[Viking Language Series 01] • Viking Language 1 · Learn Old Norse, Runes, and Icelandic Sagas (Viking Language Series) by Byock, Jesse -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

About this book

About Viking Language Series About the author Title Page and Copyright Dedication Books by Jesse L. Byock Acknowledgements

About 2nd Edition of Viking Language 1 Introduction

Vikings and The Viking Age Sources for the Study of Old Norse The Old Norse Language Norse Speakers at Opposite Ends of the Viking World: Icelanders and the Rus Rus in the East Ibn Fadlan meets the Rus in AD 922 Vikings and History Viking Raids Effects of the Vikings The End of the Viking Age

Old Norse Alphabet List of Abbreviations Grammar Index List of Figures Lesson 1. Sailing West to Iceland, Greenland, and North America

1.1 Culture – Atlantic Seafaring 1.2 Letters þ, ð, ǫ and Spelling 1.3 Old Norse, An Inflected Language 1.4 Reading – Ingolf Gives Land to Herjolf (Grœnlendinga saga) 1.5 Pronunciation 1.6 Word Frequency – ❖The 246 Most Frequent Words in the Sagas 1.7 Word Frequency Vocabulary – List 1. ❖ Most Frequent Words 1.8 Grammar Toolbox. Nouns, Personal Pronouns, and Prepositions 1.9 Gender of Nouns and Pronouns – Masculine, Feminine, Neuter 1.10 Grammar Toolbox, Case. Nouns, Pronouns, and Adjectives 1.11 Exercise – Case: Nominative, accusative, Dative, and Genitive 1.12 Apposition – Case Agreement of Nouns 1.13 Old Norse and Proto-Norse Words (Stems, Roots, Suffixes, and Endings) 1.14 Roots, Suffixes, Stems, and Endings: The Composition of Words Exercises

1.15 Genealogy. Most Icelandic sagas begin with genealogical information. Chart the genealogy from Grœnlendinga saga given in the first reading passage in this lesson by listing the Old Norse names (with accents) in the tree below. The connection with Ingolf Arnarson, who is mentioned as a kinsman, is unclear. Note that there are two men named Herjolf, a grandfather and his grandson (whose name has been entered in the proper place). 1.16 Nouns from Grœnlendinga Saga. Use the following words to complete the sentences below from the first reading and translate. 1.17 Vocabulary. Match the nouns in each column with their English meanings by drawing a line between the two. 1.18 Translation. Translate the following reading passage from Grœnlendinga saga back into Old Norse. Remember to include accent marks where needed. 1.19 Gender and Meaning of Nouns. Complete the chart below with words from the lesson’s reading passage. 1.20 Cases. Rewrite the following sentences so that they refer to Haraldr and Eiríkr, which decline the same as Herjólfr. 1.21 Apposition. Fill in the correct form of landnámsmaðr (declines the same as maðr, the last word in this compound word) in the spaces below and translate. 1.22 Word Frequency ❖. Using List 1. The Most Frequent Words in the Sagas, write below the most frequently used words for different parts of speech and translate. 1.23 Culture – Gudrid Travels from Vinland to Rome 1.24 Plurals of Strong Noun Examples Given Earlier in Section 1.10

Lesson 2. Norse Settlers in Greenland and Vinland

2.1 Culture – Norse Greenland 2.2 Reading – ‘Land-taking’ in Greenland (Landnámabók) 2.3 Exercise – The Reading Selection from Landnámabók. 2.4 Culture - Vinland (Vínland) 2.5 Grammar Toolbox. Definite and Indefinite Article 2.6 Proper Nouns 2.7 Grammar Toolbox. Verbs 2.8 Verbs, Infinitives ❖ 2.9 Linking Verbs – ❖Vera, Verða, and Heita. Subject Complements & Predicates 2.10 Culture – Introduction to the Sagas 2.11 Culture – More About the Family and Sturlung Sagas 2.12 Grammar Toolbox. Adjectives 2.13 Nouns – Strong and Weak 2.14 Grammar Toolbox. Prepositions in Old Norse 2.15 Prepositions Governing One Case 2.16 Exercise – Prepositions Governing One Case. 2.17 Word Frequency Vocabulary – List 2. ❖Most Frequent Words Exercises

2.18 Vocabulary. Match the ON verbs with their English meanings by drawing a line between the two. If needed, use the Vocabulary at the rear of the book. 2.19 Case. The Genitive in Saga Titles. The genitive case usually denotes possession. Give the genitive form for each name below to complete the saga title, then use the list of family sagas in this lesson to translate it. 2.20 Verb Forms. Complete the chart below. 2.21 Translation Review. Translate the following passage from Landnámabók back into Old Norse. Refer to the previous reading sections. 2.22 Gender and Meaning of Nouns. Complete the chart below. Refer to the previous reading sections. If needed, check the Vocabulary. The words are found in the reading passages. 2.23 Word Frequency ❖. Referring to the list of The Most Frequent Words given in this lesson, write the words from the different grammatical categories of Old Norse and translate. 2.24 The Definite Article. Decline the definite article. 2.25 Proper Nouns. Give the correct form of the proper noun in parentheses and translate. Refer to the section on proper nouns in the lesson.

