CHAPTER 5
Suiseki with Bonsai and Other Related Arts
Bonsai (lit.: bon, tray; sai, to plant) are naturally or artificially dwarfed trees trained to grow into beautiful shapes. We have already seen that in Japan suiseki are traditionally displayed in a tokonoma with other art objects, including bonsai (see p. 75). Aside from this practice, suiseki and bonsai may be combined into a single, unified work of art.
This is done in two basic ways. First, a rock planting, or ishi-tsuki (lit.: ishi, stone; tsuki, attached to), can be made by planting the bonsai directly onto the suiseki (Fig. 87). Second, a tray landscape, or bonkei (lit.: bon, tray; kei, scenery),8 can be made by arranging one or more suiseki and bonsai in a suiban filled with water (Fig. 113).
When suiseki are combined with bonsai, either as a rock planting or as a tray landscape, both take on additional life and beauty. Moreover, the marriage of tree and stone can be advantageous for both the bonsai and the suiseki enthusiast. For the bonsai artist, young trees only a few years old can be planted on or with a suiseki and enjoyed almost immediately. In contrast, the creation of a fully mature and presentable bonsai planted in its own container can take a lifetime. For the suiseki collector, a defect in an otherwise good suiseki can be hidden by attaching a bonsai, by partially burying the suiseki in soil, or by concealing the undesirable part under moss or grass. Soil can also be used to stabilize a stone with an uneven bottom.
Fig. 87. Rock planting (root-over-rock style): a trident maple with well-formed roots on a rough-textured Shelter stone.
Combinations of suiseki and bonsai
In designing a rock planting or tray landscape, the suiseki and bonsai should be in harmony, each evoking and enhancing the feeling, movement, and aesthetic qualities of the other. For guidance it is helpful to follow nature. In general, suiseki and bonsai can effectively be combined if the type of suiseki and tree are found together in a natural environment. Coniferous trees—such as pine, juniper, hemlock, certain varieties of spruce, and larch—often grow on steep mountain slopes or on cliff edges. Because of their tolerance for dry and poor soils, they also grow well in rocky or sandy regions, such as those found on some islands. Deciduous trees— such as maple, oak, beech, and hornbeam—grow well on upland slopes and in the rich, moist soil of valleys, and are often found among large boulders. Finally, lowland trees such as willow and bald cypress often grow well near water or at the bottom of a valley and are often seen in the vicinity of highly eroded flat stones. Several combinations of bonsai and suiseki are suggested by these observations: coniferous bonsai with Mountain, Water-fall, Cave, Coastal rock, and Island stones; deciduous bonsai with Mountain, Mountain-stream, Plateau, Shelter, and Slope stones; willow and bald cypress bonsai with Waterpool, Shore, and Thatched-hut stones. Thatched-hut stones are in fact suitable companion pieces for virtually any type of bonsai (Fig. 88). All the combinations noted above would be equally appropriate for suiseki and bonsai displayed individually in a tokonoma.
Fig. 88. Thatched-hut stone with an Ezo spruce bonsai.
For maximum effect, the suiseki and bonsai should capture the spirit of their full-size counterparts. The best suiseki are those that suggest the forms of nature with a minimum of detail. The best bonsai are those that suggest the natural characteristics of the full-sized tree. Bonsai fitting this description usually have small leaves, needles, flowers, and fruits; a tapered trunk and attractive bark that gives the impression of age; thick foliage growing in dense clusters; and branches that are in balance and in scale with the size of the tree.
Bonsai can be styled in several different shapes through pruning, trimming, and wiring. Most of these styles are variations on five basic shapes: formal upright, informal upright, slanting, semi-cascade, and cascade (Figs. 89-93). These styles are based on the angle at which the trunk slants away from the vertical. Needle evergreen trees can be planted in any of these five styles. Other species (broadleaf evergreen trees, deciduous trees, and flowering trees) are usually not created in the formal upright style, although other styles are appropriate. Another major style is the multiple-trunk style (Fig. 109) in which several trunks rise from a common root system. Except for plants with a double trunk, most bonsai artists prefer those with an uneven number of trunks divided at the base in a V shape. Ideally, the trees should vary in height and thickness, with the trunk of the main tree somewhat heavier and taller than the others. The multiple-trunk style is especially useful and popular, since it is easier to maintain than individual bonsai plantings.
Fig. 89. Formal upright style. Bonsai species: Japanese white pine.
Fig. 90. Informal upright style. Bonsai species: Japanese red pine.
Fig. 91. Slanting style. Bonsai species: Japanese black pine.
Fig. 92. Semi-cascade style. Bonsai species: Japanese five-needle pine.
Fig. 93. Cascade style. Bonsai species: Japanese five-needle pine.
An observer viewing the finished bonsai should be presented with a clear, unobstructed, and attractive view of the tree’s structure, including the trunk, branches, and exposed roots. Starting about one third up the trunk, the branches should grow out to the side and to the back; they should not cross one another or point directly at the viewer. At least one of the lowest branches should reach toward the back, giving depth to the tree. The apex of the tree should lean slightly toward the viewer, except in the formal upright style, in which it lies directly above the base of the tree.
Selecting an appropriate container
The container is crucial to the overall success of the composition. Like the frame for a painting, it should show the subject to its greatest advantage. Containers made of earthenware or ceramic tend to be preferred, although containers made of cement, preserved wood, bronze, and copper are used in special circumstances. The color of the container should not compete with the color of the suiseki or with the color of the bonsai. Most collectors prefer neutral colors (beige and off-white), subdued natural earth tones (dark brown, dark red, dark green, and gray), or pastels, since these colors work well with the color of most suiseki and bonsai. Brightly colored containers are less frequently employed, since they can be distracting and may overpower the main subject.
