Types of Business Writing

This section provides specific guidance for different genres of business writing. It doesn’t aim to be comprehensive. Rather, I’ve used input from the business writing survey I conducted for this book to confirm the kinds of things businesspeople write most often, and we’ll focus on those. Here you’ll find guidance on daily writing tasks, like e-mails and instant messages, as well as bigger tasks, like presentations and press releases. For all of them, you’ll find prompts about how to apply some or all of the Seven Steps as you write and refine.

THE BASICS

E-mail

“Bad e-mail is the bane of my life.”

—SURVEY RESPONDENT

Ask businesspeople what they do for a living, and you’ll get all kinds of answers. Ask them what they do all day, and they’re likely say, “Deal with e-mail.” For most of us, e-mailing at work is as common as breathing. But it shouldn’t be as thoughtless.

DO YOU REALLY WANT TO SEND AN E-MAIL?

It’s easy to fire off an e-mail, but it’s not always the right thing to do. Before you write, consider whether you really should (see the decision tree in “To Write or Not to Write” here). In some situations, you should definitely choose not to send an e-mail.

Don’t send an e-mail when a phone call would work better. Endless rounds of e-mails to clarify, explain, and enlarge can often be prevented if you just pick up the phone.

Don’t fire off an e-mail when you’re angry. Give yourself time to cool off, so you don’t send something you’ll regret later.

Speaking of regret, if there’s anything in your e-mail—anything at all—that might hurt you or your organization, don’t do it. If you know or suspect that someone in your organization has done something illegal, unethical, unwise, or even just embarrassing, don’t e-mail about it. E-mail is not private. It’s discoverable in legal proceedings. Too many businesspeople are still far too careless about what they put in writing, and we see headlines about people incriminating themselves and their organizations in e-mails. There’s no excuse. If you’re not comfortable with reading about it on the front page of the New York Times, don’t put it in writing. Pick up the phone instead, or discuss the issue face-to-face.

MAKE SURE YOUR PURPOSE IS CLEAR

If I could offer only one piece of advice for e-mails, this would be it: make sure your reader knows why you’re writing. How many times have you plowed through a long e-mail trying to figure out what you’re supposed to do with it? How many times have you given up on a long e-mail before you’ve fully understood what it’s about? You don’t want your message on the receiving end of this kind of treatment.

We’re all moving fast when we compose and read e-mails, but it will actually save you time if you stop and think for a moment. Ask yourself, “What am I asking my reader to do?” The answer might be that you want your reader to take some kind of action. Or it might be that you want your reader to understand something. Whatever the answer is, put it into one sentence, and place a version of that sentence at the top of your message. You’ll save your reader and yourself a lot of confusion and follow-up.

WRITE FOR YOUR READER

Consideration for your reader starts with your subject line, which should be concise and specific. A good subject line can help readers prioritize messages and find them later. If your message is especially important, consider putting “important” or “response needed” in the subject line. (See the box “Hints and Tips for Effective E-mails” here for more suggestions about effective subject lines.)

Think from the point of view of your reader as you plan and write your e-mail. Anticipate objections, and make it easy for your reader to reply.

START STRONG AND SPECIFIC

A recent study based on analytics derived from billions of e-mails suggests, surprisingly, that readers’ attention spans seem to be increasing. Since 2011, the average time spent on reading an e-mail has grown by nearly 7 percent. That’s the good news. The bad news is that even with this growth, the average amount of time spent on each e-mail is only eleven seconds.^*

With slightly over ten seconds of reader attention, it’s critical that you place your main point in the first three lines of your e-mail. If you count on your reader to scroll to the bottom of your message to get to the request, conclusion, or deadline, you risk losing him altogether.

GET YOUR CONTENT RIGHT

That short reader attention span also demands that you keep your message as brief as possible. Narrow down your content to the essentials, especially in an initial message. Follow-up messages can be longer, once you know that your reader is engaged.

You should limit each e-mail to one topic only. Secondary topics risk being buried at the bottom and never seen. The “one topic per e-mail” rule also makes it easier for you and your readers to search and find information in your in-boxes later.

FIX IT BEFORE YOU SEND IT

Before you send an e-mail, run though this quick checklist:

Remember that e-mail isn’t private. Don’t put anything confidential in your message. If your e-mail contains anything that could incriminate or embarrass you, your colleagues, or your organization, delete it.

Is there anyone you ought to copy? Do you really need to copy the people you are copying?

If you’re forwarding an e-mail, be sure there’s nothing in it that you shouldn’t share. Especially if you’re forwarding a long thread, it’s worthwhile scrolling down to check.

Is it clear to your reader in the first couple of lines what you are asking of her?

Have you made your message as concise as possible?

Get Your E-mails Opened and Read

“It is very frustrating when I find out that my e-mail was not read (completely), just glossed over. Then again, I do the same thing until I am ready to respond to the e-mail, and then I read it. But if no response is requested . . . or I’m not interested in the topic or discussion . . . I’ll never know if a response was expected from me, because I haven’t actually read the e-mail.”

—SURVEY RESPONDENT

No one wants to send an e-mail that gets no reply. That has happened to all of us, and most of us have been guilty of failing to respond to a message we’ve received. When you send an e-mail, your message is competing with dozens, if not hundreds, of other messages in your reader’s in-box. How do you craft a message that your reader will actually open and read?

It starts with the subject line.

Make your subject line as specific as possible.

Use the subject line to state the response required from the reader (e.g., “read only” or “response requested”).

State your request within the first three lines of your message. Your opening should include:

The context for the message and the request

The request itself

The deadline, if appropriate

The recipient’s incentive to continue to read to the bottom

Format your message for easy scanning.

If your message is more than a few lines, use bullets and short paragraphs.

Use bold to highlight deadlines and any milestones or intermediate deadlines.

Using these few simple tricks will make it easier for your reader to process and respond to your message. Over time, you’ll develop a reputation as an efficient communicator who doesn’t waste people’s time, and you’ll earn greater cooperation from your colleagues.

Hints and Tips for Effective E-mails

Patty Malenfant

In this day of short messages on Twitter and one-­sentence captions on Facebook photos, the business world would do well to follow the same communication principles when using e-mail. To capture the interest of your reader so your e-mail will be read and you’ll receive the response needed, you must communicate briefly and efficiently. Everyone’s in-box is full, and you want your e-mail to be the one that gets read.

How do you do this? You need to use the e-mail subject line to state why you are sending the e-mail and what type of response you want. By inserting short action instructions before the subject, you can let the reader know what they need to do with your e-mail. Here are some examples:

READ ONLY: This instruction lets the receiver know that the e-mail is just for their information; a response is not necessary, and no action is being requested. The receiver can hold this e-mail until a time in the near future to read it, but they do not have to act on it. Example: READ ONLY: ABC Client Accepts Proposal and Documents Being Finalized.

RESPONSE REQUIRED: This instruction is for those e-mails where the receiver needs to do more than read—they need to reply. You are waiting for their response so you can take an action on your end. Example: RESPONSE REQUIRED: ABC Client Negotiated Contract Down $250.

ACTION REQUIRED: This instruction lets the reader know that they need to do something with your e-mail beyond reading and responding—they need to take action. If you want to highlight a deadline for the action, you can add “Deadline” plus that date at the end of the subject line. Example: ACTION REQUIRED: Contract Proposal Final Approvals—Deadline July 15.

EOM: “EOM” stands for “End of Message.” You will use this when you want to send only a quick message, comparable to a text message, but you are using e-mail. There is nothing in the body of the e-mail to review or requiring a response; in fact, there is nothing in the body of the e-mail at all, since the whole message is the subject line. Example: Wrapping up call—will be 15 minutes late for lunch EOM.

Now that you have mastered the subject line of your e-mail, you need to be sure the content in the body succinctly communicates to your reader what they must know and/or do. You will have no more than three short paragraphs of two to four sentences each. Introduce the e-mail with a professional greeting and close with the same before your name and title, as appropriate for your organization.

In the first paragraph, give your reader any background information they need to know. The second paragraph follows with the challenge at hand or what is needed. Use the closing paragraph to cover any remaining questions or comments about the follow-up required.

By following these easy tips, you can now go forth and be sure that your e-mail will be the one everyone wants to read!

Patty Malenfant is a human resources leader for a Fortune 500 hospitality company in the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area.

The Etiquette of E-mail Writing

Rosanne J. Thomas

Face-to-face communication is considered the best way to build relationships and deliver important messages. But the speed, convenience, and accuracy of text-based communication now make this mode the number one choice among professionals. We have a myriad of ways to communicate via text, but in business, e-mail is still the go-to method. However, there is a lot at stake with this mode of communication. Professionals at the highest levels have suffered extreme personal, financial, and health consequences as a result of carelessly crafted, hastily sent e-mails. And, of course, e-mail lives forever. How can we protect our reputations while maximizing the benefit of e-mail communication? Here are some guidelines.

Apply the standard of “if you would not say it face-to-face, do not write it in an e-mail.” Studies show that people are much “braver” when communicating from behind a screen and that the lack of nonverbal cues often makes e-mails sound more aggressive than intended.

Direct your message properly. Double-check e-mail addresses. Do not send “Reply All” messages unless absolutely necessary. Use “BCC” (blind carbon copy) ethically, and not to mislead your primary recipient into thinking that the e-mail exchange is confidential.

Read through e-mail threads completely before responding or forwarding. Use greater formality in e-mail composition with clients, company executives, persons from other cultures, and those you do not know well. Include an appropriate salutation and closing. Make sure sentences are properly structured. Observe the rules of capitalization and punctuation.

Allow words to convey their meaning and emotion. Steer clear of emoticons and emojis in professional e-mails. Avoid using all capital letters, no capital letters, multiple exclamation points, bold typeface, bright colors, or flashing text.

Proofread all e-mails. Use but do not rely solely upon grammar-check and spell-check tools. Read e-mails aloud to be sure they reflect your intended tone.

Respond to e-mails promptly. If you cannot respond at least by the end of the day, have an “Out of Office” message automatically sent back to the recipient. This will help preserve the relationship.

Rosanne J. Thomas is the founder and president of Protocol Advisors, Inc., of Boston, Massachusetts, and the author of Excuse Me: The Survival Guide to Modern Business Etiquette (AMACOM, 2017).

Requests

Most communications in business are requests of one kind or another. Whether you’re asking for help or just for a bit of the reader’s attention, taking the time to plan and craft your request—rather than winging it—can significantly increase your chances of getting what you want and can save you time and hassle over the long run.

WHAT DO YOU WANT?

The fundamental purpose of any request—be it for assistance, information, or any other goal—is to enlist the cooperation of the reader. In order to do that, you need to be very clear about what you’re asking. This point sounds ridiculously simplistic, until you consider the number of messages you’ve received that have left you wondering, “What exactly do you want from me?” Unless your request is very straightforward, it’s worth taking a minute to clarify it in your own mind. If you’re asking for help, is it clear what kind of help you want? What, specifically, would you like the reader to do, and when?

WRITE FOR YOUR READER

Understanding your objective and stating it clearly is only half of the communication equation. The other half is understanding your reader: her potential attitude toward your request and what it might take for her to say yes. If you can anticipate her response, you can address any potential objections she might raise and motivate her to respond positively to your request.

START STRONG AND SPECIFIC

You should state your request early in your message, to orient the reader and allow her to decide whether to read your message now or wait until she can give it more time and attention.

GET YOUR CONTENT RIGHT

In addition to being clear about your request, you should be sure to provide any information your reader might need to make a decision. Include any necessary documentation related to your request. Let the reader know how you prefer to be contacted, if it’s not apparent.

Explaining the reason behind the request might help your reader respond favorably. Letting the reader know how important the request is to you can also motivate her to respond. How will you benefit if she grants your request? How might she benefit?

Your request should also include a deadline, if applicable and appropriate. Be sure your deadline is specific—asking for a response “ASAP” makes it easy for your reader to forget about your request. If you have a particularly tight deadline, explain the reason behind it. People will work harder to meet a deadline if they understand the reason for it.

CHECK IT BEFORE YOU SEND IT

Before you send off your request, check it over to make sure nothing feels wrong:

Make sure your request comes early in your message and is clearly understandable to the reader.

Use a courteous, not demanding, tone. Remember, you’re trying to gain cooperation from your reader.

Don’t take your reader or his attitude for granted, and don’t assume he’ll say yes to your request.

Remember to thank your reader.

SAMPLE E-MAIL WITH A REQUEST

To: John Mottola

Date: April 17, 2019

Subject: Can you share configuration for BBL?

Hi Jack,

I’m writing a proposal for Evergreen, and I’m wondering if you could share the details of how you configured the package for the BBL installation. I’d like to do something similar for Evergreen. I want to submit the proposal on April 26.