Lesson 3. Denmark: Runestones and An Early Viking State

3.1 Culture – Runes 3.2 Reading – The Small Runestone at Jelling, Denmark 3.3 Runes: The Elder and The Younger Runic Alphabets

The Elder Futhark (24 Letters) The Younger Futhark of the Viking Age (16 Basic Letters) Short-Twig Runes, A Variant of the Younger Futhark Later Runic Variations Runic Spelling and Standardized Old Norse

3.4 Sounds of the 16 Letters of the Younger Futhark 3.5 Runic Sounds of the Viking Age, Discussion 3.6 Exercise – Runic Script. Following the example below, transliterate the runes and change them into standardized Old Norse. 3.7 Reading – Gorm and Thyri (Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar in mesta) 3.8 Culture – Gorm the Old and the Danish Jelling Dynasty 3.9 The Verb Vera ‘to be’ ❖ – Present and Past 3.10 Exercise – The Verb Vera. 3.11 The Verb Hafa, ‘to have’ ❖ in the Present 3.12 Exercise – Hafa. 3.13 Personal Pronouns – 1st and 2nd Persons: Singular, Plural, and Dual 3.14 Exercise. Personal Pronouns – 1st and 2nd Persons. 3.15 Personal Pronouns – 3rd Person 3.16 Exercise. Personal Pronouns – 3rd Person 3.17 Two Ways of Expressing Possession: Hans as Opposed to Sinn 3.18 More on Possession in Old Norse: who possesses what? 3.19 Exercise – The Pronoun Sinn and Personal Pronouns. 3.20 Possessive Pronouns Minn and Þinn 3.21 Culture – Son and Dóttir in Names 3.22 Exercise – Son and Dóttir. 3.23 Word Frequency Vocabulary – List 3. ❖Most Frequent Words Exercises

3.24 Timetable of Early Danish History. Put in correct chronological sequence the following events from the culture section on the early history of the Danish kingdom at the end of this lesson following the exercises. 3.25 Personal Pronouns. Decline the 3rd person personal pronouns in the singular and plural. Remember, 3rd person pronouns have three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter — hann, hon, þat ‘he, she, it.’ They are the most common pronouns in Old Norse. 3.26 Verb Conjugation: Present Tense of Vera. Fill in the correct form of vera ‘to be’ in the present tense and translate the sentences. 3.27 Review: Gender and Meaning of Nouns. Complete the chart below. 3.28 Verbs. Complete the chart below by giving the English translation and the infinitive of the verb. 3.29 Linking Verbs. As discussed earlier, a noun connected to the subject by a linking verb is called a predicate noun, and an adjective, a predicate adjective. In Old Norse, predicate nouns and adjectives are in the same case as the subject, that is, in the nominative case. In the passages below, circle the linking verbs, underline the predicate nouns and adjectives, and translate. Use the Vocabulary as needed. 3.30 Reflexive and Possessive Pronouns Sinn, Minn, and Þinn 3.31 Word Frequency ❖. Using List 3. The Most Frequent Words from this lesson, give the words from the different grammatical categories and translate. 3.32 Culture – Nicknames 3.33 Culture – Gorm’s Jelling Dynasty, the Attack on England, and Viking Kings in England

Lesson 4. Kings, Vikings, Sound Changes, and Weak Verbs

4.1 Reading – The Large Runestone at Jelling 4.2 Exercise – Reading the Large Runestone at Jelling. 4.3 Regular Sound Changes. Vowels and Umlaut 4.4 Vowel Sounds and Assimilation 4.5 U-Umlaut 4.6 Exercise – U-Umlaut. 4.7 I-Umlaut (Fronting) 4.8 Strong and Weak Verbs (Background) 4.9 Exercise – Strong & Weak Verbs. 4.10 Strong and Weak Verbs in the Vocabulary 4.11 Reading – Midfjord-Skeggi and Hrolf Kraki’s Sword (Landnámabók) 4.12 Exercise – Reading Landnámabók. 4.13 Weak Verbs in the Present Tense 4.14 Weak Verbs – The Four Conjugations 4.15 Weak Verbs – Stem Suffixes 4.16 Weak Verbs with Stems Ending in -j- and -v- 4.17 Weak Verbs with Stems Ending in a Long Vowel 4.18 Weak Verbs and Word Frequency❖ 4.19 Exercise – Weak Verbs in the Present Tense. 4.20 Word Frequency Vocabulary – List 4. ❖ Most Frequent Words Exercises