Rock-planting and tray-landscape containers are seldom more than 2 inches deep. The depth of the container is closely related to its width and length. As a general rule, the longer and wider the container, the greater its depth. Rock plantings and tray landscapes are usually easier to create in oval or rectangular containers, although containers also come in other shapes, including round, square, and hexagonal.
In recent years appropriate containers have become readily available outside Japan. They can be obtained from most garden supply houses, nurseries, import shops, and other stores that carry bonsai materials. They can also be ordered directly from supply firms that advertise in bonsai magazines.
Occasionally a rock planting will be set directly on a display stand without a container (see Fig. 94). In such cases a piece of glass, a sheet of clear plastic, or a cloth should be placed under the stone to protect the table.
Rock plantings are an effective and highly dramatic way of combining suiseki and bonsai (Figs. 94, 95). There are two basic styles:
Fig. 94. Rock planting (clinging-to-a-rock style) suggesting the island scenery depicted in Figure 95. Bonsai species: dwarf cryptomeria.
Fig. 95. A natural scene showing pine trees clinging to an island off the coast of Japan.
1. ROOT-OVER-ROCK STYLE: The roots of the tree are trained down over the stone and into a bed of soil (Figs. 96, 111; see Fig. 7). For adequate water drainage, the container should have two or more drainage holes that are at least ½ inch in diameter.
2. CLINGING-TO-A-ROCK STYLE: The bonsai is grown entirely on the stone, the roots being wholly contained within peat that has been pressed onto the stone (Figs. 97-101, 112; see Fig. 94). In this style of planting, a bed of soil is not required. Instead, the stone is typically placed in a shallow suiban filled with sand, water, or both.
Fig. 96. Rock planting in the root-over-rock style: spruce and moss on Mountain stone.
Selecting appropriate suiseki
The best suiseki for rock plantings are those that have an abundance of natural crevices, irregular contours, fissures, weathered channels, and rough surfaces (see Fig. 87). Such stones hold pockets of soil well, and the crevices can be used to attach and guide roots or to hide wires anchoring the tree. The most suitable types of suiseki for rock plantings are Near-view mountain, Waterfall, Mountain-stream, Shelter, and Coastal rock stones. Other types of stones that lend themselves to this style of planting are Waterpool, Plateau, and roughly shaped Island stones. Larger suiseki are often reserved for rock plantings, while smaller suiseki are typically set aside for tray landscapes. If the suiseki cannot stand on its own, the base is usually cut flat, or several smaller stones are cemented to its base.
Selecting appropriate bonsai species
The most effective bonsai for rock plantings are trees that are mature; they do not, however, have to be fully grown. Seedlings and young trees two to five years old can be employed quite effectively, since the suiseki and other plants can be used to conceal flaws or to draw the viewer’s attention away from aesthetically weak points. Dwarf varieties are particularly recommended, especially those with an abundance of long, thin, flexible, evenly spaced roots. Trees with inflexible roots are rarely used because it is difficult to flatten the roots against the surface of the stone. The tree should also be slow growing—thereby minimizing the need for transplanting—and should be able to endure dry or adverse conditions. Pine (five needle, mugo, pitch, and black) and spruce are highly recommended, since they require little moisture and look attractive in a rock setting. Other recommended species are dwarf box, buttonwood, Japanese yew, Chinese juniper, needle juniper, hemlock, most varieties of cypress, and fir. Maple trees, especially trident maples, are excellent because their roots attach easily and mold themselves to the contours of the stone (see Fig. 87). Other suitable deciduous trees are elm and zelkova. Among fruit and flowering trees, the most suitable species are azalea, rock cotoneaster, English holly, fig, and gardenia. To encourage the growth of long feeder roots, plants collected directly from the wild should be planted for six months to one year in a deep pot or in the ground. When the branches, trunk, roots, and foliage fill out, the tree can be prepared for planting.
Fig. 97. Rock planting in the clinging-to-a-rock style: dwarf maple, five-needle pine, and dwarf azalea on Waterfall stone.
Fig. 98. Rock planting in the clinging-to-a-rock style: needle juniper, dwarf flowering quince, dwarf azalea, fern, and several varieties of ground cover on Plateau stone.
Fig. 99. Rock planting in the clinging-to-a-rock style: five-needle pine and fern on Tunnel stone.
Fig. 100. Rock planting in the clinging-to-a-rock style: dwarf rose and five-needle pine on Coastal rock stone.
Fig. 101. Rock planting in the clinging-to-a-rock style: Sargent juniper and golden fern on Waterpool stone (in shape of a boat).
Selecting other plant material
For added color, interest, and a more natural appearance, as well as for holding the soil in place, several types of ground cover are suitable, including sedum, ferns, succulents, lichen, moss, and dwarf varieties of sweet-rush, horsetail (scouring rush or equisetum), bamboo, thyme, veronica, mint, and saxifraga. Plants used for ground cover are often tightly grouped together to suggest wild shrubs and tree saplings.
Season
In general, rock plantings are best made just before new shoots begin to grow. Timing may vary, however, depending on the species. Since more soil is removed from the roots in a rock planting than in a typical bonsai transplanting, timing is especially critical for delicate species such as pine, spruce, and fir.
Design
The first step in creating a rock planting is to decide where on the suiseki to plant the bonsai. To help visualize this, the suiseki and bonsai are often placed on a revolving table, with the trees held in place by hand or lightly stuck to the suiseki with peat. As an additional aid, an artist will often draw a rough sketch of the proposed rock planting. In placing the bonsai, the eye movement suggested by the tree should be consistent with the eye movement suggested by the suiseki. Care should be taken to plant the main bonsai off-center, that is, either to the left or to the right of the suiseki’s midpoint (see Figs. 97-100). It is also important not to choose a bonsai that is the same height as the suiseki.
