342

Impressionism, 44

Inarticulate subjects, history of, 95

Incommensurability, 124 , 140 f., 143 , 150 ff, 170 , 214 ; degrees of, 328

Indeterminism, 226

Induction, 3 , 14 , 12 ff, 215

Inductivism, 109 , 122 , 245 , 257

Infallibility, 85

Information: cultural, 282 ; transfer of, 13 , 22 , 34 f., 210 , 279

Infusoria, behaviour of, 29

Insanity, criterion of, 331

Instruction, learning by, 15 , 225 , 250

Intelligent behaviour, 51

Internal history of science, 127

Inter-subjectivity, criterion of certainty, 245

Intuition, criterion of certainty, 245

Invariance, maintenance of, 289 f.

Inventions: cultural influence on, 262 ff; randomness of, 263

Irrationality, 114 , 160 ff, 325

Justificationism, philosophical, 15 , 194 , 195

Kinship recognition, 35

Knowledge (Lehrer), 240

Knowledge: ahistorical properties of, 64 ; biological explanation of, 71 f.; biological model of, 22 ; causal theory of, 5 , 21 ; concept of, 48 ; conscious, 214 ; determination of, 214 ; evolution and, 209 , 332 ; evolution of, 281 ff.; false, 283 , 300 f., 302 , 304 ; growth of, 4 , 39 , 76 f., 105 f., 113 , 171 , 207 , 255 f., 258 , 279 , 284 ; historical, 118 f.; historicity of, 20 f., 68 , 107 ; language-game theory of, 6 ; mode of, 269 ; nature of, 36 , 49 , 194 f.; physics model of, 22 ; politics of, 80 ; prostitution of, 83 ; ‘Received View of’, 2 , 60 ; relational view of, 11 f.; religious, 307 ; social bondage of, 74 , 283 , 292 , 300 f.; social use of, 82 f.; sociology of, 7 , 68 f.; storage of, 295 ; systems, clash of, 304 ff.; theory of alternatives of, 23 ff.; transmission of, 293 ; value of, 178 f., 208 f., 330

Koalas, philosophical importance of, 231

Language, Truth and Logic (Ayer), 2

Language-games, 6 , 142 , 188 , 192 f., 215 , 255

Law, concept of, 32

Learning: mechanism of, 13 , 27 ; theory of, 14 , 34

Les mots et les choses (Foucault), 144

Light, theories of, 41 , 229

Literature, history of, 113

Logic: formal, 70 ; primitive, 82

Logic of Scientific Discovery, The (Popper), 1 , 89 , 152 , 217 , 218 , 252 , 265 , 287 , 325

Loren tz Transformations, 103

Mallard ducklings, 249

Manicheism, philosophical, 194

Mathematics, Copernicus and, 114 f.

Matter, concept of, 65 f.

Meaning, 193 , 330 ; invariance, 152 ff., 328 ; invariance, denial of, 159 ; picture theory of, 191 f.; theory of, 141 ; variance, theory of, 151

Mechanics: Cartesian, 69 ; Newtonian, 22

Memory, evolution of, 298

Mental events, 181

Mercantilism: cognitive, 302 , 305 ; cultural, 283

Metahistory (Hayden White), 294

Meta-history, concept of, 106 f., 127 , 209 , 294 f.

Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Science, The (Burtt), 115

Method: correct, 263 , 266 f.; ideal of correct, 51 , 73

Methodologies, criticism of, 127

Michelson-Morley experiment, 155 f., 218

Mind: concept of, 11 , 194 , 201 f.; definition of, 232 ff.

Mirrors, 280 ; concept of, 183 ; philosophy, 143 , 180 , 190 , 193 , 194 , 196 ff.

Model: historical knowledge and, 177 f.; historiographical, 187 ; of history, 130

Mother Earth, concept of, 276

Motion, theory of, 47 , 66

Mutation, biological, 6 , 289 f., 292 , 340

Mythology: Babylonian, 305 ; Hittite, 305

Nation, concept of, 134

Natural science, character of, 148

Natural Symbols (Douglas), 164

Nazism, Heidegger’s, 330

Neanderthal man, 297 f.

Negative sociology of knowledge, 74 ff., 221 f., 280

Neoplatonism, 114

Nervous system, adaptiveness of, 245 f.

Newtonian: Mechanics, 47 , 69 , 224 , 309 ; revolution, 100 ff.; scenario, 101 ; style, 100 ff.

Newtonian Revolution, The (Cohen), 100 ff.

Noetic experience, 299 f.

Nominalism, 206

Non-randomness of relation of time to change, 289

Normal science, 112 , 134 , 161 , 163 , 174 , 214 , 293

Noumenal world, 31 0

Objective spirit, 226

Objectivity: with evolution, 237 ff.; without evolution, 227 fF.; in history, 104 , 120 ; problem of, 227 ff.

Observation: biology and, 55 ; cognitive value of, 5 , 7 , 142 , 151 , 195 , 217 , 219 , 244 , 245 , 254 , 333 ; reliance on, 3 ; value of, 10

Ontological Relativity (Quine), 196

Ontologies, varieties of, 238 ff.