4.21 Old Norse Vowels. Complete the empty vowel space chart with the vowels of Old Norse. 4.22 U-Umlaut. Decline and then translate gata, kona, and saga in the spaces provided below, applying u-umlaut where necessary. (Note, saga becomes sagna in the genitive plural, and kona has an irregular genitive plural, kvenna). Use the resources of the lesson and the Vocabulary. 4.23 U-Umlaut. For each of the words below, give the form indicated in parentheses and mark its gender. Note that some words do not show u-umlaut. 4.24 Word Frequency Review ❖.Write out List 4. The Most Frequent Words and translate 4.25 Pronoun Review. Complete the following table of the personal pronouns. 4.26 Names for Special and Magical Weapons 4.27 Vocabulary Review. Match the Norse word with its meaning in English. 4.28 Translation and Grammatical Analysis 4.29 Reading Comprehension. Based on the reading passage above, decide which of the following statements are rétt or rangt. 4.30 Review, Present Tense of Common Weak Verbs. Conjugate the following verbs and translate. Assume the neuter nouns are singular. 4.31 Weak Verbs. Here are some additional weak verbs appearing in the lessons. 4.32 Weak Verbs. Give the present tense of the following weak verbs and translate. 4.33 Verbs in Past Tense. Complete the chart below, giving the infinitive and translation.

Lesson 5. Sweden, Sigurd the Dragon-Slayer, and Thorstein Egilsson in Gunnlaug’s Saga Serpent-Tongue

5.1 Culture – Lands of the Swedes (Svíar) and Goths (Gautar) 5.2 Reading – Sigurd the Volsung on the Ramsund Runestone 5.3 Culture – Sigurd the Dragon Slayer 5.4 Vowels – Short and Long, Stressed and Unstressed 5.5 The Two Special Stem Rules (Alveolar) 5.6 Special Stem Rule 1: The -R Ending Assimilation Rule 5.7 Special Stem Rule 2: The -R Ending Drop Rule 5.8 Exercise – The Two Alveolar Special Stem Rules. 5.9 Strong Nouns – Introduction 5.10 Strong Nouns – Type 1 Masculine 5.11 Strong Masculine Nouns. Variations Among Type 1 5.12 Masculine Type 1 Strong Nouns. Examples and the Special Stem Rules 5.13 Exercise – Strong Nouns – Type 1 Masculine. 5.14 The Nouns Maðr and Sonr 5.15 Exercise – Maðr and Sonr. 5.16 The Verb ❖ Hafa, ‘Have’ 5.17 Two-Way Prepositions 5.18. Exercise – Two-Way Prepositions: Motion and (Static) Position. 5.19 Reading – A Man of Moderation (Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu) 5.20 Word Frequency Vocabulary – List 5. ❖Most Frequent Words Exercises

5.21 Readings. Give the gender, case, number, and English meaning of the underlined nouns from the Ramsund Runestone. When applicable, consider the prepositions that accompany the noun. 5.22 Readings. Put the words of the following sentences in proper order. Check your word order with the readings. 5.23 Readings. Translate the following passage from the Saga of Gunnlaug Serpent-Tongue. 5.24 Special Stem Rules. Give the stem of the following strong masc nouns and state the applicable rule. If no Special Stem Rule applies, write ‘n/a’ (not applicable). 5.25 Nouns. Decline the following Type 1 strong masc nouns. Hundr and fiskr decline like konungr, læknir like hersir, and hǫrr like sǫngr. 5.26 Sonr and Maðr. Identify the case and number of the nouns underlined in the following sentences from Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu. 5.27 Prepositions. 5.28 Verb review. Conjugate the verbs vera and hafa in the present tense. 5.29 Pronoun Review. Fill in the blanks with the correct pronouns. 5.30 Runic Script. Fill in the blanks below. The first line is done as an example. 5.31 Runic Script. Write your name and the names of three other people in runes. 5.32 Genealogy. Beginning with Kveld-Úlfr, chart the genealogy in the reading passage from Gunn-laugs saga ormstungu by filling in the family tree below. The wife of Þorsteinn was Jófríðr and one of their children was Helga in fagra (Helga the Fair).