When properly positioned, the suiseki and bonsai will form a unified whole, appearing harmoniously bonded (Fig. 110). If set correctly, neither the bonsai trunk nor the suiseki will interfere with a clear view of the other. The trunk of the bonsai will generally not jut out from behind the suiseki. Ideally, the base of the bonsai trunk will be visible from the viewing side, especially when only a single bonsai is used. The bonsai’s foliage should be trimmed to cover, at most, only a small part—preferably the weakest feature—of the stone. To show stability, at least some roots should be trained down the front side of the stone. After the planting is completed, the stone should be placed slightly off-center toward the back of the tray.
Method
The circulation of air in the workplace should be minimized, since an airflow will quickly dehydrate roots, which should always be kept moist. All materials—container, suiseki, bonsai, grasses, moss, potting soil, anchoring wire, and tools—should be gathered together before planting begins. Suiseki found near the seashore need to be soaked in fresh water for several months to remove the salt; otherwise the salt may damage or kill the plants (the only exceptions being plants that grow near the seashore, such as buttonwood). In addition to the items listed above, a quantity of peat muck should be prepared. The peat muck consists of finely sifted peat humus (screen-mesh 35 lines per inch), or, if available, finely sifted adobe mixed with 10 to 20 percent peat. It must be kneaded with water until it is sticky and the consistency of dough.
At the point on the stone where the tree is to be planted, a loop of copper wire (no. 20 Birmingham gauge) approximately 8 inches in length is fastened. The wire can be attached to the suiseki with fast-setting hydraulic cement or waterproof (marine) epoxy glue. In the United States and Canada several types of suitable water-stop cements and waterproof glues are commercially available. Alternatively, the wire can be wrapped around a small lead plug or sinker, which is then driven into a rock crevice with a chisel or punch. Drilling or chiseling a hole for the lead plug is generally not recommended, since this will permanently disfigure the suiseki. If the stone is lightweight and soft, it is also possible to hammer a short galvanized nail into the stone, wrapping the copper wire around the head of the nail.
The next step is to remove the soil carefully from the tree roots, either by loosening the soil with bamboo chopsticks or by washing. Until the tree is actually planted, the roots should be wrapped in wet newspaper or plastic held in place with a rubber band. In contrast to ordinary bonsai potting-techniques, the roots of the tree are not pruned.
A thin layer of peat muck is then smeared onto the stone where the roots of the tree are to be planted. The roots are carefully placed on the sticky peat and are laid in accordance with the aesthetic design of the planting. The most attractive crevices or cavities should not be filled with peat or roots, as such features enhance the beauty of the suiseki. The roots should then be covered with a layer of peat muck and tied down with the wires. After snipping off excess wire, the peat is firmly pressed down—with chopsticks or by hand—and molded to harmonize with the contours of the stone. Additional plants, if any, can be added in the same way.
The peat is then covered with pieces of live moss that have been dipped into water. If needed, the moss can be pinned in place either with U-shaped lengths of copper wire, or with natural twine wound around the stone, or with cheesecloth. When twine is used, care should be taken not to tie it so tightly that it cuts into the roots. The natural twine does not need to be removed, since it will disintegrate on its own. The rock planting should then be gently watered through repeated spraying.
Procedures for handling bonsai roots differ for the clinging-to-a-rock style and for the root-over-rock style. In the former style, the roots are curled up inside the peat. The attached peat can easily fall off if disturbed, and the suiseki should be handled only where the bare rock is exposed or from the bottom. Since air is constantly circulating around the roots, regular soil changes are not needed. The bonsai should be removed from the stone only when tree growth upsets the balance of the arrangement. In root-over-rock style, the long roots are led down over the stone and distributed under and around the stone’s base. If the roots are not long enough, a different suiseki may be needed. Alternatively, root growth can be encouraged by planting the bonsai in a deep container. For maximum root growth, the roots should not be pruned while the plant is in the container. A substitute method for promoting root growth is to partially bury the suiseki and bonsai together in a deep container filled with soil. After approximately two years, the roots will be long enough for the arrangement to be replanted in a suitable tray.
Prior to laying the roots in the root-over-rock style, peat muck should be worked into the stone’s less attractive channels and crevices. The roots are then covered with peat muck and anchored to the stone with wire ties. If the ultimate intention is to develop and eventually expose root bark, the peat should be gradually removed after the root is heavy or mature enough to endure direct exposure to the air. This usually takes at least two years. Once the roots take hold, it will be extremely difficult to remove the bonsai from the suiseki.
After the roots are in place, the tray should be filled three-quarters high with bonsai potting-soil. The suiseki is set in the tray slightly toward the back and to one side, and should appear stable and deeply buried. Additional soil is then added, filling the tray. As with ordinary bonsai, soil is worked into the roots with chopsticks.
Care should be taken not to press the soil down too hard, as this inhibits air circulation around the roots. Excess soil is then brushed off, and a fine layer of soil, fresh or dried and powdered moss, small ferns, grasses, or other delicate vegetation is added. To create an illusion of water, fine gravel or sand can be used to supplement or substitute for the moss and vegetation.
Arrangements in either the root-over-rock style or clinging-to-a-rock style need special care because the roots have been bared and the trees have been subjected to considerable stress. Especially during the first few weeks, the plants need to be kept moist and must not be exposed to direct sun, heavy rain, or strong wind. All parts of the arrangement need to be watered using a sprayer. Until new growth begins, it is often wise to keep the rock planting under a plastic tent. Fertilizer applications should be kept to a minimum, since a generously fertilized rock planting will grow too quickly. In a short time, rapid growth will throw the arrangement off balance.