I looked on the CRM, but I don’t see a lot of detail there. Can you shoot me an e-mail or spend a few minutes on the phone with me?

Thank you!

Kelby

Escalated Request When a Deadline Is Approaching

When a deadline is looming and you haven’t had the response to your request you need, it’s time to escalate. An escalated request follows the same basic principles as an initial request, but it’s pared down to the essentials and it makes a special appeal to the reader.

Edit the subject line. When you send a follow-up to your request, edit the subject line to let the reader know the deadline is looming. If your original subject line was “Can you provide data for the report?,” you might edit it to say “Deadline Friday: Can you provide data for the report?” or “Reminder: Can you provide data for the report?”

Keep it short. Your follow-up request should be brief and should contain the most essential information the reader needs to carry out what’s being asked. Don’t get bogged down in details.

Acknowledge that the reader is busy.

Let the reader know why the request is important to you or to the organization.

Let the reader know why you’re asking him and not someone else—what can he do that no one else can do for you?

Restate the deadline, and explain why it’s important.

Offer to help. If there’s any way you can make it easier for the reader, offer to do so.

If appropriate, indicate that you’ll follow up again shortly, maybe with a phone call.

Be sure to say “thank you.”

SAMPLE E-MAIL WITH AN ESCALATED REQUEST

To: John Mottola

Date: April 23, 2019

Subject: Deadline Friday: Can you share configuration for BBL?

Hi Jack,

Just following up on this. I’d like to use the same configuration you used for BBL in my proposal to Evergreen, which is due on Friday the 26th. I know you’re swamped with JWB right now, but your insight here could really help us close the deal. Even just the server information would make a big difference.

I’ll give you a call tomorrow.

Thank you for your help!

Kelby

Bad News Messages

Good news messages are easy to write, but conveying bad news can be rough. The key here is to save the reader’s feelings to the greatest extent possible. That means opening with a buffer—a thank-you, if appropriate, or some kind of statement of appreciation. To avoid giving the reader false hope, though, you should transition very quickly to a diplomatic and kind statement of the bad news. If appropriate, it’s fine to express regret over the news, but not an apology. If there’s some hope of good news in the future, make sure you communicate that hope conservatively, without making a firm commitment. Close with a statement of goodwill.

Dear Erik,

Thank you for submitting the proposal for creating a task force on recruiting. You suggested some great ideas, but unfortunately we have to prioritize expanding the product line this season and we don’t have the resources right now.

I would like to return to this idea once we have the product line resolved. Let’s stay in touch about it.

Thanks again,

Mack

Instant Messages

Instant messaging or chatting is nearly as quick and easy as talking, but it isn’t talking—it’s writing, and it requires a little care. No matter what IM or chat app you’re using, these guidelines can help make your messages more productive and efficient.

IS IM THE RIGHT MEDIUM?

IM is almost too easy to use. It’s the default medium of communication for a lot of us at work, but it’s not always the most appropriate one. Before you ping a colleague, it’s a good idea to slow down long enough to ask yourself a few questions: “Do I really need this answer immediately? Is it worth interrupting my colleague to get it in this way? Would it be more efficient to save up a few questions and ask them all at once? Would it be better to let my colleague answer in his own time instead of insisting on a response now?” It’s also worth considering what kind of record, if any, you’ll need of the discussion with your colleague. Some messaging programs preserve your message history when you shut down your computer, but others don’t. So if you want an easily accessible record of your exchange, instant messaging might not be the best choice of medium.

MIND YOUR MANNERS

Respect the availability status of your colleagues, and if it’s red, don’t send a message unless it’s an absolute emergency. Your colleague might be in the middle of a Webex or videoconference and not appreciate the distraction on the screen, or she might be concentrating on finishing a task.

You also need to be aware of tone when you’re sending messages. It’s easy to slip into a very casual tone. That’s fine when you and your colleague are on the same wavelength, but take care you don’t use a super-casual tone with someone you don’t know well. Be especially careful if you have more than one chat window or channel going at once.

Remember that you’re at work. Instant messaging can be fun, but you’re not on Facebook or Instagram. Respect your colleagues’ time, and exercise restraint when sharing to group chats or channels; remember that everyone is trying to get their work done.

WATCH WHAT YOU SAY

Even when you’re pinging with good work friends, remember that instant messages are official business communications. They are not confidential. They’re the property of your company, and many companies monitor them. You’re probably cautious about cursing in the office; you should exercise the same caution when you’re messaging. One popular instant messaging program warns users: “Keep your conversations limited to what can be safely said in an elevator or a crowded restaurant.” Keep it appropriate.

USING INSTANT MESSAGING EFFICIENTLY

A few little tricks can help improve the efficiency of your instant messaging. Before you launch into a long message, ask your colleague if she’s there and available. Make your “Are you there?” message more specific by letting your colleague know what you want to ping about. Instead of “Hey, got a second?” try “Hey, got a second to review the XYZ agreement?” or “Hey, got a second to read something for me?” or “Hey, got a second to show me how to use that software?” And be frank about what you’re asking for; don’t type “qq?” if what you really want is to discuss whether or not to fire a vendor or some other large topic.

Presentations

Thirty million PowerPoint presentations are given every day throughout the world. How can you make yours memorable?

PINPOINT YOUR PURPOSE

Attention can wander during a presentation, so it’s important that you know exactly what you want to get from yours. As an exercise, try creating a one-sentence objective for the presentation, such as “By the end of the presentation, I want the audience to understand that our solution offers more tools than the competition’s does and can be customized for their needs” or “By the end of the presentation, I want x members of the audience to request an onsite demo” or “By the end of the presentation, I want to have cleared the obstacles to partnering on this project.” Try to make your objective as active as possible, in order to avoid building a presentation that’s essentially an information dump. What do you want your audience to do as a result of seeing your presentation?

WRITE FOR YOUR AUDIENCE

As you work on your slides, think from the point of view of the people who will have to look at them. What are they expecting from your presentation? What information do they need? How would you feel sitting through this presentation? How can you make the slides easy for the audience to read and ensure that they reinforce your main points? Let your understanding of your audience’s needs guide the preparation of your slides.

ORIENT YOUR AUDIENCE AT THE BEGINNING

The opening of your presentation is an especially critical moment. Presumably you have everyone’s attention at the beginning. No one has had a chance to get bored, to get distracted by their phone, or to grow worried about the work they’re not getting done because they’re sitting in this presentation. Use this moment to let your audience know what will be covered in the presentation. Insert an outline slide at the beginning, and return to it throughout the presentation to help your audience with transitions and help them pace themselves in terms of energy and attention.

GET YOUR CONTENT RIGHT

There’s a strong impulse when you’re preparing your slides to include too much content. Research has shown that people typically remember only four slides from a twenty-page deck.^† That’s not very encouraging news if you’re putting your heart and soul into an informative presentation, but from a strategic point of view, it’s good to know. Rather than packing your presentation full of facts, you’re better off choosing a few key points you want your audience to remember, and organizing the presentation around those. Think of your PowerPoint deck as a set of prompts for your performance rather than as a repository for complete information.^‡

Set up your slides as a visual aid for when you’re making a speech or presentation, not as a trove of data. When presented with a very text-heavy slide, people will typically space out or stop listening and read the slide (people can read faster than you can talk). If you want to provide detailed information to your audience, you can make and distribute a leave-behind deck that contains your entire talk. For the presentation itself, keep your slides concise and the focus on you.

USE VISUALS EFFECTIVELY

Think visually as you create your slides.^§ There’s no need to convey information only through words—think about how you can use images and graphics to get your points across. But be careful with graphs and charts: don’t present graphics that are too small or detailed for the audience to see easily or understand quickly. If you have an important chart or table that is complex, present a simplified version of it on your slide and give the audience the full version, printed on paper, to examine more closely.

IF SOMETHING FEELS WRONG, FIX IT

Proofread your slides very carefully. Noticing a typo for the first time when you’re standing in front of a group is a ghastly experience, and it makes you look bad. If possible, ask someone who is not familiar with the content to proof the presentation for you.

Allow yourself time to rehearse the presentation and revise it, even if you feel pretty comfortable about the content. Notice transitions that aren’t smooth, areas where your content seems thin, sections that drag. Rehearsing can give you more confidence and will improve your audience’s experience by helping you improve your slides.

SLIDE REVISION CHECKLIST

Choose readable fonts, and limit the number of fonts you use. Stick to a few basic, easy-to-read fonts, no more than two different fonts per slide.

Use animation and sound sparingly and only if they support the message of your presentation. If they enhance the meaning and clarity of your presentation, use them. If they compete with your content, don’t.

In bullet points, use parallel grammatical constructions to help your audience follow your ideas.

Use formatting like bold and italics sparingly and consistently. Too much of this kind of formatting can make your slides hard to read.

For sample presentations, please visit me at www.howtowriteanything.com.

Creating Visuals

Not all business communication occurs through writing—a lot occurs through visuals. In fact, words aren’t always your best tool. Sometimes data is easier to understand if it’s represented graphically. You don’t have to be a graphic designer to learn the language of visual communication.

CHOOSE THE RIGHT GRAPHIC

There are lots of graphics options for you to choose from: photos and other images, as well as different kinds of charts and graphs. The type of graphic you choose will depend on your data and the story you want to tell with it.

COLUMN CHART

A column chart lets you compare values using vertical bars.

BAR CHART

A bar chart lets you compare values using horizontal bars. The layout of a bar chart makes it better suited than a column chart for data with long labels.

STACKED BAR CHART

A stacked bar chart breaks out the components of a total number, so you can compare segments as well as totals.

LINE CHART

A line chart is used to track and compare values over time. It can show small increments of time more effectively than a bar chart can.

PIE CHART

A pie chart is a circle divided into slices, useful for showing numerical proportion.

DOT OR SCATTER PLOT

A dot or scatter plot shows data positioned on vertical and horizontal axes. It might be used to show the effect of one variable on another. In this example, a company is using a scatter plot to evaluate its competitors on two dimensions: geographic reach and scope of product offerings.

WATERFALL CHART

Waterfall charts show how the cumulative effects of different inputs contribute to a net value.

FUNNEL CHART

Funnel charts are often used in sales to show the potential revenue for each stage in the sales process. They can help you identify areas in the process where value is at greatest risk of being lost, and they can help identify an unhealthy sales funnel. In this example, the qualification process is not weeding out many prospects, which leads to many rejected proposals.

MAKE SURE YOUR WORDS AND GRAPHICS COMPLEMENT EACH OTHER

When you use words and graphics together, you need to make sure they work together in harmony and support each other. The first and most obvious rule is that the content of your words and graphics should be consistent. For example, if you’re calling out some numbers from a graphic, make sure those numbers are accurate.

Avoid repeating the content of the graphic in your prose. If you’re simply going to rehash the contents of the graphic in writing, there’s not much point in including the graphic. Instead, strategically use information from your graphics to support the arguments you’re making in prose.

Proposals

Businesses of all kinds create proposals for potential customers and ­clients—for example, to bid for work, to outline the scope of a job, or to state a price. The content of a sales proposal will vary widely, depending on the kind of business you’re in, and most businesses have a standard format they use. Check to see if your organization has a proposal template, then use these suggestions to make it as compelling as possible.

GET THE ASK CLEAR

If you write a lot of proposals, it’s tempting to go on automatic pilot, filling in the various sections with numbers and other details. That approach is probably fine a lot of the time, especially if you provide the same service or product over and over. But it’s worth mentioning here that you should pay attention to your prospective customer, and make sure your proposal reflects your understanding of their needs.

WRITE FOR YOUR READER

If you’re preparing a proposal, it’s probably at the request of someone you’ve talked to at your potential customer. Needless to say, you should consider carefully all the information your contact has given you. You should also go beyond that. Depending on the situation, it’s very likely that others in the organization will review your proposal. Who might they be, and what might they be concerned about? If your contact person is not the decision-maker, it might be worthwhile to ask who else will review the proposal.

Everyone reviewing a proposal will be concerned about cost, but don’t assume that cost is the only factor. Really think about your reader’s needs, and ensure that your proposal addresses them.

GET THE CONTENT RIGHT

Decide how you want to present estimates in your proposal. Sometimes estimates are binding. In other cases, the proposal contains a clause stating that the final cost may vary depending on a variety of circumstances. You should date your proposal and include an expiration date for the price quoted, so that you don’t bind yourself to a price forever and there’s no misunderstanding with the customer.

If there’s a risk of cost overruns, address that risk directly and outline the factors that might cause them, including unanticipated circumstances on the job or changes in the customer’s requirements.

If you feel the customer isn’t entirely sure what they want, consider providing several different estimates for different options. Some companies routinely include add-ons in proposals, which can lead to more business, but add-ons can also annoy customers if they feel they are being upsold. Any add-ons you suggest should clearly address the customer’s needs as you understand them.