Ontology: problem of, 229 ff.; question of, 5 , 51 , 62 ; Huygens’, 229 ; Newton’s 229

Open Society and its Enemies, The (Popper), 1

Organisms: cognitive aspect of, 223 ; conscious, 282 ; as embodied theories, 223 f.

Origins of Modern Science, The (Butterfield), 23

Paradigm: changes, 8 , 125 ; concept of, 8 , 138 , 160 , 165 , 328 ; shifts, 33 f., 41 , 60 , 114 , 116 , 122 f.; shifts and Hegel, 170 f.; sociological determination of, 168 f.; succession of, 112 , 162 f.; theory of, 5 , 112 f.

Paramecium, behaviour of, 29 , 206 , 251

Particulars, 25

Pattern matching, 22 , 201

Perception, biology of, 242 , 335

Philosophers: Ionian, 305 ; role of, 3 , 182 f.

Philosophical Investigations (Wittgenstein), 1 , 144 , 187 , 190 f., 330

Philosophy: Darwinism and, 12 f., 319 ; history of, 16 , 144 , 176 f.; nature of, 2 , 13 , 58

Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Rorty), 58 , 176 ff.

Philosophy of Science, 101 , 108 , 112 ff., 278 , 284 , 304 ; history and, 98 , 108 f.; history of science and, 126

Phlogiston, theory of, 24

Physicalism, 227

Picture representation, 279 f.

Politics, philosophical relevance of, 195 , 231 f.

Pollution, fear of, 47

Positivism, 2 ff., 20 f., 23 , 46 , 61 , 70 f., 99 f., 118 , 146 , 167 188 , 196 , 211 , 216 f., 225 , 257 , 31 .

Postulate of Sufficient Specification, 125 , 189

Postulate of Sufficient Variety, 125 , 189 , 274

Power, philosophy determined by, 195 , 231 f.

Pre-biotic evolution, 281 ff., 285 , 291

Prediction, 40 , 48 , 90

Preference: concept of, 255 ; criterion for, 252 , 255

Presentationalism, 26

Primates, technological skill of, 297

Primitive thought, 78 f.

Principles of Art History (Wolfflin), 45

Principles of Geology (Lyell), 339

Private language, 7 , 141 , 142 , 235

Problem shifts, 272

Problem solving, 45 , 221 , 243 , 255

Progress: concept of, 26 , 38 f., 46 , 123 f., 213 , 253 , 281 ; history of art and, 42 ff.

Progress in Art (Gablik), 43

Protectionism, 302 ; cognitive, 83 ; cultural, 283

Protocol statements, theory of, 6 , 12 , 147

Psychoanalysis, 48

Psychologism, 27

Psychology: of imagination, 37 f., 264 ; of invention, 260 f.

Pumps, technology of, 264

Quantum Mechanism, 24 , 46 f., 62 f., 66 , 68 , 69 , 103 , 228 , 251 , 264 , 306 ; epistemological problem of, 232 f.

Ratiomorphous behaviour, 37 , 206

Rational reconstruction, 260 , 274 ; in history, 127

Rationalism, 80

Rationality, concept of, 15 f., 16 f., 50 , 53 , 54 f., 56 , 61 , 220 , 271

Rationality of Science, The (Newton-Smith), 328

Ravages, emotional, of growth of knowledge, 306

Raw material of history, 100 f., 103 f.

Real, concept of, 144

Realism, 44 , 65 , 230 , 242 ; hypothetical, 12 , 238 , 242 , 270 f.; philosophical, 185 , 227 ; transcendental, 240

Realism and the Progress of Science (P . Smith), 239

Realist Theory of Science, A (Bhaskar), 240

Reality, 66 ; concept of, in history, 104 ff.;

problem of, 3 ; of World, 246

Reason, 15 f.

‘Received View’, 3 , 318

Reduction, epistemological, 230

Reductionism, 109

Reference: evolution and, 153 ; inscrutability of, 152 ; problems of, 64 , 131 f., 234

Refutations, method of, 258

Regularities, 26 , 27 , 28 , 37 , 94 , 204 , 336

Relativism, 18 , 43 , 46 f., 143 , 159 ff., 173 f., 328 f.; cognitive, 209 ; in history, 91 f.

Relativity, theory of, 24

Religion, 14 ; comforts of, 306 ; problem of, 304 ff.; role of, in knowledge, 32 f.

Religion, denial of time by, 313

Religious knowledge, 307

Representationalism, 26 , 143

Research programme: Cartesian, 274 f.; concept of, 24 , 272 ff.; metaphysical, 288 ; Newtonian, 275 f.

Res gestae , 91 f., 129 , 294

Responses: descriptive, 205 ; discriminative, 205

Retreat to Commitment, The (Bartley, III), 50

Revelation: concept of, 305 ; as criterion of certainty, 245

Revolution, concept of, 121 f.