In a shallow tray filled with soil, the tray landscape artist arranges suiseki, bonsai, and other materials to suggest a scene from nature. The range of what might be created is limitless. The landscape can be made in the form of snow-capped peaks towering over valleys and forests, a quiet lake set deep in the mountains, a wild rocky coastline, a volcanic island with waterfalls and peaceful lagoons, a windblown tree perched high on a plateau, a desert butte in a pastel landscape, or a chain of rolling hills dotted with meadows and fields (Figs. 114-116, 123). For inspiration, the artist will sometimes refer to antique prints or drawings of classical tray landscapes (Fig. 102).
Selecting appropriate suiseki
Virtually any type of stone can be used in a tray landscape; however, suiseki with white markings that suggest water (such as waterfalls, cascading streams, or waves) are especially prized. If the design calls for a large number of stones, ordinary stones can be used to supplement the suiseki, especially if weaknesses in these stones are concealed with soil or groundcover plants. As with rock plantings, suiseki and other stones that are collected near salt water need to be thoroughly soaked in fresh water before being used. To add interest to the arrangement, the suiseki should vary in height and size; however, for unity and harmony the suiseki should have the same general texture, mineral composition, and color.
Fig. 102. Early nineteenth-century Japanese woodblock print showing tray-landscape design based on Chinese models.
When the tray landscape is especially large, the weight of the suiseki and other materials can be prohibitive. Under these conditions some tray-landscape artists prefer to use well-formed lightweight stones, such as sandstone, lava rock, or soft limestone (Fig. 103). However, many Japanese tray-landscape artists do not recommend such stones, since the texture is not appreciated and the stones cannot be expected to last for more than fifty years before breaking up.
Selecting appropriate bonsai
Almost any species of bonsai can be used in a tray landscape, but not always in the same arrangement. The only bonsai that are not appropriate are those with overly large needles, leaves, fruits, or flowers, such as podocarpus, avocado, dogwood, lemon, and hibiscus. These bonsai will generally appear out of proportion. For best effect, the bonsai should be trained in advance and should vary in size and thickness. Ideally, the bonsai should be a mature tree with a shallow root system. It is not important, however, that the bonsai be fully grown, since defects in the bonsai are relatively easy to conceal.
Fig. 103. Lightweight stones for use in tray landscapes or rock plantings being aged in an outdoor water basin. Place of origin: United States (New York).
Many tray-landscape artists prefer to use evergreen trees, especially pine, juniper, azalea, dwarf box, and spruce because their appearance remains fairly constant all year round. Other highly recommended outdoor species are cryptomeria, bald cypress, larch, cotoneaster, oak, elm, hornbeam, beech, zelkova, spirea, Japanese yew, various flowering quince, fir, cedar, and cypress. Dwarf lilac and miniature rose have also been used with great success. Recommended indoor species are Fukien (Fujian) tea, dwarf gardenia, serissa, orange jasmine, fig, dwarf star-jasmine, malpighia, dwarf myrtle, olive, pomegranate, and Norfolk Island pine.
The mixing of different species in a single tray landscape can at times produce an overly busy appearance. Many tray-landscape artists therefore prefer to use only one species, but this is not a hard-and-fast rule. The important point to keep in mind is that trees of the same species should be grouped together rather than spread randomly throughout the landscape. Also, plants with radically different repotting time-intervals or soil and water requirements—such as indoor and outdoor trees or alpine trees and cactus—should not be planted in the same tray landscape. Similarly, trees with roots that grow at different rates should not be combined, since the roots of the faster growing plant will dominate the landscape.
Selecting other plant material
Ground-cover plants with strong roots and small leaves that grow close to the ground can effectively be used in tray landscapes to accent the suiseki or bonsai. To survive, they should be hardy and capable of thriving in the shade. Recommended outdoor varieties of ground cover are dwarf saxifraga, fern, bluet, dwarf violet, dwarf horsetail, and various succulents. For tray landscapes that are to be kept indoors, dwarf bamboo, dwarf sweet-rush, and baby’s tears are highly recommended.
Mosses and lichens can also enhance the beauty of virtually any tray landscape. Mosses do not, however, grow well indoors. Besides ordinary green moss, several varieties are recommended for their luxuriant softness and water-retention properties, including pink earth lichen, red lichen, silver lichen, spongy green moss, and long green moss (Cryptomeria moss). It is best to avoid liverwort, since this type of plant grows vigorously and will form a thick mat that will not allow moisture through to the soil. Moss can easily be collected, since it grows nearly everywhere. The best time to gather moss is immediately after a rainstorm. It should be lifted with a knife or spatula and temporarily stored between layers of dry newspaper. After unwrapping, the moss should be spread out immediately in one layer and exposed to the air.
Design
Tray landscapes are generally more difficult to create than rock plantings and individual bonsai. The artist must be able to work with the individual subjects and be able to balance and interrelate a large array of shapes, textures, colors, and spaces. As a guide, the principles of tray-landscape design described below can be helpful. These principles are not, however, absolute rules: some of the most striking tray-landscape designs seem deliberately to violate them.
1. EMPHASIS: Emphasis means focusing more attention on the most important elements and less attention on elements of lesser consequence. Many first attempts at tray-landscape design suffer from a lack of appropriate emphasis and precedence. Either everything has the same degree of unimportance or, at the opposite extreme, the landscape has too many significant elements simultaneously competing for attention. By comparison, a well-designed landscape focuses the attention of the viewer on only one feature of the landscape; this can be a single object or a closely integrated group of objects. Tray landscapes of this kind result neither in boredom nor overstimulation. The viewer’s attention is held and then relaxed.
The first step in designing the tray landscape is to evaluate the visual impact of each element on the viewer. A large-sized suiseki or bonsai commands respect. Objects that are brightly colored, such as flowering bonsai, or that are characterized by strong contrasts also have strong visual impact. A highly detailed suiseki or bonsai arouses interest, while anything unusual or unexpected assumes greater importance. In theory and practice, the visual impact of a medium-sized bonsai with bright flowers is greater than that of a large gray suiseki.