Reading Chapter 1. From the Kings’ and Family Sagas

RC 1.1 Vikings Pull Down London Bridge RC 1.2 Chieftains and Families from Njal’s Saga

Lesson 6. Sacral Kingship in Ancient Scandinavia

6.1 Culture – The Ynglings in Sweden and Norway 6.2 Reading – A King Sacrificed for Better Harvests (Ynglinga saga) 6.3 Culture – The Temple at Uppsala and Human Sacrifice 6.4 Strong Nouns – Type 1 Feminine and Neuter 6.5 Exercise – Strong Nouns – Type 1 Feminines and Neuters. 6.6 Weak Nouns 6.7 Exercise – Weak Nouns. 6.8 Weak Verbs in the Past Tense have Dental Suffix 6.9 Exercise – Past Tense of Weak Verbs. 6.10 Verbs – Voice, An Introduction 6.11 Exercise – Voice. 6.12 Culture – Snorri Sturluson and Heimskringla 6.13 Reading – Halfdan the Black (Hálfdanar saga svarta, from Heimskringla) 6.14 Impersonal Constructions: A First Look 6.15 More on Words with Stem Endings -j- and -v- 6.16 Word Frequency Vocabulary – List 6. ❖ Most Frequent Words Exercises

6.17 Readings. Are the following statements true or false? 6.18 Readings. Use the following words to complete the sentences. 6.19 Vocabulary. Match each of these verbs with its English meaning by drawing a line between the two. 6.20 Nouns. Decline the following Type 1 strong nouns: 6.21 Weak Verbs. Conjugate weak verbs kalla, mæla, telja, and vaka in the past tense. 6.22 I-Umlaut. Fill in the blanks in the chart below. 6.23 Identifying Weak Verb Conjugations. The infinitive and 3sg past are given below for ten weak verbs. Identify the conjugation of each, using the method discussed earlier in this lesson. Note the-gg- in hyggja and leggja. 6.24 Weak Verb Translations. Translate the following phrases. Note: they are in the past tense. 6.25 Weak Verb Conjugations. Identify the person, number, and tense of each weak verb below. 6.26 Weak Verb Hafa. Conjugate hafa. 6.27 Voice. Identify the underlined verbs and verb phrases as active, middle or passive. 6.28 Strong and Weak Nouns. On the model of strong and weak nouns presented in this lesson, decline the following six nouns: haugr, nál, mál, tími, vika, and eyra.

Reading Chapter 2. Njal’s Sons Defend Themselves. Gunnar’s Faithful Hound.

RC 2.1 Vikings Attack Njal’s Sons Off the Coast of Scotland RC 2.2 Gunnar’s Faithful Hound, A Gift in Njal’s Saga RC 2.3 Four Translations of the Faithful Hound Episode

Translation 1 (1861). George Webbe Dasent, Everyman’s Edition Translation 2 (1955). C. F. Bayerschmidt, New York University Press Translation 3 (1960). Magnus Magnuson and Hermann Pálsson, Penguin Classics Translation 4 (2002) Robert Cook, Penguin Classics

Lesson 7. Norway’s Harald Fairhair and His Son Eirik Bloodaxe

7.1 Culture – Harald Fairhair 7.2 Reading – Harald Fights for the Throne (Grettis saga Ásmundarsonar) 7.3 Common Old Norse Prefixes and Examples 7.4 Culture – Harald Fairhair 7.5 The Middle/Reflexive Pronoun Sik 7.6 Exercise – Pronoun Usage. 7.7 Personal Pronoun Declensions: A Review 7.8 Strong Nouns – Type 2 7.9 Exercise – Type 2 Strong Nouns. 7.10 Nouns Whose Stems End in a Long Vowel 7.11 Reading – Eirik Bloodaxe Receives a Ship (Egils saga Skalla-Grímssonar) 7.12 Culture – Eirik Bloodaxe – A Viking King in England 7.13 Reading – Cruel King, Cunning Wife, Promising Children (Haralds saga ins hárfagra) 7.14 Word Frequency Vocabulary – List 7. ❖Most Frequent Words Exercises