CHECK IT BEFORE YOU SEND IT

If you’re using a template for your proposal or repurposing a proposal you’ve used before, have a look before you send it to make sure you’re including complete information and that you’re not inadvertently leaving in the details of previous proposals, including the names of other companies and prices for other jobs.

Also check to see that you’ve included everything, and that your numbers add up accurately. Errors can be embarrassing and sometimes costly.

For sample proposals, please visit me at www.howtowriteanything.com.

RFPs

Some organizations will prepare and circulate a Request for Proposals (RFP) in search of a vendor to do a particular job, usually for jobs of a significant size. Some organizations that use public money are mandated to use an RFP in the bidding process.

If you’re responding to an RFP, be very sure you follow its requirements exactly. Any deviation can throw you out of the running without further consideration.

A long sales proposal in response to an RFP may include the following elements:

Letter of transmittal

Title page

Executive summary

Description of current problem

Description of current method

Description of proposed method

Analytical comparison of current and proposed methods

Equipment requirements

Cost analysis

Delivery schedule

Summary of benefits

Breakdown of responsibilities

Description of vendor, including team bios

Vendor’s promotional literature

Contract

BUSINESS RELATIONSHIPS

Introductions

Providing written introductions for colleagues and associates is a vital part of business networking. A good introduction can get the dialogue started in a productive way.

Before we go any further, a note of caution: don’t make an introduction if you’re uncomfortable about doing so. An introduction is a kind of recommendation: you’re essentially saying, “This person will be worth your time to talk to.” Don’t put your reputation on the line if you have any doubts about either party.

BE CLEAR ABOUT WHAT YOU’RE ASKING

When you introduce two people, it’s your responsibility to set up the relationship. You should make it clear not just who the parties are, but why you’re making the introduction in the first place.

Often the introduction will be of more benefit to one party than the other. Perhaps someone would like to do an informational interview, asking for information about a business or an industry or seeking career advice. When that’s the case, be honest about it, and be sure you thank the party who (you hope) will provide the help.

CONSIDER BOTH OF YOUR READERS

Before you write the introduction, it’s important to get permission from both of the parties involved, especially if you feel that either might be uncomfortable or unwilling. If someone has asked you to make the introduction, be sure you understand what they’re hoping to get from the new relationship. Particularly when you’re requesting a favor from someone, ascertain that they’re willing to provide it before you put them on the spot with an introductory e-mail. Contact both parties separately to assess the level of interest and request permission to make the introduction.

START STRONG

Address both readers in your salutation. It’s usually wise to place the name of the senior or more powerful person first.

Start by orienting both readers. Say explicitly that you’re making an introduction, and explain why. Even though you’ve contacted both parties before writing the e-mail, remember that your readers don’t know each other and will need to be reminded about the reason for the introduction. Mention how you met each of the parties, if that seems relevant.

GET YOUR CONTENT RIGHT

In most cases, your introduction doesn’t have to be long. Offer a bit of information about both of the parties being introduced. In a quick e-mail, just a sentence can be enough. Suggest how this new connection might benefit each person. However, if it is clear that one party will benefit far more than the other, be straightforward about that, and thank the person who’s granting the favor. If you are introducing a recent graduate to an executive, for instance, it is clear that the introduction will likely have greater business benefit to the younger person.

If you want to provide background information about either party, consider including a bio or a link to that person’s website.

Finally, leave it up to your readers to decide on the next steps. Don’t say anything to suggest that either of your readers is obliged to go forward with a meeting. Make the introduction and allow them to determine how to proceed. Don’t offer to make arrangements for a meeting unless you’re already sure that both parties are on board and comfortable with your playing this role.

Dear Louise, dear Su,

It’s my pleasure to introduce you two. Louise, Su is the UCLA graduate I mentioned who is hoping to learn more about the analytics field—thank you for agreeing to speak with him. Su, Louise has been working for Simons for nearly twenty years and can give you the best possible guidance on the field.

I think you’ll enjoy knowing each other.

All the best,

Jill

Recommendations

Written recommendations are requested in a lot of situations: for college or graduate school, for other kinds of educational programs, for scholarships, and sometimes for employment purposes.

Think carefully if you’re asked to provide a recommendation. Writing a letter of recommendation is a serious responsibility. You should never agree to write a letter of recommendation for someone who’s unqualified, someone you don’t really know, or someone you feel uncomfortable about supporting for any reason. It’s better for you and the candidate if you say no than if you send out a lukewarm or vague recommendation. In addition, composing a good recommendation requires a significant investment of time and energy, so be sure you’re ready for the task, and give yourself plenty of time to go through several drafts.

UNDERSTAND YOUR PURPOSE AND YOUR READER

It’s easy to slip into generalities and platitudes when you’re writing a recommendation. The cure for this risk is keeping a close eye on your purpose and your reader. Find out as much as you can about the opportunity the candidate is applying for, and focus your efforts on describing the fitness of the candidate for that role.

Put yourself in your reader’s position. What will she be expecting to hear from you? What will she hope to hear? What information can you supply that will make her want to accept the applicant? What can you say to make her understand what’s special about the candidate?

START STRONG AND SPECIFIC

The opening of your recommendation is important. You should announce at the very beginning of your letter who you’re writing for, and for what purpose. Explain how you know the candidate and how long you’ve known him. State explicitly that you recommend the candidate.

Your first paragraph should express how strong your support for the candidate is. If you recommend him for the role, say so. If you offer your strongest possible support for the candidate, say that. If you cannot think of anyone better suited for the position, go ahead and state that here. Be honest about your degree of support, and don’t make the reader persevere all the way to the end of the letter to learn how strongly you feel about the candidate.

GET YOUR CONTENT RIGHT

As you think about your content, confirm that you have complete information. Be sure that you understand the opportunity the candidate is applying for. If you feel fuzzy about it, find a website that can fill in the gaps in your understanding. It’s also important that you understand what the candidate hopes to accomplish in the new program, initiative, or position. If you have questions about this, follow up with the candidate and get more details about his plans and aspirations. Get a copy of his résumé, so that your comments will be consistent with the information there.

What’s really valuable about your recommendation are your personal and professional insights into the candidate and his abilities. Your letter can testify for the candidate in a way that his résumé or class transcript cannot. What you know about the candidate, and how that information fits into the bigger picture of the opportunity, is the core of your content.

Think about the special things you can tell the reader about the candidate that the rest of his record may not demonstrate. Think about what the new environment will demand of the candidate, and provide details that indicate he’ll do well in that setting. Be specific and analytical about his qualities and accomplishments; don’t rely on vague praise.

You may have been asked some specific questions in the request for a recommendation—for instance, as part of an application packet. Make sure your letter addresses those questions directly. If you’ve been asked about the candidate’s weaknesses, don’t ignore them. If you’re grappling with a question about the candidate’s shortcomings, write about a weakness that can be overcome. Better yet, describe how the candidate is already overcoming it. Consider whether the opportunity the candidate is applying for might be the perfect setting for him to address an area of weakness, and how he might perform.

FIX IT BEFORE YOU SEND IT

It’s very likely that your first draft will be too long, and it may be unfocused. That’s to be expected. Go ahead and write everything out, then take a break from it if you can. You might have received instructions about the desired length of the letter; don’t go beyond that length, and even if there is no length restriction, don’t exceed two pages. Keeping the length under control will force you to write a tighter and more persuasive letter.

As you revise your draft, imagine how your reader might respond to what you’ve written. Try to sharpen and condense the message. Before you send off the recommendation, proofread it carefully to ensure that you’ve left no typos or other errors that might undermine your credibility.

Below is a sample letter, annotated to highlight key components.

To the Hiring Manager:

It is my great pleasure to recommend Susan McCord for employment. I supervised Susan in her job of database manager at Gibbons International for six years.^¶ We are all very sorry that Susan has decided to leave Chicago, but I am very pleased to offer my strongest possible recommendation for her in her new home.^#

Susan headed a team that provided data for seven diverse groups of our organization, and she always carried out her work with diligence and aplomb. The data division received many requests for data, often sliced into unusual configurations. It’s part of marketers’ jobs to look for unusual and potentially fruitful patterns in data, and Susan’s familiarity with our data and our software made these creative searches very successful. Many requests came in at the last minute, and Susan was ever unflappable, meeting one insane deadline after another.^**

In spite of her very high-stress and high-stakes position, Susan carried out her responsibilities with an almost superhuman goodwill. She was always a pleasure to be around and happy to do whatever it took to get the job done.

I should also mention that Susan was an exemplary role model and guide for the staff who reported to her. Many of her staff were recent graduates getting their first taste of a “real” job. Susan was brilliant at shepherding these entry-level employees, coaching them through stressful periods, and helping them grow into responsible and productive professionals. Susan’s entire team was always ready to accept any challenge with diligence and good humor.^††

In closing, it is my pleasure to offer Susan my very strongest recommendation.^‡‡ If I can give you any further information, please do not hesitate to contact me at rstraker@gibbonintl.com.

Sincerely,

Rob Straker

LINKEDIN RECOMMENDATIONS

Recommendations on LinkedIn can provide valuable insights about an individual or a business, and recruiters and hiring managers do look at them. While those recommendations may not make or break an application, they can help. To make the recommendation you write as useful as possible, follow these guidelines:

Provide a brief summary of how you know the candidate.

Offer specifics about the candidate’s performance, using measurable results wherever possible. Vague comments like “performed well” and “was a pleasure to work with” can do more harm than good, by suggesting that you don’t really know the candidate well or even that your recommendation is fake.

Focus on transferable skills, since you don’t know what positions the candidate might be applying for.

Provide examples of the candidate’s performance. Tell a story.

If you’re writing a recommendation for a business owner, focus on how their business stands out from the competition, why you chose to work with them, and how you feel about the outcome.

Limit the recommendation to 60–100 words.

Thank-yous

Writing a thank-you note appears to be a dying art, particularly in business. The good news is that if you master the art of the thank-you, and practice it regularly, you’ll stand out in the crowd of your ungrateful and thoughtless peers.

When should you write a thank-you message in business? There are some circumstances where a thank-you is absolutely required: when someone has written you a recommendation, when you’ve had a job interview or an informational interview, or when someone’s made an introduction that benefited you. There are other situations where a written thank-you is simply gracious: when someone took on some of your work and helped you get across the finish line, when someone gave you some good advice, or when someone helped you overcome an obstacle you couldn’t have handled on your own. It’s rarely wrong to send a thank-you note, so if you have the impulse, do it.

If you need a reason to send a thank-you beyond simple politeness and gratitude, it’s worthwhile to consider that sending a thank-you note can help strengthen your relationship with your reader. A sincere thank-you can leave a lasting impression.

Here are some hints and tips for sending a thank-you message in a business context:

Keep it appropriate. Your relationship with your reader will help shape the way you write your thank-you. A thank-you to your boss will likely sound different from a thank-you to a peer or someone who reports to you.

Send your thank-you message promptly.

Write in your own voice. Sometimes people get nervous when they write thank-you notes, thinking they need to sound more formal or flowery than they usually do. There’s no need to dress up your style. Speak from the heart, and write in your usual businesslike manner.

Be specific about what the action or gesture meant to you. A thank-you for an interview should follow a particular form (see here), but a thank-you for help or advice can be more free-flowing. Let your reader know what you’re grateful for: how much time and misery they saved you, for example, or how they set you on the right course.

If appropriate, specifically acknowledge the effort the reader made in your behalf. For instance, if someone spent a lot of time with you or worked through lunch to help you out, be sure to mention it.

For Deeper Connection and Reflection, Write It by Hand

Dominique Schurman

From the very early days of humankind, people have had a deep and profound desire to connect with others through words and symbols. As humans, we have discovered that spoken words, often in one ear and out the other, are not always as lasting or impactful as the written word.

We have seen throughout time that the power and impact of the written word has left lasting legacies in families, in relationships, and in history. From the simple note exchanged between friends, to a personally penned letter from the outgoing president to the new, letters have lasted in our lives, adding value and meaning and, at times, changing the course of our lives.

In this age of e-mail and texts, with phones connected to us twenty-four/seven, is there still room for handwriting in business? I think there is.