In creating a pattern of emphasis, the terms “focal point,” “subdominant element,” and “subordinate element” are often used. The focal point of the tray landscape, or major point of interest, should be the landscape feature with the strongest visual impact. A tray landscape should have only one focal point. If two landscape features are approximately equal in their visual impact, one should be eliminated. Landscape elements with less visual impact should be used as subdominant elements, and landscape elements with the least visual impact should be used as subordinate elements.
In line with this terminology, the tray landscape shown in Figure 114 might be analyzed in the following way: the focal point is the tall Waterfall stone covered with small plantings; the subdominant elements are the Coastal rock stone and the bonsai planted in the central section; and the subordinate elements are the stream, ground cover, and smaller stones and plants. A more detailed analysis will clarify how these different levels of emphasis are created. Because the Waterfall stone is massive and sits high, overlooking the landscape, it is the focal point of the composition, immediately drawing the eye of the viewer. At the next level, the bonsai and the Coastal rock stone in the center section, sitting squarely in the middle of the landscape, stand out and assume significance. In turn, the stream, grass, small stones, and vegetation, as part of the background, take on their accustomed roles as subordinate elements.
Other materials and designs could lead to different patterns of emphasis. If needed, the focal point can be given greater emphasis through the use of accent plants and ground cover. The plants should be tightly grouped and planted in such a way that they accentuate the major point of interest.
For maximum effect, the focal point in a tray landscape is nearly always placed off-center. It generally lies about one-third the distance from the edge of the tray and slightly behind an imaginary horizontal line running through the middle of the tray. Occasionally it will lie near the left or right edge of the tray.
2. BALANCE: In Chapter 2 it was noted that the balance of a suiseki is created by the dynamic interplay and equilibrium of several opposite yet complementary characteristics of the stone. The balance of a tray landscape is similarly determined by the interplay and balance of opposite yet complementary aspects of the scene: high and low, large and small, soft and hard, dry and wet, light and dark, open and closed, hidden and explicit, simple and detailed, interrupted and continuous, smooth and rough, thick and thin, sparse and dense, empty and full, vertical and horizontal, convex and concave, straight and curved, delicate and massive, dynamic and quiet. The effect of a tray landscape that is designed in this manner is markedly different from a symmetrical landscape, where each feature of the scene is echoed by an identical feature. The balance of opposing yet complementary features calls to mind the variety, rhythms, irregularity, asymmetry, and wildness of nature; it also suggests vigor, movement, spontaneity, and informality. Less obvious than symmetrical balance, it challenges the viewer to discover how the equilibrium is achieved.
Creating balance is made all the more challenging by the growth of plants and by changing light conditions. As trunks and branches become thicker and larger, or as the bonsai lose their leaves in winter, the balance will change and the landscape will be thrown out of proportion. The light that shines on a tray landscape is also changing, not only with the time of the day but also with the changing seasons and weather conditions. Only within small limits can outdoor light be controlled, yet it can affect a tray landscape drastically. To illustrate, a suiseki with subtle colors can be readily appreciated in moderately bright light, but the colors are almost obscured in poor lighting conditions. In view of these inevitable changes, many of them beyond the artist’s control, there are two alternatives: the artist can design the landscape so that it is strong enough not to be diminished by these changes, or can adapt the landscape to changing conditions, redesigning or repositioning landscape elements as necessary.
Fig. 104. An asymmetrical triangular arrangement of three stones copied from the original seventeenth-century edition of Chieh-tzu Yüan Hua-chuan (The Mustard-Seed Garden), a Chinese painters’ manual.
One of the principal devices used in creating balance, and in designing the landscape as a whole, is the asymmetrical triangle. In virtually all tray landscapes having more than two elements, every significant element occupies at least one corner of an asymmetrical triangle. Figure 104 shows a typical asymmetrical composition of three stones. This particular composition, traditionally known as a sanzon, or Buddhist triad arrangement, has the tallest stone placed centrally with two smaller stones of unequal size set on either side for balance. Two even smaller stones are occasionally placed at the front and back of the triangle to provide additional balance and depth.
Groups of elements can also be arranged to form an asymmetrical triangle. In some tray landscapes, a grove of trees—itself asymmetrically arranged—functions as one corner of an asymmetrical triangle, with other sections of the landscape serving as the other two corners (see Fig. 114). In more complex designs, one corner of the asymmetrical triangle is sometimes left empty, to be filled in by the imagination of the viewer. A tray-landscape artist may also use one element in a triangular grouping as an element in another triangular grouping, resulting in a pattern of interlocking asymmetrical triangles. These triangles produce a landscape that is harmonious and balanced from every angle.
The shapes of the asymmetrical triangles are also an important factor in determining the formality of the overall design. Triangular forms that are nearly, though not actually, equilateral or isosceles generally give the landscape a more formal feeling. By comparison, triangular forms that are more obtuse or scalene generally give the landscape a more informal feeling.
In laying out a balanced design the various landscape elements should not form straight lines consisting of three elements arranged in a row, in a column, or along a diagonal. Also, various landscape elements should not form straight lines that parallel the edge of the container, nor should they form symmetrical geometric shapes, such as circles, squares, and equilateral triangles.
Tray landscapes containing a large amount of material can sometimes create special balancing and design problems. To simplify the task, some artists divide the tray into nine equal areas. In the occupied spaces, the various elements are arranged in groups of two, three, or five. Larger groups are broken down into clusters of two and three elements. If there is not enough material to fill out a suiseki or bonsai group, the problem is often solved through the strategic placement of ground cover, vegetation, and small stones.