Roman nouveau , 162 f.

Romanticism, German, 136

Romantic philosophy of history, 133 , 145

Rule-following, 6 , 7 , 50 , 52 , 141 f., 191 f., 234 , 327

Saltationism, 327

Sanity, criterion of, 196

Scepticism, 53 f.

Schizophrenia, intellectual, 114

Science: bind history, 99 ; concept of, 48 , 307 ; historicity of, ch. 1 passim; history of, 23 , 123 , 128 f., 213 , 218 , 257 ff., 277 ; philosophy of, 87 , 108 , 112 ff., 213 , 258 , 274 , 278 , 304 ; philosophy and history of, 98 ; social prerequisites for, 161

Science and Civilisation in China (Needham), 77

Scientists, definition of, 98 , 259

Selection: in history, 90 f.; method of, 257 f., 264 , 269 , 281 , 285 , 286 , 292 , 319 ; method of, in history, 125 ; nonnatural, 286 ; theory of, 12 f.

Selectionism, 221 , 242 , 251 f.

Sensa , 9 f.

Sensory evidence, 230

Sequence, historical, 92

Sius, cognitive, 286

Skin, cognitive meaning of, 210

Sleepwalkers, The (Koestler), 115 , 262

Sociability, 291 f.

Social context of science, 269

Social Darwinism, 289

Social science, 148

Social solidarity, 219 f.

Societies: catechismic, 74 f., 82 , 293 , 300 ; nature of bonding of, 160 ; neutral bonding of, 84

Societies as species, 290

Sociological explanations, 168 ff.

Sociology, 7 , 288 ; epistemological, 7 ff., 230 f.; of knowledge, 18 , 69 , 73 , 302 f.; of knowledge, negative, 74 ff., 22 1 f., 280 ; recourse to, 7 ff., 167 f.

Solar mysticism, 261 , 264 , 306

Sources of history of science, 96 f.

Space: concept of, 62 f.; nature of, 312

Special theory of Relativity, 2 , 4 , 103 , 156

Speciation, 289

Species: formation of, 291 ; history of, 92 ; maintenance of, 153 ; societies as, 290

Speech community, 8 , 52 , 195 , 231 , 236 f.; membership problem of, 195 f., 231

Structuralism, 80 f., 144 , 157 , 164 ff.

Structure of Scientific Revolutions, The (Kuhn), 111 ff., 116 , 118 , 121 , 158 , 265

Structure of Scientific Theories, The (Suppe, ed.), 60

Subjectivity: cognitive, 240 f.; in history, 120

Systemic: method, 137 f., 140 ; thinking, 137

Systems, self-explanatory, 133

Survival, concept of, 288

Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought (Holton), 103

Theoriendynamik , 24 f.

Theories: comparison of, 272 ; conscious, 286 f.; organisms as, 223 f.; universality of, 224

Theory-appraisal, 266 fF.

Theory-formation, 266 ff.

Theory of the Earth (Hutton), 92

Thermodynamics: epistemological problem of, 232 f.; theories of, 277 f.; 312

Thing-in-itself (Ding an sich) , 185 , 247 , 250 , 336

Thinking: nature of, 37 , 266 ; pre-logical, theory of, 78 f.

Three Worlds, theory of, 225 f.

Thucydides Mythhistoricus (Cornford), 294

Timaeus (Plato), 66

Time and history, 99 ff.; change and, 135 , 169 , 290 f.; difficulty of concept of, 88 ; evolution and, 285 , 289 ; fear of, 316 ; history and, 88 ; illusion of, 313 f.; nature of, 313 ; passage of, 135 , 169 ; reality of, 313 ff.; religion and, 313

Totemism, theories about, 80

Towards an Historiography of Science (Agassi), 108 f.

Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (Wittgenstein), 1 , 2 , 4 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 143 , 175 , 176 , 187 f., 189 , 190 f., 192 , 197 , 204 , 319 , 330

Transcendental Idealism, 304 f., 311

Tropic Principle, 279 ffi, 283 , 284 , 312

Truth: concept of, 85 , 193 ; correspondence theory of, 227 ; criterion for, 253 ; paradigms and, 167 ; social science and, 149 ; see also verisimilitude

Underdetermination, of knowledge, 249 , 281

Uniformism, 287

Uniformitarianism, 93 f., 139 , 287 , 333 , 339

Uniqueness, of human beings, 205

Universal concepts, 171

Universality: concept of, 39 ; increase in, 253 ; growth of, 40 f.

Universal laws, preference for, 255

Universals, 31 , 204 , 206 , 297 f.; nature of, 333

Verisimilitude, concept of, 247 f., 251 , 254 , 271

Verstehen , 144

Vienna Circle, 55 , 256

Vision, biology of, 197 ff.

Visual perception, 203 f.

Voodoo, 46

Witchcraft, 81 , 160 , 269

Witches, 46 , 47

Witch-Hunting, Magic and the New Philosophy (Easlea), 276

Worlds, three, theory of, 225 f.