7.15 Reading Comprehension. Based on the second reading decide whether the following state-ments are true or false. 7.16 Reading Comprehension. Read the short passage below and give the case, number, and gender for each of the underlined nouns. 7.17 Review – Reflexive Pronoun. Complete the following sentences with the correct pronoun. 7.18 Infinitives. Give the infinitives of the following verbs. 7.19 Strong Nouns Type 1. Decline heimr (m) ‘world,’ fǫr (f) ‘journey,’ and land (n). 7.20 Strong Nouns Type 2. Decline fundr (m) ‘meeting’ and ferð (f) ‘journey.’ 7.21 Weak Nouns. Decline goði (m) ‘chieftain,’ saga (f) ‘story,’ and hjarta (n) ‘heart.’ 7.22 Verbs. Change the underlined words from singular to plural and rewrite the sentences accord-ingly. Remember: verbs must agree with their subjects, sg or pl. 7.23 Sentence Completion. Complete the sentences with the following words. 7.24 Review: The Two Special Stem Rules (Alveolar). Give the stem for each of the following strong masc nouns, and state the applicable Special Stem Rule (from Lesson 5). Remove the ending of the gen sg to find the stem for each noun. If no Special Stem Rule applies, write ‘N/A.’ 7.25 Review: Prepositions. Give the correct forms of the nouns in parentheses and translate.

Lesson 8. Harald hardradi in Constantinople

8.1 Culture – Harald and the Varangians 8.2 Reading – Harald Leads the Varangian Guard (Haralds saga Sigurðarsonar) 8.3 Review Exercise – Translating from Haralds saga Sigurðarsonar. 8.4 Culture – Northmen In Russia and Further South and East 8.5 Grammar Toolbox. Nouns – Family Members (Kinship Terms) with -ir Endings 8.6 Grammar Toolbox. Nouns Whose Stems End in -nd- 8.7 Grammar Toolbox. Strong Verbs 8.8 Strong Verbs, Present and Past 8.9 Exercise – Principal Parts of Strong Verbs. 8.10 Strong Verbs – Past Tense Ending -t 8.11 Exercise – Past Tense Ending -t of Strong Verbs. 8.12 Reading – Harald Sends Famine Relief (Haralds saga Sigurðarsonar) 8.13 Grammar Toolbox. Verb Mood Review 8.14 Verbs – Commands and the Imperative Mood 8.15 Verbs – The Present Subjunctive 8.16 Culture – Harald Meets A Violent End 8.17 Word Frequency Vocabulary – List 8. ❖Most Frequent Words Exercises

8.18 Reading Old Norse. Circle the verb, underline the subject, and translate. 8.19 Review – I-Umlaut. Strong verbs show i-umlaut in the present singular. Fill in the blanks below. 8.20 The Present Tense of Strong Verbs and I-Umlaut 8.21 Past Tense of Strong Verbs. Rewrite the following sentences so that the verb appears in the past tense, then translate. 8.22 Strong Verbs. Conjugate the following strong verbs using the principal parts provided below. 8.23 Present Tense of Strong Verbs. Give the infinitive for each of the underlined verbs in the passage below and convert to 3sg or pl present, as appropriate. 8.24 Strong Verbs. Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the strong verbs in the past tense. 8.25 Weak and Strong Verbs. Give the infinitives for the verbs in the sentences below and identify them as weak or strong. 8.26 Strong Verbs. Give the principal parts and 2sg past tense for each of the following strong verbs. 8.27 Imperative Mood: Strong Verbs. Give the imperative form for each of the strong verbs below. (Hint: the consonant clusters -nd and -ng require a change at the end of a word.) 8.28 Imperative Mood: Weak Verbs. Identify the conjugation of each weak verb and provide its imperative form. 8.29 Subjunctive Mood: Present Tense. Conjugate these verbs in the present subjunctive. Keep in mind that verbs with stem-final -j- drop -j- before endings beginning in -i-. 8.30 Reading Runes.

Lesson 9. Raiding in the West

9.1 Reading – Onund Tree-Foot’s Raids (Grettis saga Ásmundarsonar) 9.2 Exercise – Reading Grettir’s Saga. 9.3 Culture – Western Norway 9.4 More on the Definite Article 9.5 Strong Nouns – Type 3 9.6 Strong Nouns – Type 4 9.7 Demonstrative Pronouns Þessi and Sá 9.8 Clauses – Independent and Dependent (including Relative) 9.9 Exercise – Main and Dependent Clauses. 9.10 Verbs – The Past Subjunctive 9.11 Exercise – The Past Subjunctive of Verbs. 9.12 Reading – A Woman’s Resourcefulness (Grettis saga Ásmundarsonar) 9.13 Culture – The Four Phases of the Viking Age in Western Europe and the British Isles 9.14 Word Frequency Vocabulary – List 9. ❖Most Frequent Words Exercises