First, I believe that the lasting, enduring nature of a penned note, coupled with the personal touch of a handwritten expression, has more meaning than an e-mail or a phone call. Both e-mails and phone calls are fleeting, to be either forgotten or deleted, but the impact, emotion, and essence of a handwritten note or letter will last for days, weeks, months, and years. Frank Blake, the former CEO of Home Depot, spent half a day or more each weekend writing personal notes to company employees. “Our people did amazingly generous things for others,” he explained. “It was a great way to end the week.” Blake recognized the personal connection forged by the written word. “In an age of email and texts, there is something personal and special about a handwritten note. I have saved every meaningful note I have ever received.”^§§

Second, writing by hand can help you reflect in a deep way. In the safe haven of quiet, with only a pen and our thoughts, we sometimes find the courage and the inspiration to reflect in a unique way and, in so doing, perhaps reach a part of ourselves that we otherwise would not have. A recent article in Harvard Business Review argues that keeping a journal is an important step in becoming an outstanding leader, and that writing in a physical journal will lead to deeper insights: “writing online doesn’t provide the same benefits as writing by hand.”^¶¶

Writing in a journal can offer a means to work through difficult issues and challenging times. The time and space involved in this process enables people to absorb issues, to think them through, and to process them in their own way and in their own time, without the need for an immediate response or reaction. This time to reflect can be tremendously important when stressful matters are at hand.

So even—and, actually, especially—today, in our age of technology and instant everything, the magnitude and importance of the handwritten word plays an ever more important part. Reaching out to another with words on paper may leave a lasting impression that even you may not realize in the moment.

Remember the power of the written word, and write many of them. They will enrich your soul and will inspire those around you in ways that you may never know, leaving a footprint of your life and thoughts.

Dominique Schurman is CEO of Schurman Retail Group, whose brands include Papyrus, Marcel Schurman, Paper Destiny, Niquea.D, Carlton Cards, and Clintons.

Apologies

When you do something regrettable at work, a written apology can go a long way toward making things right. Having the good manners and the courage to say “I’m sorry” shows that you value your relationships at work and that you take responsibility for your actions, and it can create goodwill and strengthen relationships for the future. Apologizing to a customer you’ve wronged can help you save business you might otherwise have lost.

Before you start writing, though, consider whether a written apology is the best course. Sometimes an in-person apology means more—partly because it takes more courage, partly because meeting face-to-face can strengthen the relationship.

However you choose to apologize, do it as soon as possible after the offending action. Delaying your apology can allow bad feelings to fester and make the situation worse.

YOUR OBJECTIVE

An apology is easier to write if you focus on what you’re trying to accomplish. Analyzing your objective might sound silly, but it’s easy to stray off message with an apology, especially if you’re feeling defensive. Your main purpose is to acknowledge your mistake and tell your reader you’re sorry for the distress it caused them. Other possible objectives might be to let your reader know how you’re going to fix the problem, if possible, and to assure them that it won’t happen again.

CONSIDER YOUR READER

Think a bit about your reader and how he might respond to your apology. What is your relationship? Is your reader your boss, your customer, someone who reports to you? What effect did your action have on him? Is he mad, hurt, insulted? How do you think he’ll react to your apology? Considering these questions can help you craft a thoughtful and sincere apology.

SAY YOU’RE SORRY RIGHT UP FRONT

Your message should begin with “I’m sorry.” A straightforward expression of regret right at the start lets your reader know you’re sincere. Any explanation should come later.

WHAT ELSE DO YOU WANT TO SAY?

It’s often helpful for the reader to understand the reason behind your action. Note that a reason is not an excuse. Don’t say anything to suggest that what you did was no big deal, and don’t try to shift the blame to anyone else, including the reader. An apology that says “I’m sorry, but . . .” doesn’t sound sincere. If you’re going to apologize, take full responsibility.

You might also let your reader know what you’re doing to fix the problem, if that’s appropriate, and what you’re doing to make sure it never happens again.

Be careful not to say anything in your apology that could create legal liability. If you’re apologizing for poor service or a defective product, check with your company’s legal department for guidance. If you’re apologizing for your own behavior, think about whether legal action over the incident could be possible, and get some advice before you write.

IF SOMETHING FEELS WRONG, FIX IT

Apologies can be tricky, because emotions are often involved. It can be helpful to go through a couple of drafts before you send out your apology. Take a break after you finish your first draft. As you read over it later, think about how your reader might respond. Is the tone sincere? Does the apology really take responsibility for what happened? Will the reader believe that the same kind of thing won’t happen again?

Dear Team:

I’m very sorry for missing the deadline yesterday. I know it’s put us behind and created more work for Andrea and Cian.

As most of you know, I had deadlines for both TYPE and CCS yesterday. I simply couldn’t finish both. I shouldn’t have structured my workload that way—I should have known I wouldn’t be able to deliver on both.

Again, I’m sorry. I promise to pace my work more sensibly in the future and not to leave you cleaning up my mess.

Best,

Una

PROMOTING YOUR BUSINESS AND YOURSELF

Web Copy

Your company’s website is its public face and voice and one of its most powerful tools for sales, marketing, and public relations. Site visitors aren’t always aware when they’re reading good copy, but they recognize bad copy right away. It’s well worth the investment of time and energy to make sure your web copy represents your brand in the best possible way.

NEVER LOSE SIGHT OF YOUR PURPOSE

No matter what kind of business you have, your website is promoting your company, its products and services, its people, and its reputation. Even if you’re not explicitly selling on the site, remember that everything on there creates an impression, and put your best foot forward.

UNDERSTAND YOUR READERS

Of course, you won’t know exactly who’s visiting your website, but it’s worthwhile making the effort to understand the types of readers who will be reading your web copy. Who is your target customer or client?

Marketers often create “personas” of their target customers. A persona is a composite portrait of an individual with the characteristics—including sex, age, race, income, education level, family relationships, goals, desires, and other qualities—of the type of person who might be interested in your product or service. Marketers will typically create several personas to represent the target customers of a product or service. When you come up with your own range of personas, give them names.

Once you’ve constructed a persona, you can use what you know about that individual to write web copy that will appeal to them by addressing their needs, concerns, and interests. What will they be looking for when they visit your site? What will they expect to find? What questions will they have? Your site must address your readers’ needs and expectations. As you build the different sections of your site, keep these questions at the front of your mind.

PUT THE IMPORTANT STUFF UP FRONT

The beginnings of web pages are especially important. Research has shown that web users typically read no more than 20 percent of the copy on any given page.^##

Take a minute to think about how you interact with web pages. Chances are that when you’re shopping for a product or service, you’ll visit several sites during your search. If you don’t see what you’re looking for at the top of a page, you’ll probably give up and move on to the next option. So when you’re writing copy for your own site, your most important content should go “above the fold”—that is, in the area of the design at the top of the page.

THINK VISUALLY

Think visually when you’re writing your web copy, and remember that less is often more. The eye tends to “bounce” off big blocks of text. So to help ensure that your copy will be read, use short sentences, chunk them into short paragraphs, and consider using bullet points to make the content easier to scan. Your copy should accommodate plenty of open space on the page. The copy should work harmoniously with the other graphic elements to create a pleasant user experience.

GET YOUR CONTENT RIGHT

People tend to include too much information on websites, especially people creating sites for small businesses. It’s tempting to describe all the features and benefits of your product or service in great detail, but that might be too much for your reader. Your litmus test for content should be “Does it matter to my customer?” That’s the content you want to include. Resist the temptation to add more content, even if it’s something you’re proud of or excited about personally. Don’t drown your visitors in excess copy on the page. Every section of your website should be organized around how you can help your customers.

Consider including a call to action on some or all of your pages, encouraging site visitors to contact you or place an order and making it easy for them to do so.

While we’re talking about content, we also need to explore how you can use copy to drive visitors to your site. The web is evolving quickly, and you should stay up-to-date on the latest ways search engines locate the terms people search for and direct users to sites. Learn about key words and SEO (search engine optimization). If you’re building a site on WordPress or a similar platform, there might be built-in tools you can use to make your site more attractive to searchers; learn about those and take full advantage of them.

ASK TESTERS TO REVIEW YOUR COPY BEFORE YOU FINALIZE IT

In most circumstances, it’s pretty easy to change web copy once it’s live, so it’s not the end of the world if you go live with content that isn’t perfect. But web copy is the kind of thing you tend to forget about—and, honestly, you want to be able to forget about it. You want to be confident in the copy you have on your site so you can move on to more important things. So be sure to review the copy once it’s on the site, to give yourself a better idea of the experience your users will have.

It’s also a good idea to ask a few colleagues or friends to review the site; then you can use their feedback to make improvements. Make sure you let them know specifically what you want feedback on. If you’re looking for their reactions to the copy, tell them that. If you vaguely ask them, “What do you think?,” you’re likely to get random feedback on fonts, colors, images, and so forth. Direct their attention so they can be as helpful as possible.

Blogs

Whether you’re running a small business or working for a big one, your business blog can help you maintain contact with current customers and attract new ones. Regular blogging can increase traffic to your web site, and integrating your blog with social media can help you build an online community around your business and your area of expertise.

YOUR PURPOSE IS TO SERVE YOUR AUDIENCE

It’s important to pinpoint a purpose for your blog. The risk of not doing so is that your content will be unfocused and you’ll end up writing too much that provides too little of value to your readers. Understanding your readers is key to defining your purpose. Here’s a useful sentence to fill in as you think about the purpose of your blog: “My blog serves my readers by _________________.” The answer might be “supplying cutting-edge information about my field” or “providing tools and techniques clients can use.” If you keep the focus on serving customers or readers, you’re less likely to blather on about topics that are interesting to you but not to your customers.

Having a blog gives you the chance to show off your expertise. Make sure your content is valuable to your readers. People will read your blog as long as they find the content valuable. If they don’t, they will move on.

One way to keep readers engaged is to provide variety. It can be hard to find solid subject matter if you’re blogging every week. Keep your core focus, but consider writing some posts about complementary topics, for a change of pace. If you’re a real estate agent, you can offer tips on renovation or landscaping. If you’re a chiropractor, you can discuss nutrition. Consider inviting guest bloggers who are experts in adjacent fields to contribute a blog post now and then (and ask if you can reciprocate, thereby introducing your business and your expertise to their readers).

THE HOOK MATTERS

Think about the last time you read a blog post. Did you read through to the end? Chances are good that you didn’t, unless it was a particularly interesting article. Attention spans are short, so you need to ensure that your post starts with an engaging hook that grabs your readers’ interest. Once you have your readers’ attention, motivate them to read on by front-loading your most important content. Don’t save your most critical points for last, or your readers might miss them.

BE CONCISE

Readers sometimes give up on blog posts because there’s too much content or there’s too much low-quality content. Experts differ on how long the ideal blog post should be, and recommendations about length have changed over time. It’s worthwhile doing some research on what works best in terms of length, but it’s always a good practice to go through your early drafts and cut out anything that seems superfluous or less engaging than the rest of the content. Your blog post should be long enough to offer useful insights to your readers, but it shouldn’t go on longer than it needs to.

MAINTAINING YOUR BLOG

Blog regularly. You don’t have to blog every week—that can be a hard pace to maintain—but do pick a regular interval and stick to it. Readers will get discouraged if they come back to your blog and find nothing new.

Share your blog posts on social media. Promoting your blog posts on Twitter, Facebook, and LinkedIn can draw new audiences. You might also want to include a sign-up form on your website so you can e-mail your list, announcing when a new blog post is up.

Consider whether you want to allow comments on your blog. This can be a good way to engage with readers, make connections, and provide even more content to your followers by answering questions. It also means that you’ll need to monitor the comments regularly, to get rid of spam posts and moderate any arguments that might flare up. You’ll need to assess whether you have the time and if it’s worth your energy.

Once you’ve launched your blog, don’t abandon it. A blog with only a few old posts looks dismal. If you find that you can’t maintain a regular blog, think about hiding it or archiving the old posts. You can always reactivate the page if you decide to start blogging again.

Social Media

Various forms of social media offer businesses of all sizes the opportunity to connect with customers and potential customers in an entertaining and enriching way. Learning to use social media gives you the chance to provide value to customers between transactions and can help ensure that your customers don’t forget you.

Creating Content for Your Website or Blog

Rieva Lesonsky

Content marketing is currently being buzzed about—and for good reason. It’s a fast-growing and proven component of marketing plans for small businesses. But since most small business owners didn’t major in English or journalism, they can find creating content challenging.

First, it’s important to know what makes content effective. Your three top goals should be:

1.Your content needs to be relevant to your market.

2.It should be designed to elicit a response from readers.

3.It should be engaging and interesting.

Next, you need to create a content marketing plan. Components of that plan include:

Defining your goals. Do you want to get leads? Increase brand awareness? Establish your expertise? Educate your market? Drive traffic to your site or store? Inspire your audience?

Understanding your audience. What do they want or need to know? To buy? What types of content do they want?

Picking a voice that will be consistent across your brand. That voice needs to be authentic—and targeted to your potential and current customers and clients.

Establishing some parameters: How often will you post? What’s your budget? Who’s responsible for the various tasks?