3. RHYTHM, VARIETY, AND CONTRAST: These qualities are closely related to balance. They are achieved by systematically increasing or decreasing various features or aspects of the landscape, such as the textures, heights, and spacing of the bonsai and suiseki.
Rhythm, variety, and contrast contribute to the beauty of a tray landscape in several ways. First, the landscape gains both interest and harmony. Second, the tray landscape becomes dynamic and animated by the implied movement and direction that rhythm, variety, and contrast produce. Finally, the unique chararacter of the landscape is at least partially determined by the way the various rhythms are contrasted, linked, and organized.
In the finest tray landscapes there is a subtle mutual dependence and interrelationship between the various aspects, not just contrast and variety. Each suiseki and bonsai responds to the invisible lines and curves projected across intervening spaces by other elements in the landscape, and each element receives added life through these linkages and interrelationships. Using Figure 114 to illustrate the point, the Waterfall stone set on the left side and the Coastal rock stone set in the center of the tray are connected by an imaginary line extending from the tip of the cascading bonsai, planted on the top of the Waterfall stone, to the tips of the bonsai planted on top of the Coastal rock stone.
In traditional Japanese designs, the rhythms of the landscape typically flow from left to right. A tray-landscape artist might design a river, for example, to flow in a left-to-right direction, with its source (possibly a Waterfall stone) set on the left side of the tray (see Fig. 113).
Rhythm, variety, and contrast in a tray landscape are exemplified by the sequence of curves made by a winding road or river, or by a progression of low points and high points as the eye moves across or through a landscape. To keep from hindering this movement, some empty space is often left at the front and at the ends of the tray. Unless the object is the focal point of the tray landscape, subjects that are tall or sharply vertical are generally not positioned near the edge of the tray, as this may force the viewer’s eye movement to come to an abrupt halt. Consistent with the principles already described, suiseki and bonsai of the same height or width are generally not positioned next to one another, nor should equal amounts of space be left between the various elements.
4. PERSPECTIVE : A tray landscape should convey to the viewer an illusion of depth. To achieve this, it is important that the rules of perspective be observed in designing all features of the landscape. Since objects become smaller, less detailed, and softer in color as they recede into the distance, the largest, the most highly detailed, and the darkest suiseki and bonsai are often placed nearer to the viewer; smaller, less detailed, and softer colored materials are placed in the background. The illusion that parallel lines, such as those formed by trees bordering a long straight road, come closer together as they recede into the distance can also be exploited in creating perspective.
The design of a river in a tray landscape can be used to illustrate how these rules of perspective are applied in practice. First, perspective is added by placing the widest point of the river in the foreground and the narrowest point in the distance (see Figs. 114, 116). To enhance the effect, the darkest and largest sand particles, tones, and plants should be placed in the foreground, with the lightest and smallest placed in the background. Second, since a river that runs in a straight line lacks depth, it should be made to widen as it slowly meanders through the landscape following a rhythmic and sinuous pattern. Third, the illusion of depth and perspective, as well as a sense of mystery, is heightened by only suggesting or by concealing the source of the river. The river can, for example, be made to issue from behind and between two cliffs, or from behind an overhanging tree or bush. Depth and mystery can be further enhanced by having the river or road temporarily disappear, perhaps into a forest or behind a mountain (see Fig. 113).
The four major principles of tray-landscape design just described are not always applied self-consciously: more often they are noted only when they are violated. Once the principles are understood and mastered, it will be easier for the beginner to comprehend what needs to be improved or corrected. By studying landscape designs that have worked in the past, the beginner can gradually develop a more refined sense of design.
Methods
All materials for the tray landscape should be assembled in advance: suiseki, ordinary stones, bonsai, grasses, moss, other plant material, peat muck, soil, mesh screening, wire, tools, and the tray (Figs. 117-122). Additional plants and stones should be kept on hand, since additions and substitutions are often needed. Before being planted, the bonsai should be trimmed, wired, and pruned into its basic shape; however, final trimming, wiring, and pruning should be done only after all materials in the arrangement are in place.
It is important for the tray to have drainage holes in the bottom that are at least ½ inch in diameter. After covering these holes with thin plastic or non-corrosive screening, the tray is filled one-half to three-quarters full with coarse bottom soil. Working from the focal point, the suiseki and other stones are arranged by imbedding them firmly on a pad of peat muck. The advantage of using peat is that the height and slant of the stones can be varied. The peat also acts as a base for an unstable stone. If the stone refuses to stay in place or seems wobbly, it can be further stabilized by bracing it against several smaller stones glued to its base with waterproof quick-drying cement.
Bonsai are usually planted in the soil or on a pad of peat muck after the suiseki are in place, unless the bonsai will be the focal point of the arrangement. If the bonsai are planted in a group, branches from interior trees should not extend beyond the trunks of trees forming the outer edge of the group. The height and slant of the bonsai can be adjusted by varying the height of the peat or soil. If a bonsai will not stay in position, it can be secured with copper wires drawn through the drainage holes.
Before proceeding to the next step, the landscape should be reviewed for any bonsai or suiseki that are superfluous. Simplicity is the key to a successful design: a tray landscape is completed only after nothing more can be removed without upsetting the balance. After all bonsai and suiseki are in place, potting soil can be added. The soil should be worked into the roots with chopsticks, making sure that all air pockets are eliminated. Soil and peat muck should also be worked under the suiseki, making sure the undersides of all suiseki are covered; otherwise, the stones will appear unstable.
After brushing off excess soil, a small amount of peat muck can be molded and contoured to form hills and valleys. Care should be taken, however, not to use too much, as excessive amounts may disturb drainage. In shaping the peat, at least some parts of the landscape should be kept level. Such level areas allow the eye to rest, suggesting a place where a weary traveler might comfortably sit down or camp.