9.15 Definite Article. Decline masc dvergrinn ‘the dwarf,’ fem konan ‘the woman,’ and neuter landit ‘the land.’ 9.16 Demonstrative Pronouns. Complete the charts of þessi ‘this’ and sá ‘that.’ 9.17 Demonstrative Pronouns. Demonstrative Pronouns. Fill in the correct demonstrative pronoun for the following sentences. 9.18 Strong Verbs ❖. 9.19 Verbs. Give the principal parts for the underlined strong verbs in the passage. 9.20 Strong Nouns – Type 3. Decline the nouns vǫllr, kǫttr, and fjǫrðr below. 9.21 Strong Nouns – Type 4. Decline the nouns fótr, vetr, and bók below. 9.22 Er: Conjunction, Relative Particle, and Verb. Translate. Remember that er has several meanings: ‘when,’ ‘who,’ ‘which,’ ‘that,’ and ‘is.’ 9.23 Subjunctive Mood: Past Tense of Weak Verbs. Fill in the chart below. 9.24 Subjunctive Mood: Past Tense of Strong Verbs. Fill in the chart below. 9.25 Reading Runes.

Lesson 10. Beached Whales in Iceland

10.1 Culture – Competition for Resources 10.2 Reading – A Whale Washes Ashore (Grettis saga Ásmundarsonar) 10.3 Exercise – From Grettir’s saga. 10.4 Strong Adjectives 10.5 Exercise – Nouns and Strong Adjectives. 10.6 Strong Adjectives and the Two Special Stem Rules 10.7 Adjectives of Two Syllables ending with -inn and Indeclinable Adjectives 10.8 Exercise – Strong Adjectives 10.9 Verbs – Past Participles 10.10 Past Participles of Strong Verbs 10.11 Verbs Hafa and Vera – The Perfect: Present and Past 10.12 Verbs – Passive Voice 10.13 Reading – The Whale Dispute Turns Deadly (Grettis saga) 10.14 Exercise – From Grettir’s Saga. 10.15 Culture – Resources and Subsistence in Iceland 10.16 Word Frequency Vocabulary – List 10. ❖Most Frequent Words Exercises

10.17 Väsby Runestone from Uppland, Sweden: A Viking in England. Translate the runes. 10.18 Strong Verbs List and Review ❖. 10.19 Strong Adjectives. Decline the adjective langr ‘long.’ 10.20 Strong Adjectives. Decline the two-syllable adjective auðigr ‘wealthy.’ 10.21 Past Participles. Give the infinitives for the underlined past participles. 10.22 Verbs. Give the 3sg present tense and infinitive for the underlined verbs. 10.23 Verbs – Passive and Past Perfect Constructions. Translate the following sentences and identify the underlined constructions as present or past, passive or perfect. 10.24 Strong Forms of the Adjectives mikill and lítill. These adjectives appear everywhere in Old Norse texts. In declining, keep in mind: 10.25 Runes. Translate the following runestone from Tingsflisan in Köpings Parish on the Swedish island of Öland.

Lesson 11. The Endless Battle

11.1 Reading – The Battle of the Hjadnings (Skáldskaparmál, The Prose Edda) 11.2 Exercise – Close Reading of The Battle of the Hjadnings 11.3 Weak Adjectives 11.4 Exercise – Nouns with the Definite Article and Weak Adjectives 11.5 Strong Verbs – Overview of the 7 Classes 11.6 Strong Verbs – Class I (í) 11.7 Strong Verbs – Class II (jú, jó, ú) 11.8 Exercise – Strong Verbs, Classes I and II. 11.9 Verbs Taking Dative, Accusative, and Genitive Objects 11.10 Exercise – Verbs Taking Dative or Genitive Objects. 11.11 Reading – The Battle Continues (Skáldskaparmál, ch. 50, from The Prose Edda) 11.12 Possessive Pronouns other than mínn, þínn and sínn 11.13 Verbs – Impersonal Constructions 11.14 The Indefinite Pronoun Engi (M, F) and Ekki (N) 11.15 The Indefinite Pronoun Annarr 11.16 Direct and Indirect Speech 11.17 Grammar Toolbox. Adverbs 11.18 Word Frequency Vocabulary – List 11. ❖Most Frequent Words Exercises