If your site already has content on it, it’s important to review, revise, and update it periodically. Many experts recommend that you add new content to your site at least twice a week. Don’t panic; here are some ideas about how you can generate content and still have time to run your business:

Feature a customer of the week or month. Create a template of five to ten questions and e-mail the list to your customers. Make sure you edit the respondents’ grammar before you post their comments.

Post lists, checklists, or tips. These shouldn’t be too long; people don’t have time to read through dozens of tips.

Advertise special offers or promotions.

Turn your FAQs into blog posts.

Use guest bloggers.

Publish product reviews.

Hire freelancers—if you have the budget.

Repurpose content: turn blogs into white papers, e-books, podcasts, and videos.

Run e-mail interviews with relevant people in your industry.

Educate customers with “how-to” articles.

Draw on your business’s expertise—for example, if you own a food-related business, spotlight recipes.

Two final tips:

1.Use photos, charts, and graphics. Blogs, articles, and social media posts with images get far more views than text-only posts.

2.Don’t forget to include a call to action. People need to be told what you want them to do.

And finally, if you’re wondering if all this is worth it—the answer is yes. According to TechClient.com, websites with a blog have 434 percent more indexed pages.^*** That means higher rankings in the search engines.

Rieva Lesonsky is a cofounder and the CEO of GrowBiz Media, a custom content-creation company focusing on small businesses and entrepreneurship, and a co-owner of the blog SmallBizDaily.

CHOOSE THE RIGHT PLATFORM(S) FOR YOUR BRAND

There are lots of social media platforms, of course, and each one has a unique personality. Before you take the plunge, do some research to decide which platform or platforms are best for your brand. Consider things like your target demographic and the kind of content you want to share. As I write these words, Twitter has a better reach among young people and African-Americans and Latinos; Facebook has more market penetration with seniors and women. Twitter is better for viral trends, while Facebook is better for building deeper relationships.^††† But things change fast, and it’s important for you to find the most up-to-date information. Not every business needs to be on every platform, and you should make your social media decisions based on the latest information. There will be more entrants to the social media space as time goes by, and some will probably die off, but as long as you do your research, you’ll be able to target your activity appropriately.

YOUR PURPOSE IS TO SERVE YOUR CUSTOMERS

Regardless of the platforms you participate in, your objective in using social media is to provide value for your customers and potential customers.

How can you serve them? What will keep them informed, entertained, and engaged? Concentrate on providing value for them rather than just selling to them. If readers see nothing but selling in your posts, they’ll stop following you fast. Focus on what you can give them rather than what you can sell them.

Be careful to keep the content of your social media posts relevant to your business. Posting about personal concerns or politics can alienate customers. An exception is posting about political issues that are directly connected to your business—for example, if you’re an accountant, it makes sense to share information about proposed changes to the tax code. Be careful, though, about asking your customers to sign petitions, write letters, and so on. Some might not appreciate being asked to advocate for a political position.

COMMIT TO IT

Launching and maintaining a successful social media presence requires a commitment. It goes without saying that there’s a lot of competition online. Nothing looks worse for a business than a halfhearted effort at social media engagement or an abandoned social media account. If you’re going to do it, you’ll need a strategy that identifies your objectives for social media, and you’ll need someone to do the work consistently. Post frequently. You can’t disappear.

Obviously, large companies have the resources to have employees dedicated to promoting and maintaining their social media presence. Smaller companies have some more difficult decisions to make. Who is going to post, how often will they post, what kind of content will they post? And what happens when customers or others react? Who handles the ongoing interactions? These are questions you should answer before you launch your social media presence.

FACEBOOK

Facebook is a place where people go to connect with friends and family, and it’s a great environment in which to build a community around your organization or brand.

Keep your updates brief, one to three sentences. People browse Facebook until they find things they want to explore more deeply. They don’t want to read a lot of text. Share photos and other images. Text-only updates have much lower engagement than updates with images.

Use a conversational, friendly tone. In keeping with Facebook’s community spirit, your updates should be warm and conversational.

Use a consistent voice across all your status updates, and express your brand personality.

Post questions that encourage people to interact. Ask people what they think; ask them to share stories.

Offer content that’s really useful to your customers, and do it frequently. For example, a gardening page could post seasonal tips. An accountant could offer general tax tips. A financial services firm could highlight information about preventing identity theft. If you do this regularly, readers will think of your Facebook page as a useful source of information.

Share updates from other businesses that provide goods or services that might be interesting to your customers.

Follow up on readers’ comments on your updates. Answer questions that people ask and respond to comments. You’re the voice of this community, so engage.

Learn about Facebook’s metrics and keep up with policy changes. Facebook, like all social media outlets, is evolving. Educate yourself about the metrics Facebook uses to determine how much visibility status updates get, and keep up with any changes in these algorithms. A quick Google search can help you become better informed and ensure that more people see your posts.

TWITTER

Twitter is fast-paced and trend-driven. Tweets are typically short—and they fly by fast. Think of tweets like headlines: the point is to convey information quickly and, possibly, to motivate the reader to click on a link.

Read a lot of tweets. If you’re just beginning to tweet for your business, it can take a while to get the hang of writing an effective tweet. Read other companies’ tweets. Pay attention to their styles, and develop a distinctive voice for your own brand.

Tweet regularly. Tweeting only sporadically makes it hard to develop a presence and attract followers.

Share content that’s useful to your customers and potential customers. Retweet interesting content from other businesses. Think about what might interest your followers, and be creative.

Learn to use hashtags to make your content searchable. Check Twitter’s support center for more information about using hashtags effectively.

Respond to replies, and thank people for retweets. Twitter is all about active engagement.

LINKEDIN

LinkedIn is the platform for business leadership. Individuals use LinkedIn extensively for networking and job seeking, but organizations can also use LinkedIn to connect with potential customers and expand their influence.

Think about your goals for LinkedIn as you begin to develop your presence there. There’s a lot going on, and it’s easy to get distracted. Are you looking for new customers, promoting a product, seeking partners, searching for employees? Keep your goal in mind as you craft your LinkedIn presence.

LinkedIn has extensive support to help you achieve your goals, so explore the LinkedIn Help pages to be sure you’re making the most of the platform.

Create a company page on LinkedIn. It’s free, and you can customize it with your logo and a cover image.

Craft your company description carefully. You have limited space in the template, so focus on what’s really important to your customers and clients.

A complete company profile includes bios of company leaders, career pages where you advertise job openings and share information about company culture, and testimonials from your employees. LinkedIn offers useful articles to help you target these pages more effectively for your customer base.

As with all forms of social media, you must commit to using LinkedIn and assign someone to keep your LinkedIn presence current with regular updates. These can be company news, or you can share thought leadership articles from other sources, or you can have someone blog on LinkedIn.

Find followers. A good place to start is with your own people. Ask all your employees to add your company to their personal profiles, and request that they engage with your content by sharing and commenting so that others will see it.

Consider using sponsored content to extend your reach. Sponsored content allows you to pay to promote company updates to targeted audiences on LinkedIn.

Press Releases

Is your business launching a new product, service, or initiative? Branching out into a new area of business? Have you made an impor­tant new hire? You’ll want to write a press release to announce the news to the media.

WHAT (AND WHO) A PRESS RELEASE IS FOR

The purpose of a press release is to attract media coverage about news that’s important to your organization. Press releases are written to provide content for professional journalists, with the hope that they will choose to write a story about the news.

If you’re able to send your press release to a specific journalist, rather than just news organizations, you’ll have better luck placing your story. Try to find names of journalists who might be interested in your story.

THINK LIKE A JOURNALIST

Your readers are professional journalists, so you’ll need to think like a journalist to make your press release attractive to them. The easier you make it for your readers, the better your chances that they will pick up your news and help disseminate it into the world.

If your press release is successful, journalists may use it as a kind of first draft of their own stories. If you’ve ever seen multiple articles about the same thing that were written with much of the same language, it’s because those writers were all working from the same press release and relying on it as basis for their own stories. Sometimes journalists will even use the press release as the story, making very few changes. For this reason, you need to think like a journalist when you write your press release, and style it like a news story. Write the article you’d like to see in the news, with complete information. You can make it easier for journalists to pick up the story if you provide them with clean, clear copy, with short sentences and simple vocabulary. Unless you’re targeting the press for a specific industry, try to avoid technical jargon. If you must use technical vocabulary, be sure to provide straightforward definitions that the average reader can understand.

START STRONG

Part of writing like a journalist is constructing a strong opening, with your most important information in your first paragraph. Imagine that your readers will read only the first paragraph of the press release and no more—make sure they can get the main points of the story. Your first paragraph should answer the journalist’s questions: who, what, when, where, why, and how.

Writing like a journalist also means using an “inverted pyramid” structure: the broadest, most general information goes at the beginning of the press release, and the information becomes more specific and detailed as you go along. Put the most important information at the beginning, so that if readers stop reading they will not have missed anything critical.

MAKE SURE YOUR NEWS IS NEWSWORTHY (AND WRITE IT AS NEWS)

Why should anyone care about your news? If you work for a large organization, things like high-level hires, new products, and market entries will be of interest to the business press. If you run a small business, it can be more challenging to show that your business is newsworthy. As you plan your press release, think from the point of view of the end reader—someone in the community who would like to know about your new day-care business, accounting firm, or yoga studio, for example. What’s newsworthy or remarkable about it? Even if your business is just filling a gap in the community, it might be considered newsworthy.

You may be hoping that the press release will attract attention to your business, but your press release should be written as news, not as promotional copy. Focus on the facts, on telling the story. Don’t slip into selling, and don’t use emotional language or make claims that are not factual.

USE THE STANDARD FORMAT

A press release should follow a traditional, standard format. If you want journalists to take you seriously, make sure your press release appears in this format:

FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE (or specify the release date)

Contact person and full contact information

Headline

City, state (or country), date

First paragraph: present the essence of the message, including the answers to who, what, when, where, why, and how?

Middle paragraphs: these should be brief and easy to scan.

Bottom of here (if the press release continues onto a second page): type -more- (the word “more” flanked by hyphens).

Top of the next page: abbreviated headline

Here: the remainder of the text

Restate your contact information after the last paragraph.

End of the press release: use the symbol # # # to indicate that the press release is finished.

FIX IT BEFORE YOU SEND IT

You’re wise to go through several drafts of a press release, especially if you are not experienced in writing them. Your first drafts will likely be too long and unfocused. As you revise, make sure you’re providing only the most essential information about the news item. Limit yourself to two pages: the longer you go on, the less of your readers’ attention you’ll have, so be sure your press release is tight and engaging. And always provide your contact information, so that readers can reach you if they want to receive additional information.

For sample press releases and a template you can use, visit me at www.howtowriteanything.com.

Speeches

By some accounts, roughly 25 percent of Americans fear public speaking. Luckily, good preparation can build your confidence and help make your speech a great experience for yourself and your audience. You can relieve a lot of the worry about giving a speech by taking an analytical approach to it.

LET YOUR PURPOSE GUIDE YOU

What’s the purpose for your speech? Do you want to inspire, educate, persuade, entertain, or some combination of these? Have the event organizers given you any guidance about what they want from your speech? Decide on an objective for your speech, and let that objective guide the way you develop it. If you get sidetracked as you write your speech, come back and ask yourself, “What’s my objective?”

UNDERSTAND WHAT YOUR AUDIENCE NEEDS AND EXPECTS

Your audience for a speech is, obviously, composed of listeners rather than readers. That knowledge will guide the way you write your speech, but it won’t change the way you analyze your audience. How much do you know about them? You should feel free to consult the organizer if you’re not sure who you’ll be speaking to. What do they think and believe? What will they expect from you? What topic would most engage them? Try putting yourself in the shoes of your audience members and imagine listening to the speech you have planned. How can you best serve their needs?

It can help to imagine a model listener, a specific person in the audience. Who is she? What does she know about the topic? What does she care about? What can you share with her that will interest her? Imagining a single listener can be easier than writing a speech for a crowd.

START STRONG AND SPECIFIC

A speech needs a strong opening to grab the attention of the audience. Starting with a joke is a time-honored tradition. Not everyone thinks it’s a good idea. If you do decide to start with a joke, make sure it’s one that this particular audience will enjoy.

A joke works because it’s a kind of icebreaker. Other, more substantive, types of openings include anecdotes, quotations, and problem statements. The rest of your speech should follow naturally from your opening—showing how the anecdote is relevant, expanding on the message of the quotation, or exploring how to solve the problem. Your objective is to hook your audience and make them interested in listening to your speech.

CONTENT

It goes without saying that the topic of your speech should be something that will appeal to your listeners. If you have doubts, consider contacting the event organizer with a few different possible topics and asking for her opinion on which one would be best. Everyone involved in the event wants your speech to succeed, so you can count on getting good advice from the organizer.