Vegetation and moss can then be added. Tray landscapes that are to be kept outdoors should be covered with moss of varying texture and color. The moss should not, however, completely blanket the surface, as this will deprive the roots of air. To promote drainage, the amount of soil originally adhering to the underside of the moss should be less than 1/16 inch thick. Excess soil can be scraped away with chopsticks or pointed tweezers before the moss is laid.
Ground cover, including baby’s tears, can be used as a substitute for moss if the tray landscape is to be kept indoors. As baby’s tears grow rapidly, regular trimming of top growth will be necessary to keep the plant under control.
After the arrangement is finished, it should be thoroughly watered, both from above, using a watering can or sprayer, and from below, by setting it in a container filled with water. If sand is used, it should be added subsequent to the watering. It should be off-white, gray, or beige in color, since bright white sand is often too striking and will detract from the rest of the composition. The sand should also be relatively coarse, or it will scatter or wash away after several waterings.
As with any potted bonsai, the soil will need to be changed periodically. The tray landscape should be transplanted carefully, since the roots may have grown together or may have become attached to stones. It is usually best not to separate these roots from one another or from the stones. If the attached roots, trees, and stones occupy less than about one square foot, they should be transplanted as a single unit.
KETO-BONKEI, BONSEKI, AND HAKO-NIWA
Apart from bonsai, suiseki is closely related to three other art forms that use miniature landscape stones: keto-bonkei, bonseki, and hako-niwa.
Keto-bonkei
Keto-bonkei (lit.: keto, peat-clay, bonkei, tray landscape) was established as a new school of Japanese tray-landscape design in 1887. The characteristic that distinguishes keto-bonkei from traditional bonkei is the extensive use of keto, a dark brown peatclay formed from decayed vegetable matter and silt. The keto, together with suiseki, ordinary stones, small pebbles, natural or artificial plant materials, moss, soil, gravel, and sand, is used to form major elements in the landscape, including mountains, hills, rocks, and fields (Fig. 137). The keto is typically coated with colored liquid-clay and can be expected to last for about one month before disintegrating. The landscape is then reconstructed or the materials are recycled.
Keto-bonkei tools include metal spatulas for modeling the keto, brushes for smoothing surfaces and for cleaning away debris, small sieves and spoons for applying sand, syringes for removing excess water, a sprayer for watering the completed landscape, pincers, and a specially designed wooden worktable. The shape of the tray is typically oblong or oval, and its size should fall within the following range of dimensions: 12 to 26 inches long, usually 16 to 18 inches; 6 to 18 inches wide, usually 10 to 12 inches; and ¾ to 3 inches deep, usually ¾ to 1 inch. Keto-bonkei trays have no drainage holes and are made of metal, porcelain, pottery, concrete, or, more rarely, well-seasoned wood with a waterproof lining (metal or lacquer). Rivers, streams, waterfalls, lakes, seas, and waves are represented in the tray by various grades of sand, to which blue pigment is sometimes added. Real plants—sometimes with their roots removed—and artifical plants are also used to create scenery, as are miniature farmhouses, pagodas, shrines, bridges, and figurines representing humans and animals. The most common keto-bonkei motifs are mountain or seaside locations noted for their scenic beauty. For subject matter, many keto-bonkei artists use traditional copybooks that contain prints or drawings of landscapes and seascapes.
Fig. 105. Mountain stone set in a suiban filled with sand. The use of pure-white sand is a radical departure from traditional practice. The sand is intended to represent drifting snow and enhances the power of the stone to suggest a natural scene such as that depicted in Figure 106.
Fig. 106. View of a snow-covered alpine mountain.
Fig. 107. Island stone with a miniature sailboat, an unobtrusive accessory which enhances the suggestion of an island.
Fig. 108. Distant mountain stone informally displayed with a planter containing grasses. Each element in this harmonious asymmetrical arrangement reinforces the seasonal theme of the display: a peaceful summer day in the country.
Fig. 109. Multiple-trunk style. Bonsai species: Fukien (Fujian) tea.
Fig. 110. Harmonious bonding of a suiseki (Coastal rock stone) and a bonsai (Japanese common maple). To show stability, some of the roots have been trained down the front side of the stone.
Fig. 113. Tray landscape in three sections. Entitled “American Fantasy,” this bonkei was created by Yuji Yoshimura in 1981. It depicts a river running from its source at the waterfall through various types of terrain. Length of display. 6½ feet (2 m.). Width: 2 feet (0.6 m.). Depth of wooden container: 2 inches (5 cm.). For additional detail, see Figures 114-116.
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Fig. 111. Rock planting in the root-over-rock style: Japanese elm on Shelter stone. The miniature house enhances the overall suggestiveness.
Fig. 112. Rock planting in the clinging-to-a-rock style: Fukien (Fujian) tea and grasses on Near-view mountain stone. The miniature bird accessory enhances the suggestiveness of the display.
Fig. 114. Left-hand section of the tray landscape “American Fantasy,” suggesting rugged mountains. From both an aerial and frontal view, the groups are arranged to form an asymmetrical triangle. For enhanced perspective, the stream narrows and disappears briefly as it meanders from the front of the tray to the back. Length of display: 2½ feet (0.8 m.). Width: 2 feet (0.6 m.).
Fig. 115. Center section of “American Fantasy,” suggesting verdant hills. Length of display: 2½ feet (0.8 m.). Width: 2 feet (0.6 m.).
Fig. 116. Right-hand section of “American Fantasy.” For added depth, the “water” is wider in the foreground and narrower in the distance. Length of display: 1½ feet (0.5 m.). Width: 2 feet (0.6 m.).
Fig. 117. Plant materials used for the tray-landscape section in Figure 114: procumbens juniper, dwarf Sawara cypress, Kingsville box, dwarf azalea, dwarf cranberry, Sargent juniper, serissa, bean fern, golden fern, mosses, and lichens.