11.19 Definite Article Review. Decline masculine sveinninn ‘the boy,’ feminine leiðin ‘the path,’ and neuter bakit ‘the back.’ 11.20 Definite Article. Fill in the blanks below with the correct form of the nouns konungr and hersir with the definite article. 11.21 Weak Adjectives. Decline langr below as a weak adjective. 11.22 Weak Adjectives. Fill in the correct forms of the adjectives below. 11.23 Weak Adjectives. Fill in the correct form of the adjective and translate. 11.24 Proper Nouns. Decline the names Eirik the Red and Helga the Fair below. 11.25 Adverbs. Fill in the correct adverb in the sentences below. 11.26 Strong Verbs – Class I. Klífa ‘climb’ is a typical Class I strong verb with principal parts klífr, kleif, klifu, klifinn. Conjugate klífa in present and past. 11.27 Strong Verbs – Class II. Strjúka ‘stroke’ is a typical Class II strong verb with principal parts strýkr, strauk, struku, strokinn. Conjugate strjúka in present and past. 11.28 Weak Forms of the Adjectives mikill and lítill. Decline, keep in mind the following:

Lesson 12. Feud in Iceland’s East Fjords

12.1 Reading – Helgi Earns his Nickname (Vápnfirðinga saga) 12.2 Culture – Norse Farmsteads 12.3 The Indefinite Pronoun Nǫkkurr 12.4 Pronouns – Hverr, Hvárr, and Hvárrtveggi 12.5 The Indefinite Pronoun Einnhverr 12.6 Strong Verbs – Class III (e, ja, já) 12.7 Verbs – Present Participles 12.8 Reading – The Outlaw Svart Steals Thorstein’s Sheep (Vápnfirðinga saga) 12.9 Culture – Icelandic Chieftains, Goðar 12.10 Word Frequency Vocabulary – List 12. ❖The Most Frequent Words Exercises

12.11 Reading. For each of the underlined words in this passage from Vápnfirðinga saga, provide the relevant grammatical information, dictionary form (infinitive), and translation. 12.12 Strong Verbs Review: Present and Past Tense. Fill in the correct form of each verb in the present or past tense as directed. 12.13 Strong Verbs – Classes I-III. Class I strong verbs have í in the infinitive while Class II have jú, jó, or ú. Class III infinitives contain -e-, -ja-, -já- or -i- followed by two consonants (not counting a stem-final -j- or -v-). Here is a review of the ‘shorthand.’ 12.14 Strong Verbs – Classes I–III. Give the strong verb classes for each of the following infinitives and then provide the requested grammatical form. 12.15 Pronouns Hverr and Einnhverr. Decline the noun phrases below. 12.16 Strong and Weak Verbs. Give the correct form of each verb below. 12.17 Strong Verbs – Class III. Sleppa ‘slip, slide, escape,’ a typical Class III strong verb with principal parts sleppr, slapp, sluppu, sloppinn. Conjugate sleppa in the present and past. 12.18 The Bro Church Runestone from Uppland, Sweden

Lesson 13. Brodd(‘Spike’)-Helgi Kills a Thief in Weapon’s Fjord

13.1 Spike-Helgi Hunts Down Svart (Vápnfirðinga saga) 13.2 Culture – Assemblies and Courts in Iceland, Background to the Sagas 13.3 Strong Verbs – Classes IV (e) 13.4 Strong Verbs – Class V (e,i) 13.5 Preterite-Present Verbs and Modal Auxiliaries 13.6 Preterite-Present Verbs – Modals with and without Infinitive Marker at 13.7 Exercise – Preterite-Present Verbs 13.8 Comparative and Superlative Adjectives 13.9 Exercise – Comparative of Two-Syllable Adjectives. 13.10 Comparative and Superlative Adjectives, Usage 13.11 Exercise – Comparative and Superlative Adjectives. Fill in the spaces. 13.12 Comparative and Superlative Adverbs 13.13 Reading – Brodd-Helgi’s Relationship with Geitir (Vápnfirðinga saga) Exercises

13.14 Strong Verbs. Classes IV and V are very similar. They differ principally in the root vowel of the past participle (IV -o-, V -e-). For example, bera (IV) has principal parts berr, bar, báru, borinn, while gefa (V) has gefr, gaf, gáfu, gefinn. Conjugate gefa in present and past below. 13.15 Strong Verbs, Review. The class of most strong verbs can be identified from the infinitive alone. Here is a review of the rules that help distinguish among the five classes introduced so far. (The remaining 2 classes are given in the following lessons). 13.16 Preterite-Present Verbs. Translate the sentences and give the infinitive for each of the underlined preterite-present verbs. 13.17 Preterite-Present Verbs. Give the infinitives and meanings of the following verbs. 13.18 Comparative Adjectives. Comparative adjectives always take the special set of weak endings given in this lesson. Decline sterkari below. 13.19 Superlative Adjectives. Superlative adjectives take the same set of strong and weak endings as regular adjectives. Decline strong and weak ríkastr. 13.20 Reading Exercise. Translate the following stanza from the Eddic poem Hávamál (The Sayings of the High One). The High One refers to Odin, and the stanza is in ljóðaháttr, meaning ‘chant-meter.’ For ON poetry, see Viking Language 2: The Old Norse Reader.