Once you’ve selected a topic, you need to decide on the scope. Remember that people will be listening rather than reading, so limiting the scope of your treatment and keeping your approach fairly simple is a good idea. Don’t feel you need to give a complete or comprehensive treatment of the topic. Rather than present an exhaustive account of something, choose a particularly interesting angle and explore it. Plan to talk about no more than three main points in your speech. In general, you can demand more in the way of attention from readers than you can from listeners.

You’re wise to write out your entire speech, even if you think you might be inclined to go off-script a little bit during the delivery. Writing it all out will force you to decide exactly what you want to say, in what degree of depth. It’s also a great way of calming your nerves. Standing up and winging it can be unnerving, especially if you’re not used to it, so having the whole text in front of you can boost your confidence. (Make sure you print it out or display it on your tablet in a larger font than normal; you don’t want to be squinting to make out what you’ve written.)

As you draft, keep in mind that the average speech proceeds at about 120 words per minute. Use this to gauge length. Expect to go through several drafts. It’s wise to ask a colleague or friend to read a draft of your speech or—even better—to listen to you practice and give you feedback on your presentation. As you rehearse, you’ll find areas you want to revise—for instance, language that looks fine on the page but doesn’t sound right spoken aloud or is difficult to articulate. You might find that the rhythm doesn’t feel right and that you want to vary the length of your sentences. You might also find missing content, or that your speech is too long. Don’t wait till the last minute to start this process of practicing and polishing—give yourself plenty of time.

The Art of the Anecdote

Rachel Christmas Derrick

I had been nodding off in my high school library when I finally turned to the book we had just been assigned on the Chinese Revolution of 1949. Annoyed at the length of this big fat volume, I reluctantly began to read. Suddenly, I was watching a woman gather her two children and whatever belongings she could snatch up as she raced from her home, pulling her stumbling toddlers with her, knowing she could never return. I was hearing the battling thoughts of a man as he alternated between hope for a better life and the terror of the unknown.

This thick book turned out to be one of the most captivating and memorable I ever read. By putting faces on specific events during that tumultuous historic period, the author enabled me to digest and more easily remember the extremely complex sociopolitical issues of the time.

Even in business writing, storytelling can mean the difference between engaging a reader and inducing yawns. The art of the anecdote—a brief, humanizing tale to illustrate or underscore a point—is worth mastering.

No matter what business you’re in, the ultimate goal is to have some kind of impact on human beings. First, consider your endgame: (1) Who is your audience? and (2) What, exactly, do you want them to do, think, or feel as a result of reading what you write? Then find a human-focused story (perhaps to start your piece with) that steers readers toward your objective by bringing your main point to life.

And by “human-focused,” I don’t mean that your anecdote has to be about people, necessarily. But whether it’s a tale of a dog that eats only your company’s gourmet treats or a derelict house that was finally renovated thanks to your firm’s investment advice, the story will be most powerful if it shows (instead of telling readers about) an impact on human lives, either direct or indirect.

Can’t think of a good real-life example? Poetic license allows you to make one up—drawing on legitimate experiences, of course. For instance, when I started reading that book on the Chinese Revolution, I was actually at home, not in my high school library. I was able to get to my point faster, however, by using fewer words; “high school library” worked more efficiently than saying that I was at my desk at home, then explaining that I was a high school student at the time. As long as you don’t claim it actually happened, you can even use a composite experience, such as a story about a woman in Nebraska who “looks out her window and sees . . .” instead of writing, “My neighbor looked out her window and saw. . . .” Bottom line: think of an anecdote that will engage your particular audience right away. Your readers will then be open to the rest of what you want to tell them.

Rachel Christmas Derrick is a freelance writer and the director of communication and fund-raising at the Urban Homesteading Assistance Board, an affordable-housing nonprofit.

As you write, clearly mark the transitions for your listeners. If a reader loses the train of your argument, he can go back and reread; a listener doesn’t have this luxury. Offer brief summaries as you go along, and clearly state when you’re shifting perspectives. If you’re talking about events in the past, make sure your listeners will understand where they are on your timeline. Let your readers know when you’re wrapping things up. It can be very jarring to hear a speech that ends in a way that feels abrupt. A little “hand-holding” for your listeners throughout the speech can improve their experience markedly.

Speaking of conclusions: put some extra effort into finishing with a punch. Provide a conclusion that the audience will remember—sum up your points, end with a compelling story, or do something else to tie a nice bow on your speech. Leave the audience nodding in agreement or smiling.

Finally, make sure that the length of the final (and rehearsed) speech falls within the time guidelines you’ve been given. Don’t exceed your time limit—plan to come in slightly under it. Don’t cheat and try to sneak in a few more points. You’re better off leaving your audience wishing for more, not wishing you’d go away.

Bios

A business bio tells, briefly, the story of your career. It’s not meant to be comprehensive. Rather, it highlights the most important events of your career and explains a bit about how you got where you are and what value you offer. Bios are used for different purposes—on company websites and pitch documents, to introduce you as a speaker or presenter, and for other business-related events.

If you’re having trouble getting started, consider if there’s someone you can ask for a few samples to use as models. Bios on company websites often follow a standard format. LinkedIn is also a good source of bios you can use for inspiration.

CONSIDER YOUR PURPOSE

The objective of a bio is to tell your story, not to provide an exhaustive account of all your activities. Depending on the purpose of the bio, the story you tell might be one of the following:

“I have a lot of experience doing the kind of thing you need done. You can feel confident about recruiting or hiring me.”

“I’m an expert on this topic; you’ll enjoy hearing what I have to say or getting my advice.”

“My accomplishments are impressive. I’ll be an asset to any company that hires or retains me.”

Many businesspeople keep several different versions of their bio available, tailored for different uses.

GET YOUR CONTENT RIGHT

The purpose of the bio will guide the content you include. Think about who will be reading the bio, what they might be expecting to see, and what will make an impression on them. Bios for company websites and pitch decks should highlight your experience solving the kinds of problems your customers want solved. Bios for speaking engagements and charity events can range more widely and can include your philanthropic activities. Your profile summary on LinkedIn should be personally engaging and position you for your next role. You should mention key positions at companies where you’ve worked. You can also highlight particular projects you’ve worked on and the results you’ve achieved on those projects.

Think about the arc of your career as you brainstorm for your bio. What were the major turning points in your career? What values and interests drove some of the decisions you made? How do all the parts add up to the current whole? Remember that a bio is not a résumé in prose format. It’s a synthesis of the experiences and achievements that make you unique.

Don’t rely on impressive-sounding client lists to take the place of an in-depth bio. Remember, your bio is meant to tell your story, so use the opportunity not just to list facts and figures but also to show what makes you a particularly valuable individual.

Honor any obligations to confidentiality you may have as you write your bio. You might not be at liberty to talk about certain deals or particular customers or clients. However, you might be able to discuss the experience if you keep the focus on your role and your achievements.

It’s conventional to write your bio in the third person, as though you were writing about someone else. Use an objective tone, and stick to the facts. Some bios can be written in the first person—for example, for an entrepreneur’s website or for a LinkedIn profile summary.

POLISH BEFORE YOU FINALIZE

Your first draft will probably be too long. It can take a few drafts for you to streamline the story of your career. Keep your bio brief—one page or less. The more senior you become, the more challenging it will be to restrict yourself to this length. Always ask yourself what’s really important about the arc of your career and the development of your interests, and avoid getting bogged down in details.

KEEP IT UPDATED

The world changes fast, and your bio should keep up. It’s a good idea to have an updated bio and résumé on hand in case an opportunity pops up unexpectedly. Whenever you change jobs, get a promotion, or achieve a notable goal at work, you should update your résumé, bio, and LinkedIn profile.

SAMPLE BIO

Below is a sample bio, the sort a businessperson might post on the company website.

Maxwell Senna leads Selpat’s Rotary Division in China and has a deep passion for serving clients in the industrial sectors in Asia and Australia.

He has worked with some of Asia’s leading manufacturers in operational transformations and has been an adviser to many governmental commissions on manufacturing efficiency and standards. Outside his client work, Maxwell is a founder of Forum for Innovation, a platform that combines business, academia, and government to drive dialogue and develop concrete proposals for sustainable and eco-friendly manufacturing processes. He also serves on the board of ETICA, a nonprofit that encourages girls to explore careers in engineering, and on the board of one of Shanghai’s leading independent schools.

Maxwell joined Selpat in 2004. Prior to joining Selpat, he worked at DBH Industries as a senior engineer in South America and China.

EMPLOYMENT MATTERS

Résumés

Your résumé is more than just a record of your employment history. Through careful selection and presentation of information, a résumé should tell a story and present you as a great fit for the position you’re applying for. You should be prepared to revise your résumé for each position you apply to; sometimes small adjustments can make a big difference in whether or not companies decide to interview you.

WHAT’S YOUR OBJECTIVE?

What’s your objective when you write a résumé? Obviously, you’re looking for a job, but no one gets a job offer from a résumé alone. The résumé is but one step on the path to employment. In conjunction with your cover letter, your résumé should lead the reader to a ­conclusion—that conclusion being “I want to interview this person.”

So your objective is an interview, not a job. It might seem like a subtle distinction, but it’s an important one. As you work on your résumé, keep this question in the front of your mind: “How can I interest them enough to want to interview me?”

WRITE FOR YOUR READER

You don’t know the individual who will be reviewing your résumé, of course, but if you have a job description, you know a lot about what that person is looking for. Pay close attention to the job description, compare it closely with your résumé, and make sure your résumé matches up as nearly as possible (while remaining scrupulously honest about your experience and qualifications).

In some cases, your first “reader” will be scanning software rather than a human being. To get over this first hurdle, be sure your résumé includes the keywords listed in the job description. It’s even better if the keywords appear more than once. Just dropping keywords into the “Skills” section of the résumé won’t cut it; robots are smarter than that. You need to make the effort to integrate the keywords into the résumé.

This integration is important. If you make it through this first screening, your résumé will be read by a human with a critical eye, so you must ensure that your résumé makes a compelling case that you’re a good fit for the position.

BEGINNINGS COUNT

You have less than ten seconds to grab the attention of the person reading your résumé, so what you put at the beginning counts. You should make the most of that space at the top of the résumé, and motivate the reader to spend time looking further.

Experts disagree about whether you should begin your résumé with an objective, but most argue that objectives are old-fashioned. Unless they’re well executed and do more than state the obvious (“I’m seeking a job”), they actually delay the reader from reaching the core information on the résumé. There’s one exception to this rule, though, and that’s when you’re making a big jump in career field. If all your work experience is in Field A and you’re applying for a job in Field B, the reader is going to be confused by your résumé unless you include an objective explaining, briefly, that you are making the change and why you think your background makes you a good candidate for a job in this new field.

For everyone else, the objective section of the résumé has been replaced with a résumé summary statement. A summary statement usually consists of three to five bullet points that describe what’s unique about you. They don’t just recap information from the résumé—they synthesize your experience into a coherent whole. They sum up your strengths, your skills, and how you can add value to the company or the team you would be on.

As you work on your summary statement, think from the point of view of your reader—in this case, the hiring manager. If you were hiring for this position, what kind of person would you hope to find? What kind of qualities and experience would the ideal candidate have? Keeping the answers to these questions in mind can help you as you weed through your own experience and decide what to include in your summary.

Whether you begin your résumé with an objective or a summary statement, you should plan to revise this beginning as needed for each job you apply for. It’s a lot of work, but sending nontargeted, generic résumés off into the blue is not a good way to find a job. If you’re going to spend the time sending out résumés, it’s worthwhile to invest a little extra time to tailor them to the individual jobs you’re applying for.

GET YOUR CONTENT RIGHT

Depending on how much work experience you have and what your career history looks like, you might have quite a lot of leeway in terms of what content you choose for your résumé. You don’t have to be comprehensive; you don’t have to note every job you’ve ever had.

Gaps in employment are still a red flag for most employers. If you have a significant gap on your résumé, you should plan to explain it in the cover letter you include in your job application.

BE CONCISE

Unless you are a senior employee or have extensive experience that’s relevant to the job you’re applying for, you’re wise to keep your résumé to one page. It can be challenging to condense your experience into one page, but it’s a good challenge. Keeping the résumé to one page will force you to choose the most relevant and persuasive information to include.

If you are more senior, your résumé will probably need to extend beyond one page, but it should still be a selective representation of your experience, not a detailed and complete accounting of everything you’ve ever done.

BE SURE IT’S PERFECT BEFORE YOU SEND IT

Typically, someone with a pile of résumés in front of him is looking harder for a reason to say no than a reason to say yes. Be sure your résumé is as perfect as it can be before you send it out, and don’t let carelessness give the reader an excuse to put it in the “no” pile without reviewing your qualifications carefully.