Fig. 121. Plant materials used for the tray-landscape section shown in Figure 116: trident maple, bald cypress, and grasses.
Fig. 122. Stones used for the tray-landscape section shown in Figure 116.
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Fig. 118. Stones used for the tray-landscape section shown in Figure 114.
Fig. 119. Plant materials used in the tray-landscape section shown in Figure 115: Sargent juniper, serissa, dwarf pieris, dwarf needle-juniper, procumbens juniper, dwarf cryptomeria, trident maple, sedum, dwarf saxifraga, dwarf veronica, dwarf violet, dwarf mint, golden fern, dwarf horsetail, mosses, lichens, and grasses.
Fig. 120. Stones used for the tray-landscape section shown in Figure 115.
Fig. 123. A tray landscape created in China suggesting a rocky coast.
Fig. 124. Distant mountain stone, one of six suiseki in the collection of the U.S. National Arboretum. Height: approx. 5½ inches (14 cm.). Place of origin: Japan (Ibigawa, Gifu). (The well-carved dai would be more refined if the legs were spaced more irregularly.)
Fig. 125. View of the Japan Alps. Refer to Figure 142.
Fig. 126. Distant mountain stone suggesting a glacier. Height: approx. 3 inches (8 cm.). Place of origin: United States (California).
Fig. 127. View of a desert formation in the American Southwest.
Fig. 128. Near-view mountain stone suggesting a desert butte. Height: approx. 10 inches (25 cm.). Place of origin: United States (California).
Fig. 129. Near-view mountain stone suggesting two desert pinnacles. Compare with Figure 127. Height: approx. 7 inches (18 cm.). Place of origin: United States (California).
Fig. 130. Mountain stone suggesting a tall, sharp-pointed peak. Place of origin: Taiwan.
Fig. 131. Object stone suggesting an ostrich egg or cantaloupe. Height: approx. 5 inches (13 cm.). Place of origin: United States (Maine).
Fig. 132. Distant mountain stone suggesting a single-peaked, snow-capped mountain. Place of origin: United States (Georgia).
Fig. 133. Near-view mountain stone with deep indentations suggesting ravines and gorges. Height: approx. 5 inches (13 cm.). Place of origin: United States (California).
Fig. 134. Thread-waterfall stone. Height: approx. 6 inches (15 cm.). Place of origin: United States (Washington).
Fig. 135. Object stone suggesting an animal or bird. Place of origin: United States (California).
Fig. 136. Pattern stone suggesting a tree perched on a rocky promontory.
Height: approx. 6 inches (15 cm.). Place of origin: United States (California).
Fig. 137. An example of a keto-bonkei.
Bonseki
Bonseki (lit.: bon, tray, seki, stone or stones) is one of the original terms for suiseki. In modern usage the term refers specifically to a landscape scene created by sifting and arranging white sand onto a black-lacquered tray using spoons, small sieves, tiny brooms, thin rectangular boards, cutting dies, chopsticks, and feathers (Figs. 138-141). The major features of the landscape, including mountains, hills, and islands, are represented by sand arranged in intricate patterns or by a black or dark gray suiseki. In some bonseki schools, green, white, tan, and red sand, pebbles, and suiseki are used to indicate the various seasons. The suiseki are generally 6 to 9 inches wide at the base, 4 to 7 inches high, and sawed flat at the bottom for stability.
Rivers, oceans, lakes, waves, clouds, and waterfalls are also represented by sand. Bonseki artists of the Hosokawa school, one of the oldest bonseki schools in Japan, classify the pure-white sand into nine types according to the size of the grain (see Fig. 141).
Fig 138, 139. Examples of bonseki.
Other elements in the landscape, including small rocks, villages, and forests, are often represented by a mass of sand or pebbles. In contrast to keto-bonkei, neither soil nor plants are used.
In the Hosokawa school, trays are made of lacquered wood and have a low rim, ½ inch to 2 inches high, or no rim at all. The tray or board is ½ to 36 inches long, usually about 18 inches; 6 to 12 inches wide, usually about 9 inches; and is typically rectangular or oval in shape. Sometimes the tray will be in the shape of a fan or a leaf. As in keto-bonkei, tiny bridges, boats, pagodas, temple gates, houses, and figurines (animal and human), often made of bronze, copper, or ivory, are occasionally added to the arrangement.
Bonseki motifs are quite varied, including landscapes and seascapes, seasonal representations, and noted places of scenic charm or historic interest. The color scheme is kept quite simple and elegant—usually only black (the tray and stones) and white (the sand). Virtually all of the materials can be recycled over and over again. Used sand is sifted, classified, and stored away, together with tools and other materials, in a small chest of drawers (see Fig. 141).
Fig. 140. Tools and materials used in creating a bonseki.
Fig. 141. A chest of drawers containing bonseki materials, and a tray showing different types of sand classified according to the size of grain.
Hako-niwa
Much older than either keto-bonkei or bonseki is hako-niwa (lit.: hako, container or box; niwa, garden). Hako-niwa is the art of creating a miniature garden in virtually any kind of container using a variety of natural and artificial materials. Modern hako-niwa tend to be highly realistic. A large one may occupy an entire small backyard, and will often replicate in miniature an actual Japanese garden, including hills (represented by suiseki), miniature ponds (stocked with small fish), stone lanterns, water basins, wooden bridges, and real or artificial plants.
Footnote
8 The bonsai literature sometimes uses the term saikei (lit., sai, to plant; kei, scenery)—also translated as “tray landscape”—rather than bonkei. While saikei is currently popular among Western enthusiasts, in this book we use the original and more traditional term bonkei. The word saikei was coined in 1963 by the tray-landscape artist and author Toshio Kawamoto, and is a registered name belonging to him.