Lesson 14. Norse Mythology and the World Tree Yggdrasil

14.1 Culture – The World Tree 14.2 Reading – Gangleri Asks About Yggdrasil (Gylfaginning, The Prose Edda) 14.3 Reading – Norns, Well of Fate, and Baldr (Gylfaginning, The Prose Edda) 14.4 Strong Verbs – Class VI 14.5 Verb Middle Voice – Formation 14.6 Verbs in Middle Voice – Meaning and Use 14.7 Cardinal Numbers 1 to 20 14.8 The Past Subjunctive of Preterite-Present Verbs 14.9 Two-Syllable Nouns – Syncopated Stems 14.10 Exercise – Vowel Loss in Two-Syllable Nouns Exercises

14.11 Reading Passage Review, Askr Yggdrasils. Referring to the reading passage, use the words below to fill in the blanks. 14.12 Reading Passage and Demonstrative Pronoun Review. Fill in the correct form of the demonstrative sá in the spaces below. 14.13 Strong Verbs Class VI. Fara is a typical Class VI strong verb with principal parts ferr, fór, fóru, farinn. Conjugate fara in present and past. 14.14 Verbs: Active and Middle Voice. Conjugate the weak verb gera and the strong verb gefa in the present and past tense. 14.15 Review: I-Umlaut. Most verbs show i-umlaut in the past subjunctive. 14.16 The Altuna Church Runestone, Sweden.

Lesson 15. The Saga of King Hrolf Kraki

15.1 Reading – Bodvar Rescues Hott from the Bone Pile (Hrólfs saga kraka) 15.2 Culture – The Saga of King Hrolf Kraki and Beowulf 15.3 Enclitic Pronouns 15.4 Strong Verbs – Class VII 15.5 Verbs – Subjunctive Middle (Reflexive) 15.6 Verbs – Subjunctive and Indirect Speech in Main and Dependent Clauses 15.7 Mundu, Skyldu, Vildu: Past Infinitives of the Verbs Munu, Skulu, Vilja etc. 15.8 Cardinal Numbers Above 20 15.9 Ordinal Numbers 15.10 Exercise – Ordinal Numbers 15.11 Reading – Bodvar Kills the Monster (Hrólfs saga kraka) 15.12 Culture – Legendary Lejre (Hleiðargarðr) 15.13 Reading – Hrolf is Nicknamed Kraki (Skáldskaparmál) 15.14 Culture – Berserkers Exercises

15.15 Grammar Review. For the underlined words in this passage from Hrolf’s Saga, give the relevant grammatical information. For verbs include the infinitive and translate. 15.16 Enclitic Pronouns. Rewrite the underlined verbs with full pronouns. 15.17 Strong Verbs Class VII. Ráða is an example of a Class VII strong verb with principal parts ræðr, réð, réðu, ráðinn. Conjugate ráða in present and past. 15.18 Strong Verb Review – Classes I–VII. Give the strong verb class for each of the following infinitives and provide the requested grammatical form. For help, review the Guideline Chart for Distinguishing Strong Verb Classes in Lesson 11. 15.19 Subjunctive Mood – Active and Middle Voice. Conjugate the following verbs in the present and past subjunctive. 15.20 Subjunctive of Weak Verbs. Identify each of the following subjunctives. 15.21 Subjunctive of Strong Verbs. Identify each of the following subjunctives. 15.22 Review: Prepositions, Pronouns, and Case Endings. Fill in the blanks with the missing prepositions, pronouns, or case endings.

Appendix 1. The Most Frequent Words in the Sagas❖An Old Norse – Icelandic Learning Strategy

A. The 70 Most Frequent Words in the Sagas❖ B. The 246 Most Frequent Words in the Sagas ❖(by part of speech)

Nouns❖ Adjectives❖ Pronouns❖ Numerals❖ Verbs❖ Prepositions and Adverbs❖ Conjunctions❖

C. The 246 Most Frequent Words in the Sagas ❖(in alphabetical order)

Appendix 2. Quick Guide to Old Norse Grammar Appendix 3. Pronunciation of Old Icelandic Vocabulary

General remarks

Order of the Alphabet Word Frequency Notes on the Vocabulary

A Á B D E F G H I Í J K L M N O Ó P R S T U Ú V Y Ý Z Þ Æ Œ Ø/Ǫ

Books by Jesse L. Byock

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