Working on a résumé can be tedious, and almost everyone reaches the point where they want to send it out and never look at it again. Resist this temptation. Proofread your résumé carefully. Recruit one or two eagle-eyed friends to proofread it for you. Sending out a résumé with typos or other errors can give prospective employers the idea that you’re careless or not that interested in the job.

Before you send it off, take the time to review the résumé against the job description one more time, and ensure that you’re making the best possible case that you’re a good fit for the job.

Taking those few extra minutes to polish and perfect your résumé can mean the difference between rejection and an invitation to interview.

Cover Letter for Your Résumé

Your cover letter is an important part of your job application; don’t neglect it. There’s no sense in working painstakingly on your résumé if you’re going to slap a careless cover letter on top of it. Take the time to craft your cover letter carefully, and be sure you revise it for each job you apply for. Your cover letter should reflect the research you’ve done about the organization and your understanding of the position.

GET THE ASK CLEAR

Your purpose in writing a cover letter is not to ask for a job—it’s to ask for an interview. Understanding this distinction should make it easier to craft your letter. Your objective is to make a case to the hiring manager that she should bring you in for an interview.

WRITE FOR YOUR READER

Your cover letter is your chance to address the hiring manager (or whoever is screening the résumés) directly as a human being. Make the most of it.

Put yourself in your reader’s shoes as you craft your cover letter. What are her needs and expectations? What kind of candidate is she hoping to meet? What information will make her put your résumé into the “maybe” file rather than the much larger “no” file?

Make the salutation of your letter as specific as you can. If you have the name of an individual, use it. Even “To the hiring manager” is a better salutation than “To whom it may concern.”

START STRONG AND SPECIFIC

The first paragraph of your cover letter is important. State the position you’re applying for (the company might be running multiple searches). If you’re writing at the suggestion of a mutual acquaintance, say so and mention how you know that person. Express your interest in the position, and say briefly why you’re interested. Wrap up your first paragraph by briefly explaining why you think you’re a great fit for the job.

BE CONCISE

The challenge of a cover letter is to make a strong case that you’re a good fit, and to do so on one page. More senior hires can submit longer letters, but be considerate of your reader’s time, and be sure that whatever you write is directly relevant to the position you’re applying for.

GET THE CONTENT RIGHT

Tailor your cover letter to the particular job you’re applying for. It helps to develop a few different templates to use as the basis for your different letters, but be sure the cover letter you send is customized to the job you’re applying for.

Draw your reader’s attention to information on the résumé that is particularly relevant to your application for this particular job. Don’t just restate the information on the résumé; elaborate on it. This is your chance to argue your case; use your letter to make explicit what’s implicit in the résumé itself.

Your focus should be on what you have to offer the employer, not what the job can offer you. It’s great to say you’re excited about the job and that you think you would enjoy it, but remember to think from your reader’s point of view and expand on how you can meet their needs.

It can be helpful to demonstrate some knowledge of the organization in your cover letter, but don’t go overboard. Mention the company’s history or reputation only if you can link it to something specific in your background or your interests—for example, if the company is working on an initiative that you could contribute to. Simply saying that it would be great to work for Google, for instance, doesn’t advance your case.

FIX IT BEFORE YOU SEND IT

Typos, spelling mistakes, and other errors can throw you out of the running immediately, so ensure that your letter is perfect before you submit it. Be sure your tone is professional. This is not the time for humor or informal language. You must show that you’re able to communicate in a formal, professional manner.

For sample cover letters, visit me at www.howtowriteanything.com.

Follow-up Message After a Job Interview

The follow-up message you send after a job interview is a special kind of thank-you note. It goes beyond a simple statement of thanks and can be an important part of your overall application and interview process. Be sure to send your follow-up soon after the interview. A prompt thank-you can help you stand out from the crowd.

BE STRATEGIC ABOUT YOUR PURPOSE

With a post-interview follow-up, you’re not only thanking the interviewer for his time, you’re also reaffirming your interest in the position and expanding on what happened during the interview. Really think about the conversation during the interview and how your message can deepen it.

WRITE FOR YOUR READER

It’s natural to be very focused on yourself during the job interview process, so make the effort now to consider your reader and his position. Don’t write a vague, pro forma note; use this opportunity to connect with the reader and extend the conversation you had during the interview.

In your closing, wish the reader luck in finding the best candidate for the position. Of course you’re hoping that this candidate will be you, but it’s professional and gracious to acknowledge that it might not be.

GET YOUR CONTENT RIGHT

Open your follow-up message with a statement of thanks to the interviewer, and let her know you enjoyed meeting her. Reaffirm your interest in the position. If something that happened during the interview increased your interest in the job, say so, and say why. Don’t focus only on what the job might do for you; expand on the contribution you could make in the organization.

Be sure to include something specific from the interview; if you have additional thoughts to share about a topic you discussed, you can mention them briefly.

The trick here is keeping it brief and to the point. You want to show that you were engaged in the interview and have given the discussion further productive thought, but you don’t want to write pages and pages of follow-up. Limit this section to a few sentences. Avoid speculating about what you might do in the job and changes you would make if you are hired.

If you have experience or qualifications that you did not have a chance to discuss during the interview, you can mention them in your follow-up. You should also offer to provide any additional information about yourself the company might require, and indicate that you are available for another meeting. Don’t be too pushy at this point, and don’t assume that you’ll get a second interview. Indicate your interest, and leave it at that.

FIX IT BEFORE YOU SEND IT

Your follow-up message is every bit as important as your initial cover letter, so you should take extra care to make sure it’s perfect before you send it out. Proofread it carefully. Ask a friend or family member to review it for errors. Don’t run out of energy at this point. You could be very close to getting a job offer. Make sure your follow-up letter reflects well on you rather than looking like a slapdash effort.

Five Tips for Communicating with Millennials in the Workplace

Sydney Strauss

It’s a cliché because it’s true: each generation has something unique and valuable to bring to the table. It is a shame that so much of this potential energy can get lost in translation across generations, and perhaps the worst part is that it’s totally avoidable. To ensure the utmost success in the workplace, we should really all start making it a priority to practice cross-generational communication. After all, when we can understand each other, we can work together; and when we can work together, we can succeed together.

As a millennial myself, I know that our style of communication can seem especially idiosyncratic to a lot of people. If you’re discouraged by that seemingly massive barrier, don’t worry; getting through to us is a lot simpler than you might think. I promise that we millennials have a lot to offer, and that your efforts will prove to be worthwhile for everybody.

1.Empathize. Keep in mind that, for us, the workplace can often be an anxious space. We feel sure that baby boomers don’t like us, and our economic post–Great Recession anxiety is through the roof. You might perceive millennials as timid or uninterested, but the truth is that we’re just anxious; we have a million and one opinions, but we’re just not sure anyone wants to hear them. Let this knowledge inform all your communications with millennials.

2.Encourage openness. You stand to gain a whole lot when your millennial colleagues are sharing their insights with the whole team. Again, each generation has a unique and useful perspective; hearing the millennial angle in particular could help your company reach a younger demographic, improve on social media marketing, or find the right cause or charity to get involved with, for example. A lot of millennials are brand-new to the workforce, so they might be unfamiliar with the dynamics of team meetings—a simple “What do you think?” in their first meeting or two could really expedite their acclimation process.

3.Embrace new technology. It’s no secret that millennials are natives when it comes to modern technology, and it shows in our preferred methods of communication (texting instead of phone calls, for example). Adapting to some of these modern platforms is not only a surefire way to get a prompt response from a millennial but can also be a crucial step forward for your company in the face of an ever-changing business world.

4.Discuss the big picture. Generally speaking, millennials are eager for their work to be a part of something impactful; they will be at the top of their game as employees if they know that they’re working toward something bigger than themselves. Putting a big goal like “going green” at the forefront of discussions will not only keep your millennial employees enthusiastic but will also promote growth and long-term goal setting for the future of the company.

5.Be transparent. You may have heard that we need to be let down easy, but the truth is that we thrive on constructive criticism and prefer to hear things without the sugarcoating. We are very eager for our own growth as professional people, so the less time wasted the better—this is easier for everyone involved. We will be able to make improvements much more quickly if you are honest and transparent with your feedback. No hard feelings.

Sydney Strauss is a writer based in the Pacific Northwest.

Job Descriptions

In most large organizations, writing job descriptions is a collaboration between HR and the department and manager who will be working with the new hire. Many companies have templates you can use as a jumping-off point. In smaller companies, managers are often on their own creating job descriptions. Whatever the size of your organization, it will be worth your time to craft your job descriptions carefully.

BE SURE YOU KNOW WHAT YOU’RE LOOKING FOR

As you start writing your job description, be sure you know what the job actually entails. Of course, many positions evolve over time, and it can be especially difficult to pin down a brand-new role. But making the effort to define the role and writing an accurate description of it can save you, your colleagues, and job applicants a great deal of time and trouble—and it can also help ensure that you hire the right person.

A job description outlines the functions and requirements of the job and describes where the role sits within the organization. It may also provide a framework for conducting a performance review, which makes it all the more important to get it right before you start interviewing.

GET THE CONTENT RIGHT

An accurate and complete job description should contain the following information:

Basic information: job title, department, supervisor (including ­dotted-line supervisor relationships), and salary range.

Job functions: a list of the duties to be performed and the objectives related to those duties. Duties are usually listed in order of importance and are sometimes broken out into percentages. (Don’t include nonessential duties that make up less than 5 percent of the job.)

Requirements: candidate requirements are listed in order of importance. This section is sometimes divided into “Minimum Requirements” and “Preferred Requirements.” (Consider carefully how you designate requirements; you can scare away qualified applicants if you define too many minimum requirements.)

Special Requirements: these might include required testing, licenses, clearances, and the like.

Some companies include an “Ideal Candidate” section to describe the exact set of qualifications, background, and attitude they are seeking in a candidate. Whether or not you decide to include one in the final job description, the process of developing an “Ideal Candidate” section can help you refine exactly what you want for the position.

Including a section about your organization’s culture, values, and mission can also be helpful. This information allows potential applicants to decide for themselves if they might be a good fit, and it can also help them prepare for an interview.

Dealing with salaries in job descriptions can be tricky. Some organizations state “salary commensurate with experience.” This kind of vague statement, though, can deter people from applying and can elicit applications from unqualified or underqualified candidates. Most companies have a policy about how to list salary requirements in job descriptions. If you’re running your own small company, it might be wise to list a salary range.

GET IT RIGHT BEFORE YOU RELEASE IT INTO THE WORLD

Don’t post an out-of-date or inaccurate job description, figuring you will fix it later or redefine the job during interviews. Especially if you’re creating a new role or significantly revising an existing one, it’s worthwhile going through several drafts and asking colleagues to review them, especially the managers or supervisors who will work with the new hire. Ensure that the job description you release into the world is as accurate as you can make it.

Job Advertisements

A good job advertisement can attract great candidates; a poor one can attract crowds of applicants who don’t quite fit. It’s worth making the effort to craft a job ad that describes the job and the company accurately and that inspires the right kind of candidates to apply.

START STRONG

Job seekers are plowing through lots of job descriptions. You want yours to stand out and to excite the right kind of applicant. To that end, your first step should be understanding exactly the kind of applicant you would like to hire. Who is your ideal candidate? Make two lists: the key requirements for the job and the characteristics of your ideal hire. If you’re not the person who will be supervising the new hire, talk to the person who will be and learn what their hopes are for the position. Then spend some time jotting down notes about the company or organization. What is the culture like? What are the people like? What is the organization trying to achieve, and what’s it like to work there?

Use Templates to Speed Your Work

If there’s a particular type of document you write frequently, you should consider developing a template for it so you don’t have to start from scratch every time. Documents like job descriptions lend themselves naturally to this process, but anything you write frequently probably has an underlying structure that you can distill into a template. One of my clients worked for an executive search firm and frequently wrote letters describing candidates to potential employers. We developed a candidate letter template, with an introductory paragraph, a second paragraph about the candidate’s background, a third paragraph about the fit between the candidate and the job, and a fourth paragraph about the candidate’s level of interest in the position. My client was then able to speed his writing by using the framework, which was flexible enough to be customized for special circumstances.

Do you find yourself writing the same sort of thing over and over again? If so, it’s probably worth the investment of time now to craft a template that will save you time in the future.

GET THE CONTENT RIGHT

If you’re posting on a site like Indeed or Glassdoor, take advantage of any templates or guidance the site offers. Look at listings for similar jobs and use them as models. Your job description should contain a brief account of the organization and its mission as well as a sketch of the work environment. Provide a detailed, bulleted list of the requirements of the role. Mention benefits like insurance, vacation time, retirement, and so on. Include other perks, like flex time, telecommuting, and tuition reimbursement. Consider how you want to handle salary—many companies offer a salary range to help ensure that they get appropriate applicants. If your minimum requirements really are the minimum, say so: include a statement specifying that only candidates who meet the stated qualifications will be considered. Include information about how to apply.

FIX IT BEFORE YOU POST IT

Chances are that your first draft will be too long. The ad should not contain the entire job description, only the key requirements. Check your draft for clichés like “self-starter,” “team player,” and “highly motivated.” These are so overused that they don’t add value; they just take up space. Be sure you haven’t hyped the job so much that you’ve neglected to provide real substance about the position and the company. If the ad reads like a sales letter or a promotion for a holiday camp, tone it down. Finally, ensure that you’ve been entirely honest. If the salary offered is below average, don’t say your compensation is “competitive.” Creating false expectations can lead to unnecessary disappointment and wasted time.

For sample job descriptions, visit me at www.howtowriteanything.com.

Performance Reviews

Writing a performance review can be a challenge for a couple of reasons. First, it’s not something you do every day, even if you’re an experienced manager. Second, performance reviews can have a lasting impact, so there’s pressure to be fair and accurate. Big companies with a lot of employees usually offer supervisors guidelines for writing performance reviews; if you have that resource, be sure to take full advantage of it.

GETTING STARTED

First, it should go without saying that you must maintain confidentiality throughout the process. Allow yourself plenty of time to gather information and write the review. Don’t start at the last minute. You might want to consider asking the employee to participate by drafting her own self-evaluation. When employees participate in the process, they feel valued and heard. They’re also more likely than you are to understand the nuances of the job and the challenges they’ve faced during the year. As you reflect, be sure you’re considering the full year, not just recent happenings. To jog your memory, review your e-mails.

GET THE CONTENT RIGHT

Make sure your review includes both positives and areas for improvement. Even a problematic employee has had some successes, and even the best employee has room to develop. Handled right, a performance review should recognize achievements and help support employees in their growth over the coming year. Be specific: cite particular projects or activities where the employee has performed well or fallen short. Look forward as well as backward, and propose some goals for the coming year: training programs, new responsibilities, anything you think might help the employee develop. As you write, use neutral, descriptive language. Don’t show emotion, and don’t make any personal comments.

FIX IT BEFORE YOU FINALIZE

If you can, let a few days pass between your first and final drafts; this will allow you to develop some perspective on what you’ve written. Be sure you haven’t engaged in lavish praise or harsh criticism. Your tone should be moderate and professional. If you’ve praised an employee as the best you’ve ever seen in that position, it might be difficult to terminate her later should things change. If you’ve written a very unkind review, the employee might cite it if he contests a future dismissal. If there have been problems with the employee’s performance, be sure you’ve indicated accurately how serious they are: is the employee at risk of termination, or are there some areas for improvement? Your review should paint an accurate picture of employee performance in a professional way.

For sample performance reviews, visit me at www.howtowriteanything.com.

WRITING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE REVIEW

If you’ve been asked to do a self-assessment as part of your performance review, you have an opportunity to make the experience more positive and take steps toward your growth in the organization. You can help your boss and yourself by putting some effort into your own performance review.

Here are some tips as you prepare your self-evaluation:

Be sure you understand what areas you’re being asked to cover in your self-assessment. If you don’t, ask.

Don’t be too modest. Research shows that most employees rate themselves lower than their managers would. Don’t hide your light under a bushel. Many people feel embarrassed about praising themselves. If you’re struggling with modesty or embarrassment, try to look at yourself from an objective perspective. Imagine you’re evaluating the performance of someone who works for you. What has that person done really well? Where could he improve? Sometimes taking a step back can help you evaluate your own strengths and weaknesses more fairly.

Use the opportunity to shape the discussion about problem areas. If you know your manager is unhappy about something, address the problem in your self-evaluation and present your perspective on it. Consider proposing solutions.

Be objective and neutral. If you feel that something is being mishandled, don’t put your boss on the spot. Find a detached way to raise the issue and suggest alternative approaches.

Consider asking your colleagues to give you an honest appraisal of your performance as a co-worker.

Highlight specific achievements and specific areas where you would like to improve. Your boss won’t remember the year you had as well as you do, and it will be helpful for you to bring out details to review and discuss.

Resignation Letters

Whatever your reason for leaving your job, it’s worthwhile handling your resignation letter professionally and leaving behind a good impression.

The best practice is to tender your resignation in person, then to follow up your conversation with a formal letter of resignation.

How much you say in your resignation letter is up to you. Whether you choose to keep it brief or share more information, be sure to keep it businesslike.

YOUR PURPOSE

At its most basic, the purpose of a resignation letter is to share your intent to resign and let your employer know what your last day of work will be. Depending on the circumstances of your departure, you might also want to foster a sense of goodwill in your letter for the purpose of future relationships.

KEEP IT BRIEF

A resignation letter does not need to be long and detailed. A perfectly acceptable bare-bones letter will state your intention to resign, the date of your resignation, and nothing more.

If you want to expand a bit, it’s courteous to offer a reason for your resignation. Keep your language neutral, even if you’re leaving because of a bad situation. Don’t use the letter to express anger or frustration or to let your boss know what a bad job she’s doing. Don’t blame others. You’re leaving; just say so and move on. Venting about your experience does no good, it can hurt your reputation, and you’ll probably regret it later.

If you feel able to do so, say something nice about your experience at the organization. Did you enjoy your colleagues? Did you appreciate the challenge of the job? Did you learn a lot? You never know when goodwill from a former employer might come in handy.

If you’re willing to help with the transition to your successor, you can mention that in the letter.

Close your letter by thanking your reader. Your thanks don’t have to be effusive, but it’s a courteous way to wrap up the letter.

CHECK IT BEFORE YOU SEND IT

Be sure to check your tone before you send in your resignation. It should be businesslike and cordial, not angry or passive-aggressive. If you’re angry, it might help to write out everything you’re feeling and put that draft aside. Then start fresh and compose a neutral and professional resignation letter. If you’re not sure your tone is appropriate, try showing your draft to a friend you trust and asking for their impressions.

Here is a bare-bones example:

Dear Rayna:

This is my formal notice that I will be resigning my position as account manager. My last day will be Friday, September 27.

I appreciate the opportunities I have had at Fischl, and I have learned a great deal here. I wish you and team success in the future.

Sincerely,

Jeff

And now here’s a different take on the same situation; this time, Jeff provides a bit more information, offers to help with the transition, and makes a point of wanting to stay in touch with Rayna:

Dear Rayna:

This is my formal notice that I will be resigning my position as account manager. My last day will be Friday, September 27. I have accepted a position at the Thompson Group and am looking forward to expanded responsibilities in my new role.

I would be happy to work with you during the transition and support the training for my replacement.

I appreciate the opportunities I have had at Fischl. I have learned a great deal from working with you and the team. I wish you all success in the future, and I hope we can stay in touch.

Sincerely,

Jeff

Termination Letters

Firing someone is never fun, but a well-written letter can make the process smoother for everyone and help protect you from a legal challenge.

A termination should be initiated in person and followed up by a formal letter, delivered either by hand or via certified mail. You should never fire an employee by e-mail. And it should go without saying that you should never fire anyone via social media. In addition to concerns about basic decency, doing so could expose you to accusations of wrongful termination or harassment.

If you work for a large organization, there are probably guidelines in place for termination procedures. Obviously, you should follow those scrupulously. If your organization doesn’t have such guidelines and if you’re concerned about whether you’re handling the termination properly, you should consult an attorney for guidance.

BE CLEAR ABOUT YOUR PURPOSE

If writing a termination letter worries you, it might help to keep your objectives clearly in mind: to give formal notice to an employee that their employment is ending, to notify them of their last day of work, and to state the conditions of their termination. That’s it—your letter does not need to do anything more.

CONSIDER YOUR READER

Putting yourself in the shoes of your reader can help guide you as you write. It’s a fair bet that your reader won’t be happy, but if you have had a conversation with her prior to writing the letter, she won’t be surprised, either. Do your best to cushion the blow by remaining professional and courteous. Be fair, and allow the reader to maintain her dignity.

SAY IT RIGHT UP FRONT

The opening of your letter should mention the meeting you had with the employee, let him know that his employment is terminated, and note his final day of employment.

BE CAREFUL WHAT YOU SAY

The content of your letter should be factual, not emotional. You may feel disappointed, frustrated, or angry: don’t show it. You may feel regretful or guilty: don’t show that, either. Don’t apologize. Any of these reactions can be used against you later if the employee decides to claim that she’s been dismissed improperly or unfairly.

It’s not always necessary to state the reasons for termination. However, when an employee is fired for cause, you might want to provide the reason for termination, as well as reviewing the steps that were taken to resolve the problem prior to the decision to terminate. If you do decide to discuss the reasons for termination, make sure they are consistent with what you’ve discussed with the employee earlier; otherwise you might risk a legal challenge. If you have any questions about whether you’re handling this information properly, consult with HR or with legal counsel.

Your letter should answer all of the employee’s questions about the termination: the effective date, the terms, any action the employee must take (returning keys, equipment, or badges, for example), and any benefits or pay due to the employee. You might also state the terms for verification of employment. Last, your letter should provide the employee with a contact in case they have any questions.

IF SOMETHING FEELS WRONG, FIX IT

It’s important that you not send a termination letter before you’ve checked over it carefully. Double-check to make sure your tone is professional and businesslike and that you’re showing no emotion. Make sure you’re supplying all the information the employee needs to take the next steps. And ensure that you haven’t left anything for the employee to grab hold of and use to raise a legal challenge to the termination.

Dear Sandra:

This letter confirms our discussion today that your employment with EverSold is terminated effective as of this date.

As we discussed in our meeting, the reason for the termination of your employment is poor attendance. You have missed a total of 18 workdays this calendar year, with no medical excuse. You were given written warnings on March 22 and April 17 of this year. During your performance review on June 7, I warned you that continued absence would result in termination. Nevertheless, you have missed work on several occasions since then, including June 12 and June 15, again with no medical excuse.

Payment for your accrued vacation days will be included in your final paycheck, which you will receive this Friday. You may pick up your check from the reception desk, or we can mail it to your home.

You will receive a separate benefits status letter that will outline the status of your benefits upon termination. The letter will include information about your eligibility for Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (COBRA) continuation of group health coverage.

We have received from you your security swipe card and your office key at the termination meeting.

Sincerely,

Cara Bufalino

* Chad S. White, “Email Attention Spans Increasing,” Litmus Software, Inc., Company Blog, https://litmus.com/blog/email-attention-spans-increasing-infographic.

† Rexi Media, “How Much Do People Really Remember from a Presentation?,” Rexi Blog, October 14, 2014, http://www.reximedia.com/how-much-do-people-really-remember-from-a-presentation/#.WbXlN9OGPxs.

‡ Of course, there are different uses for PowerPoint. Some consulting organizations, for example, use PowerPoint decks to convey extensive data and recommendations to their clients, rather than as frameworks for oral presentations. In this section, I’m assuming you are using PowerPoint as a basis for a spoken presentation.

§ A great resource for presenting ideas visually is Gene Zelazny’s book Say It with Presentations: How to Design and Deliver Successful Business Presentations (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006).

¶ Rob notes how long he has known Susan, and in what capacity.

# Rob indicates the strength of his support for Susan—his “strongest possible recommendation.” The opening paragraph is very strong.

** Rob supplies a description of Susan’s job, the difficulties it entailed, and how Susan successfully coped with those difficulties.

†† This paragraph gives a vivid sense of what the job was like and describes how Susan made a very special contribution.

‡‡ Rob repeats his endorsement of Susan in the closing of the letter.

§§ Chuck Toney, “Humble at the Top: Why These CEOs Still Write Thank You Notes,” The Chicken Wire (blog), March 10, 2017, https://thechickenwire.chick-fil-a.com/Lifestyle/Humble-at-the-Top-Why-These-CEOs-Still-Write-Thank-You-Notes.

¶¶ Nancy J. Adler, “Want to Be an Outstanding Leader? Keep a Journal,” Harvard Business Review, January 13, 2016, https://hbr.org/2016/01/want-to-be-an-outstanding-leader-keep-a-journal.

## Jakob Nielsen, “How Little Do Users Read?,” Nielsen Norman Group website, May 6, 2008, https://www.nngroup.com/articles/how-little-do-users-read/.

*** Blogging Statistics—Infographic. http://www.techclient.com/blogging-statistics/.

††† Lahle Wolfe, “Twitter vs. Facebook: Which Is Better?,” The Balance Careers, https://www.thebalance.com/twitter-vs-facebook-which-is-better-3515069.